Running head: CLOSURE SCHOLARLY PAPER ON ADULT LEARNING THEORY
Closure Scholarly Paper on Adult Learning Theory
Roxanne Sylvester
Walden University
How Adults Learn: Theory and Research
EDUC 8101
Dr. Harvey Stone
August 20, 2010
1
CLOSURE SCHOLARLY PAPER ON ADULT LEARNING THEORY
2
Abstract
Philosophers have performed empirical studies and explored theories and research on how adults
learn and develop. Throughout this course, I examined the traditional and transformative
concepts of adult learning; explored critical theory and developmental theory of consciousness;
discovered how emerging technology influenced learning and development; analyzed alternative
theories of adult learning; and understood adult development as it relates to individual and sociocultural perspectives. Armed with this new knowledge and ways of knowing, I facilitated a
seminar at The Martin County Schools Department of Vocational, Adult, and Community
Education to discuss traditional and transformational approaches of adult learning and
development.
CLOSURE SCHOLARLY PAPER ON ADULT LEARNING THEORY
3
Closure Scholarly Paper on Adult Learning Theory
Studying theories and research on how adults learn broadened my knowledge of how
adults learn; provided new discoveries of how the brain works; and explored ways to apply
learning theories and practices to improve learning and development. Dr. Cozolino (2009)
pointed out that scientific research substantiated the fact that as the brain matures thinking,
learning, and processing change. With advanced brain research, new theories about how adults
learn were developed. (Laureate Education [], 2008)
More importantly, examining and understanding traditional and transformational learning
and learning theories was essential to enrich didactic development. Theorists, Illeris (2000) and
Ormrod (1995) defined learning as “a process that brings together cognitive, emotional, and
environmental influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing, or making changes in one’s
knowledge, skills, values, and worldviews” (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, p. 277).
Through reflection and experience, thinking critically and creatively, and self-direction,
people maximize learning and development. Kolb (1984) experiential learning model described
how “experience is translated into concepts that can be used to guide the choice of new
experiences” (Atkinson & Murrell, 1988, p. 375). For example, in nursing education, experiential
learning is important for student’s perception and praxis. Hartley (2010) emphasized,
“Incorporating a learning activity to explore life-learning occurrence allows students to move
from a significant life-learning experiences to application of lessons learned in the practice
setting” (Hartley, 2010, p. 120).
The traditional and transformational theories of adult learning were the basis of my
seminal discussion presented to Martin County Schools Department of Vocational, Adult, and
Community Education. VACE is in the business of providing quality opportunities for Martin
CLOSURE SCHOLARLY PAPER ON ADULT LEARNING THEORY
4
County residents of all ages, to enrich their lives academically, professionally, economically, and
culturally (Martin County School District, 2008) The school district offers students the
opportunity to learn academic and career-specific knowledge and skills for employment and
post-secondary education. Programs focused on academic requirements and utilized technology
to teach students fundamental knowledge and skills for a specific career and technical education.
The school district scheduled seminars to motivate and educate the community on educational
enrichment and learning and development theories.
The purpose of this paper is to discuss learning theories for adult learning with members
of Martin County School Board. The intent is to persuade them to critically analyze the theories;
and draw conclusions of best practices for the vocational, adult, and community education
program. Understanding the framework on how people learn, the nature of knowledge, and
theorist who were influential in the learning processes are crucial in adult education.
Empirical studies performed by traditional theorists like Dewey’s (1938) provided the
importance of experience in the process of learning (Atkinson & Murrell, 1988, p. 374).
Skinner’s (1971) behavioral learning theories suggested, if “an environment can be completely
controlled, any organism’s behavior can be modified, or conditioned, by an appropriate pattern
of rewards and punishments” (Gross, 1999, p. 31-32). Skinner’s (1971) operant conditioning
theory of positive and negative reinforcement is applied in school system nationwide. Knowles’s
(1975) contributed philosophy of self-direction, andragogy, and adult behavior (Smith, 2002).
Knowles’s (1980) adult learning theory was not based on passive responses, opinions, and
experiences to transform behavior, but primarily for “self-actualization and self-initiated
development of a person’s skills and potentials to lead to a fulfilling life of challenge and
growth” (Gross, 1999, p.32-33).
CLOSURE SCHOLARLY PAPER ON ADULT LEARNING THEORY
5
Transformational theorist researched ways to change our ways of knowing and the
society in which we live. Taylor (2005) viewed transformative learning from individual and
socio-cultural perspectives (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). Through the lenses of
Mezirow’s (1978) psychocritical approach to transformative learning, which is centered on
“experience, critical reflection, reflective discourse, and action” (Merriam et al., 2007, p. 134),
learners examined factors of their experiences; learned how to think critically, analyzed, and
understood new knowledge; built relationships with people; and took action to change their
situation. I observed this transformative learning concept while performing a character analysis
on Celie, a main character in the movie Color Purple. Celie’s individual and socio-cultural
beliefs and perspectives were re-conditioned and freed from derision and oppression that she
faced throughout her adolescent and adult life. (Spielberg, 1985)
Significantly, Kegan’s (1994) research brought to the forefront important questions that
were asked at home, at school, at work, and wholly in our society. People wanted to know
“whaddaya want from me” in other words, what are your expectations, how am I supposed to act
and behave as a member of this democratic society. Kegan (1994) presented some solutions in
his book titled “In over our heads: The mental demands of modern life” For example, parents set
boundaries and limitations to support their children’s development; employers want responsible
and skilled workers with integrity and respect for themselves and others. (Kegan, 1994)
Additional, emerging technology transformed our society and influenced people’s lives.
One major societal shift is the need for continued learning to remain current with the increasing
demands for new skills and information. Technological developments revolutionized retrieving
and sharing information, interactive communication, and modernized the teaching and learning
environment.
CLOSURE SCHOLARLY PAPER ON ADULT LEARNING THEORY
6
Technology has evolved from slower equipments to sophisticated high-powered devices.
The internet and the World Wide Web connected millions of users globally; and media-based
learning allowed learners to collaborate in online learning environment. With these
developments, Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner (2007) and Dr. Cozolino (Laureate
Education [], 2008) suggested that educators and facilitators become well informed with
technology to help learners incorporate technology in their learning experiences. Knowles’s
(1980) framework on andragogical theories is an effective model to develop phases of
technology-based instruction to integrate learning with technology.
Therefore, we need to ask, how can the concepts be applied to learning and development?
Hein (1991) explained the traditional concepts, which were accepted by educators, curriculum
developers, and cognitive psychologists, and suggested principle ways to utilize the learning
theory in adult learning environment.

Learning is an active process in which the learner uses sensory input and constructs
meaning out of it. The more traditional formulation of this idea stresses that the learner
needs to do something; that learning is not the passive acceptance of knowledge, which
exists “out there” but that learning involves the learner’s engaging with the world.

People learn to learn as they learn: learning consists both of constructing meaning and of
constructing systems of meaning. For example, if we learn the chronology of dates of a
series of historical events, we are simultaneously learning the meaning of a chronology.

The crucial action of constructing meaning is mental: it happens in the mind. Physical
actions, hands-on experience may be necessary for learning, especially for children, but
it is not sufficient; we need to provide activities, which engage the mind as well as the
hands.
CLOSURE SCHOLARLY PAPER ON ADULT LEARNING THEORY

7
Learning involves language: the language we use influences learning. On the empirical
level, researchers have noted that people talk to themselves as they learn. On a more
general level, there is a collection of arguments, presented most forcefully by Vigotsky,
that language and learning are inextricably intertwined.

Learning is a social activity: our learning is intimately associated with our connection
with other human beings, our teachers, our peers, our family, as well as casual
acquaintances. Much of traditional education, as Dewey pointed out, is directed towards
isolating the learner from all social interaction. In contrast, progressive education
recognizes the social aspect of learning and uses conversation, interaction with others,
and the application of knowledge as an integral aspect of learning.

Learning is contextual: we learn in relationship to what we know, what we believe, our
prejudices, and our fears. On reflection, it becomes clear that learning is active and
social. We cannot divorce our learning from our lives.

One needs knowledge to learn: it is not possible to assimilate new knowledge without
having some structure developed from previous knowledge to build on. The more we
know, the more we can learn.

It takes time to learn: learning is not instantaneous. For significant learning we need to
revisit ideas, ponder them try them out, play with them and use them. If you reflect on
anything you have learned, you soon realize that it is the product of repeated exposure
and thought.

Motivation is a key component in learning: it is essential for learning. Unless we know
"the reasons why", we may not be very involved in using the knowledge that may be
instilled in us (Hein,1991)
CLOSURE SCHOLARLY PAPER ON ADULT LEARNING THEORY
8
The components of Martin County Schools Department of Vocational, Adult, and
Community Education program should support the theories of traditional, transformative, and
reflective leaning and development. To accomplish the competencies of the educational program,
Knowles’s assumption theories outlined effective methodologies to help adult learners become
aware of the “need to know” and the “motivation to learn” which can be integrated in any
classroom environment. More importantly, researchers used Mezirow’s transformative and
reflective learning theories and practices to improve schools, to promote higher order of
thinking, maintain an open perspective to gain new knowledge when participating in groups, and
examine beliefs, goals, and practices to improve students’ learning, understanding, and behavior.
Reflective practice included analysis, synthesis, and metacognition to achieve “a broader context
for understanding” (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, p. 173). The ability to reflect
and analyze activities to make reasonable decision is fundamental to critical thinking and indepth learning.
CLOSURE SCHOLARLY PAPER ON ADULT LEARNING THEORY
9
References
Atkinson, G., Jr, & Murrell, P. H. (1988, April). Kolb’s experiential learning theory: a metamodel for career exploration. Journal of Counseling and Development, 66, 374-377.
Retrieved from http://ezp.waldenulibrary.org/login?url=http://search.ebscohost
Gross, R. (1999). Science confirms it-you are a superb learner. In Peak learning (pp. 17-35).
New York, NY: Penguin Putnam.
Hartley, M. P. (2010, February). Experiential learning using Kolb’s cycle of learning. Journal of
Nursing Education, 49(2), 120. doi: 10.3928/0148434-20100119-02
Hein, G. E. (1991). Constructivist learning theory. Retrieved from
http://www.exploratorium.edu/IFI/resources/constructivistlearning.html
Kegan, R. (1994). The hidden curriculum of youth: whaddaya want from me. In In over our
heads: the mental demands of modern life (pp. 15-36). Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
Kinsella, E. A. (2006, August). Constructivist underpinnings in Donald Schon’s theory of
reflective practice: echoes of Nelson Goodman. Reflective Practice, 7(3), 277-286. doi:
10.1080/14623940600837319
Laureate Education. (Producer). (2008). Adult learning in the information age [DVD]. Available
from Walden University.
Laureate Education. (Producer). (2008). The healthy aging brain [DVD]. Available from Walden
University.
Martin County School District. (2008). Vocational Adult Community Education. Retrieved from
http://www.sbmc.org/adulted.php
CLOSURE SCHOLARLY PAPER ON ADULT LEARNING THEORY
10
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Experience and learning. In
Learning in adulthood (pp. 159-186). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning and Development. In
Learning in adulthood (pp. 271-297). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). The social context of adult
learning. In Learning in adulthood (pp. 5-26). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Transformational learning. In
Learning in adulthood (pp. 130-158). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Smith, M. K. (2002). Malcolm Knowles, informal adult education, self -direction and
andragogy. Retrieved from http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-knowl.htm
Spielberg, S. (Producer) & Spielberg, S. (Director). (1985). The color purple [Motion picture].
United States: Warner Bros.
CLOSURE SCHOLARLY PAPER ON ADULT LEARNING THEORY
11
EDUC 8101
Assignment 8: Closure Scholarly Paper
Criteria
Approved with
Commendation
5
Acceptable
Adequate
Inadequate
4
3
2
Criterion 1: Scholar Writing, Presentation, and Style
Criterion 1.1:
APA Style
Criterion 1.2:
Voice,
Grammar, Flow
of thought,
Mechanics, and
Presentation
APA style is exemplary
and used consistently
and extensively
throughout the
manuscript.
Exemplary attention and
effort are given to voice,
grammar, and flow of
writing. (No
recommendations for
improvement)
APA style is used
consistently with very
few (1-3) errors
throughout the
manuscript.
Evident attention and
effort are given to
voice, grammar, and
flow of writing. (One
recommendations for
improvement)
APA style is used
throughout the
manuscript but exhibits
4-5 common errors.
Tense is consistent;
complex sentence
structure is maximized
and appropriate.
Tense is consistent;
complex sentence
structure appropriate.
Tense is consistent;
sentence structure is
simple yet appropriate.
Tense is inconsistent;
sentence structure is
difficult to follow.
Sustains a well-focused,
well-organized analysis,
connecting ideas
logically.
Sustains a focused,
organized analysis,
connecting ideas
logically.
Sustains an organized
analysis, connecting
ideas logically
Connection of ideas is
difficult to follow.
Presentation is
exemplary.(No
suggestions for
improvement)
All assignment directions
are obvious and
complete. Spelling is
correct. No typographical
errors.
Presentation is
professional and
scholarly. (One
suggestion for
improvement)
All assignment
directions are evident.
Spelling is correct. One
typographical error.
Attention and effort are
given to voice,
grammar, and flow of
writing. (Two
recommendations for
improvement)
Presentation is
consistent in font, type,
and spacing. (Two
suggestions for
improvement)
All assignment
directions are
completed. Spelling is
correct. Two
typographical errors
APA style is used
inconsistently
throughout the
manuscript 6-7 APA
errors are noted.
Voice, grammar, and
flow of writing are
difficult to follow. (Thr
recommendations for
improvement)
Presentation uses
various fonts, type siz
or spacing. (Three
suggestions for
improvement)
One assignment
direction is not
completed. One - two
spelling errors. Three
typographical errors
Criterion 2: Evidence of Critical Thinking
Criterion 2.1:
Higher Order
Thinking,
Patterns of
ideas,
Researchbased
-Higher order thinking is
consistently present,
original, and creative. (No
recommendations for
improvement)
-Higher order thinking is
present and consistent.
(One recommendation
for improvement)
-Higher order thinking is
present but not
consistent. (Two
recommendations for
improvement)
-Higher order thinking
questionable. (Three
recommendations for
improvement)
-Strong arguments have
been formulated about
theories, relationships,
and concepts. There is a
clear, insightful position
or stance on the issue.
-A conscious,
consistent attempt has
been made to develop
valid arguments about
theories, relationships,
and concepts.
-Some attempt has
been made to develop
arguments connecting
theories, relationships,
and concepts.
-Little attempt has bee
made to develop
arguments connecting
theories, relationships
and concepts.
-Inquiry or question
-Inquiry or question
Inquiry or question
-Inquiry or question ca
be answered by yes o
CLOSURE SCHOLARLY PAPER ON ADULT LEARNING THEORY
encourages higher order
thought, is purposeful and
creative.
-Clear patterns of idea
formation, research by
others, and support
statements tie ideas to
research. (No
recommendations for
improvement)
-Compelling reasons
and/or persuasive
examples are provided.
-Thoughtful consideration
is given to others’
research.
Includes analysis of five
(5) or more theorists’
works and ideas. (No
recommendations for
improvement)
-Current research (within
past 5 years) is
substantial and fully
covers the topic.
Criterion 2.2:
Conclusion,
Summary,
and/or
Application
-Conclusion draws a clear
and evident and insightful
closure to the paper as it
revisits the guiding
question(s). (No
recommendations for
improvement)
-Conclusion or application
is creatively and uniquely
supported by the theory
and research.
encourages higher
order thought.
encourages a response
other than yes or no.
-Patterns of idea
formation, research by
others, and support
statements that tie
ideas to research are
present but with
insignificant gaps in
evidence or support.
(One recommendation
for improvement)
-Idea formation lacks
sufficient evidence and
support. (Two
recommendations for
improvement)
-Reasons and
examples clearly
support the idea.
-Sketchy consideration
is given to others’
research. Includes
analysis of three (3)
theorists’ works and
ideas. (Two
recommendations for
improvement)
-Adequate
consideration is given
to others’ research.
Includes analysis of
four (4) theorists’ works
and ideas. (One
recommendation for
improvement)
-Current research
(within past 5 years) is
present and covers the
topic.
-Conclusion draws
closure to the paper as
it directly responds to
the guiding question(s).
(One recommendation
for improvement)
-Conclusion or
application is well
supported by the theory
and research.
Total Score for Assignment 8: Maximum points = 20
18–20 points = Acceptable with Commendation
15-17 points = Acceptable
10-14 = Adequate
5-9 points = Inadequate
0-4 points = Unacceptable
-Reasons and
examples are included
but are not clearly
linked to the idea.
-Current research
(within past 5 years) is
present and generally
covers the topic. Gaps
may be evident.
-Conclusion draws
closure to the paper but
no reference to the
guiding or original
question(s). (Two
recommendations for
improvement)
-Conclusion or
application is
adequately supported
by the theory and
research.
12
no.
-Evidence or support
for ideas is poorly
developed. (Three
recommendations for
improvement)
-Vague or unsupporte
reasons and example
are given.
-Minimal consideratio
is given to others’
research.
Includes analysis of tw
(2) theorists’ works an
ideas. (Three
recommendations for
improvement)
-Current research
(within past 5 years) i
partially present and
minimally covers the
topic.
-Conclusion is vague
difficult to understand
(Three
recommendations for
improvement)
-Conclusion or
application is
questionably supporte
by the theory and
research.