Anglistik: British and American Studies
Prof. Dr. Ralf Schneider
How to Write a Term Paper
– Dos and Don’ts –
1. What Is a Term Paper in Literary Studies?
In a term paper in literary studies, you are supposed to demonstrate that you are
capable of dealing with literary texts in a scholarly manner, i.e. that your are
familiar both with the topics and with the analytical and interpretational methods
dealt with in class and are able to apply them to literary texts independently. In a
short term paper of 7-10 pages, a text can not be dealt with in depth; rather, one
must formulate a specific question or position and then support this position
through argumentation to arrive at an interpretation. Longer papers examine the
text material in more depth. The scholarly term paper differs from the traditional
English essay in that greater emphasis is placed upon provability of the position.
To this purpose you must reference thoughts and information that you took from
second literature as quotes or as paraphrases, and list all your sources.
A term paper always consists of
 An introduction (statement of thesis, presentation of the questions which
will be addressed in the paper, reasoning for the structure of the term paper)
 Main part (argumentation, analysis and interpretation of the text/texts)
 Conclusion (short summary of the results, evaluation, reconnection to the
introduction, potential future ramifications of the argument)
2. Planning and Writing
The most important steps in planning and writing term papers are:
 Immersion in the subject at hand (see 2.1)
 Structuring your results in accordance with the task formulation (see 2.2)
 Putting those results into writing (see 2.3)
 Formatting your writing (see 3 and 4)
 Self-critical reflection, re-writing
 Scheduled planning and writing process so that the paper can be completed
and handed in by the given deadline
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2.1 Immersion in the Subject at Hand
When one is given a topic, one must narrow the topic down more precisely, i.e.
one clarifies what exactly the subject-matter is, or which question is to be pursued,
and also which sources should be used. The next step is to get an overview over
what has already been written about the text at hand in secondary literature. This
can also be of help in finding a topic oneself. Here it is important to use resources
like encyclopaedias or bibliographies to find some first orientation in the topic.
Terms which might be of importance in dealing with the topic should be looked up
in reference books (specialist dictionary, etymological dictionary, etc. – note that
general reference works, such as Wikipedia, are useful only for the first steps of
information retrieval and cannot replace more specialised sources).
Following this, the secondary literature needs to be read and kept track of in
short extracts. The primary text(s) should also be analyzed again with special
focus on the paper’s question. Selective reading can be practiced when reading
secondary literature for term papers, i.e. that only those texts that seem of real
relevance with regard to the paper’s question or thesis should be read. While you
read the texts, you should note down your own thoughts.
2.2 Structuring Your Results
After having read the texts, it is time to collect and order your material and your
own thoughts with regard to specific aspects (“subtopics”) of your topic. At this
point it is central to formulate a thesis or a question from which the argumentation
of the paper will follow. The thesis and the subtopics usually lead to an outline of
your paper, which will form the basis of a first draft. In this phase you will also
have to decide on which text passages you want to deal with in which order and
from which point of view. Many students think that literary studies call for a
biographical outline of the author or a summary of the text you dealt with.
However, this is rarely of any relevance for the question you are pursuing and
usually does not help your argumentation, so in most cases it will have to be left
out. When structuring, keep in mind: Everything that does not relate directly to the
position taken (to your argument) should be left out.
A good structure is the key to a successful academic paper – pay especially
close attention to this aspect. Never start writing the final version (2.3) if you are
not sure yet what you want to say when and where. Check particularly critically
the relevance, the connection and the positioning of the individual arguments.
2.3 Putting Your Results into Writing
When writing your first draft, it is important to throw overboard all hopes and
expectations of producing a text that is ready for press. First, this step is about
writing down your own thoughts and the thoughts critically taken from the
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secondary literature. Editing can, and will have to, come later. At this point, the
goal is to bring to paper your theses, arguments and the results you have achieved
in a coherent fashion. Avoid leaps in logic which might make reading and
understanding your paper difficult. Often, these leaps result from the fact that
smaller steps of the argumentation seem too clear to the writer and are then left
out. However, an argumentation is supposed to be logically structured, and should
also be understood by readers who are less or not at all familiar with the topic.
Therefore it is important that the text contains clear transitions. Pointing to the
relationship between the parts of the argument and your thesis helps ensure
coherence.
Arguments are developed in paragraphs of several lines (like in this
handout). There can be no paragraph that contains only one sentence! Therefore
make sure you only use the enter key of your keyboard at the end of a paragraph
that is of some length, not just after each full stop. If you feel you have to start a
new paragraph after each sentence, there is something wrong with your way of
structuring and you should go back to 2.2 and rethink your structure. The first line
of a new paragraph is indented, except after headings and block quotes (like in this
handout). The reader has an impression of the structure of the paper at first glance.
3. Content and Layout of the Paper
3.1 Title Page
The title page contains 1) information on the seminar (usually on the top left of the
page, including the semester and course number), 2) the title of the paper (usually
in the middle of the page and centred), and 3) your address (usually on the bottom
right or centred, including email address and number of semesters). See example
under 4.1.
3.2 Table of Contents
The table of contents outlines the structure of the paper and lists the headings of
the different sections plus the respective page numbers.
3.3 Introduction
This section provides an introduction to the topic and the formulation of the
problem or question. It is important to give a comprehensible thesis or to pose a
concrete question which can be dealt with in the main text. Furthermore, the
introduction should clarify factual and methodological prerequisites, briefly
present methods of inquiry, and finally explain and substantiate the progression
from one section to the next. It is NOT enough to repeat the paper’s topic and to
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list the work steps. Avoid a beginning along the lines of “This term paper deals
with…” (because the paper’s topic is already mentioned on the title page);
familiarise the reader with the paper’s subject matter and thesis, and explain your
way of proceeding.
In a shorter paper, it is unnecessary to mention the restrictions in scope
which ‘keep you from dealing with the topic in greater detail’ – this is selfevident. Make sure that you use the available space as efficiently as possible.
Thus, you avoid introducing potential weaknesses of your paper yourself.
3.4 Main Part
The heading of the main part states what this section deals with (e.g.
“Characterization and Plot Structures in King Richard III”). In the main part, the
thesis given in the introduction is discussed on the basis of the chosen texts. The
line of argumentation should always be traceable to the reader. Avoid incoherent
listings and unstructured enumeration. Ask yourself after each point: What do I
want to demonstrate? Refrain from ‘one-sentence-paragraphs’ (see above) under
any circumstances.
Moreover, avoid giving irrelevant information on the progress of the
argumentation, for example, “In the next chapter, I will demonstrate that X…” and
shortly after that, “Having demonstrated that X…, I will now go on to say Y”, etc.
If you write a paragraph/chapter, which contains argument X, then deals with
point Y, and concludes with Z, the structure of the passage already shows that X,
Y, and Z are dealt with. It is unnecessary to state this explicitly. The same pertains
to things you have already mentioned (“as I have already mentioned above”),
because the repetition is either redundant (what belongs together has to be brought
together in the phase of structuring), or, in case of a paper of no more than a
hundred pages, the reader still has the line of argumentation in mind. Avoid
superfluous self-references of this kind and make use of the gained space in order
to say, for example, something interesting on point Xa, Xb, and Xc and thus
provide a more differentiated argumentation.
3.5 Conclusion
The end of the paper serves as a reflection on the work done. It is an abstracting
summary of the insights gained with respect to the problem (i.e. a synthesis of the
results) as well as a critical reflection on apparent difficulties and questions that
remained open. If applicable, you can provide an outlook as to aspects that might
be dealt with in the future. Consequently, it is NOT sufficient to merely repeat
what had been said before – that should have become clear at this point anyway.
If, by the end of the main part of your paper, you still cannot give a proper answer
to the questions you raised, you should not write a conclusion yet, but ask yourself
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again what the analysis of the text(s) contributed to the discussion of the thesis
statement introduced at the beginning.
3.6 Quotations and Bibliography
In an academic paper, all sources have to be referred to at the point where text or
ideas of others are used. There are conventions for giving references: According to
the system of the Modern Language Association (MLA), which is slightly
modified here, the authentication of quotations, ideas, etc. integrated in the term
paper is done by short bibliographical references given in brackets. Therefore,
footnotes with complete bibliographical references are no longer necessary.
Footnotes are reserved for further elaborations which would distract from the main
argumentation but might, for instance, be necessary as background information.
The short bibliographical reference is given after the quotation and refers to the
works cited at the end of the term paper, where the complete references have to be
easily found.
3.6.1 Source Reference
 Normally, the name of the author and the specific page(s) to which you refer
suffice. Example:
Thus, the “effort in such works is to create credibility” (Fleishmann 197),
which in consequence evokes…
 If the quotation is four lines or longer, it is set off from the rest of the text by
indention; the bibliographical reference is given in brackets after the last
punctuation mark of the quotation and one space. Example:
John K. Mahon contributes to our understanding of the War of 1812:
Financing the war was very difficult at the time. Baring Brothers, a
banking firm of the enemy country, handled routine accounts for the
United States overseas, but the firm would take on no loans. The
loans were in the end absorbed by wealthy Americans at great hazard.
(Mahon 385)
 Up to three authors, all last names are listed. With more than three authors, you
only give the first author’s name and add “et al.”. Examples:
(Marquart, Olsen and Sorensen 55-58)
(Muir et al. 76-89)
 When quoting a passage that is already quoted in the secondary text, you give
the latter source after the indication “qtd. in” [“qtd.” = “quoted”]. Example:
Samuel Johnson admitted that Edmund Burke was an “extraordinary man”
(qtd. in Boswell 450).
 When paraphrasing other people’s ideas, you name the source after the
indication “cf.”. Example:
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The aesthetic pattern representing Stephen’s development in stages is,
according to Dilthey, the principle of apprenticeship patterns (cf. Shaffner
22).
 If you use several works by the same author, you give the title of the
article/essay/book to identify the work. Example:
(Thoreau, “Civil” 713)
 Websites are also cited according to author and year of publication. The page
number is left out. Example:
(Jahn 2002)
If the author is unknown, the (probably abbreviated) title is used:
(Electronic Texts Center 2002)
It is important to note that websites without an identified author normally
do not warrant trustworthy content! Sources like these should be avoided!
3.6.2 Quotation of the Primary Literature within the Text
In this case the author and the year of publication do not have to be given. The
cited titles and authors should be clear from the term paper, though.
 For verse dramas (e.g. Shakespeare) act, scene and verse number are
given.
Example:
The importance of blindness is dramatically emphasized in King Lear:
Lear: Oh ho, are you there with me? No eyes in your head, nor no
money in your purse? Your eyes are in a heavy case, your
purse
in a light, yet you see how this world goes.
Gloucester: I see it feelingly. (IV.vi.141-145)
In modern dramas, which usually do not have verses and thus lack a verse
count, act and scene (if available) and page number are given.
 Poems are quoted according to verses. Example:
Elizabeth Bishop’s “In the Waiting Room” is rich in evocative
details:
It was winter. It got dark
early. The waiting room
was full of grown-up people,
arctics and overcoats,
lamps and magazines. (6-10)
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Up to three lines original length of the cited poem may be included in one’s
own text by using quotation marks. The line breaks are indicated by space –
slash – space.
Example:
Reflecting on the “incident” in Baltimore, Cullen concludes, “Of all
the things that happened there / That’s all that I remember” (11-12).
3.6.3 Bibliography
The bibliography is the list of the primary and secondary literature used. This last
part is captioned with “Works Cited”. It contains only those works referred to in
the term paper (in alphabetical order) – and all of the listed sources must be referred to in the paper.
In the following the most common kinds of sources are exemplarily listed:
Barner, Wilfried. 1977. “Neuphilologische Rezeptionsforschung und die
Möglichkeiten der klassischen Philologie.” Poetica 7: 499-521.
Docherty, Thomas, ed. 1993. Postmodernism: A Reader. New York:
Columbia Uni-versity Press.
Esslin, Martin. 1987. The Fields of Drama: How the Signs of Drama Create
Meaning on Stage and Screen. London: Methuen.
Esslin, Martin. 1976a. An Anatomy of Drama. London: Smith.
Esslin, Martin. 1976b. Artaud. London: Calder
Faulstich, Werner and Hans-Werner Ludwig. 1993. Arbeitstechniken für
Studenten der Literaturwissenschaft. 4th ed. Tübingen: Narr.
Gelfert, Hans-Dieter. 1992. Wie interpretiert man ein Drama? Stuttgart:
Reclam.
Jahn, Manfred. 2004. Poems, Plays, and Prose: A Guide to the Theory of
Literary Genres. English Department, University of Cologne
<http://www.uni-koeln.de/~ame02/pppn.htm> (5 May 2006).
Lyotard, Jean-Francois. 1993. “Answering the Question: What is
Postmodernism?” In: Docherty, Thomas, ed. Postmodernism: A Reader.
New York: Columbia University Press. 38-50.
Plato. 1989. “The Symposium.” In: The Republic and Other Work by Plato.
Tr. B. Jowett. New York: Anchor. 317-365.
Quirk, Randolph et al. 1984. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English
Language. London: Longman.
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4. The Layout of the Term Taper
4.1 Title Page
The following image shows which information the title page should contain and in
what manner it should be arranged:
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4.2 The Table of Contents
 The table of contents does not have a page number; the page numbers start
with the introduction.
 It is structured according to the decimal system and gives the page numbers
for the chapters. Example:
1.
2.
2.1
2.2
3.
Introduction………………………………….. 1
Characters and Action: An Analysis………. 2
???????………………………………………. 4
???????……………………………………….. 5
Conclusion…………………………………… 9
4.3 Further Aspects of Layout and Formal Requirements
 The form of the term paper is one evaluation criterion; only if the basic
rules are followed, the paper will be assessed at all.
 Either staple the term paper at the upper left corner or hand in the paper in a
clear plastic folder. The paper does not have to be bound. Pictures, color
printings should only be used if they are subject to analysis, otherwise they
will distract the attention from the content and are therefore dispensable.
 The font is “Times New Roman” or “Roman”, size (pt) 12. This applies to
every part of the term paper, including headlines and quotations. Only
footnotes may be of smaller size (pt 10 or 11). Avoid playing around with
font and type size.
 Use a one-and-a-half line (1,5) spacing.
 Blank lines and/or wider spacing may be used at the end of a chapter only;
new paragraphs within a chapter are indicated only by an indentation of the
first line of the new paragraph.
 For quotations, the font size does not have to be changed; italicization is
unnecessary as well.
 The margins on each side of the pages are 2.5 to max. 3.0 cm.
 If the format described above is adhered to, one page contains about 350
words. Attempts to increase or reduce the number of pages required by
changing the format never go unnoticed.
 Titles of novels and dramas are always italicized – in the text, on the title
page, in the table of contents, in the footnotes and in the bibliography. The
same applies to secondary literature if they are so-called independent
publications (books, edited volumes; rule of thumb: titles which can be
found in the shelves of a library in form of a book). Use quotation marks
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for titles of poems, short stories, articles and lexicon entries (for examples
see p. 6).
 Always use English, superscript quotation marks: “ ”
 Do not use page numbers on the title page and the table of contents; on all
the other pages the page numbers are at the top of the page (either centered
of on the right).
 Print on one side of the paper only.