NATURAL DISASTERS IN CHILE AND THE FAR EAST OF RUSSIA:
SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES
S.M. Govorushko
Pacific Geographical Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences
7 Radio St.,, Vladivostok, 690041, Russia
Abstract
The geographical positions of Chile and the Far East of Russia have a number of features in
common. Each region is situated in a transitional area from a continent to the Pacific Ocean.
A great meridional extent is characteristic of both of them: Chile, along with its islands,
extends over 39° (18°–57°S), while the Far East of Russia extends over 36° (42°–78°N). In this
connection, identifying similarities and differences in the nature of natural disasters in these
regions is of interest.
The aim of these studies was to compare the major groups of natural hazards of these two
regions and to evaluate the extent of human mortality and economic damage caused by
natural disasters. Primarily occurrences over the last 30–40 years were analyzed; however,
earlier extreme events were also taken into account.
Information concerning the Far East of Russia was obtained through my own studies, and
different literature and library materials were also used. Data for Chile were taken from
journal articles and materials posted on the Internet.
Similarities are manifested to the fullest extent in the development of processes such as
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tsunamis. High seismic activity is characteristic of Chile.
In its territory, earthquakes with magnitudes greater than 8 have been noted repeatedly.
From the viewpoint of human mortality, an earthquake with a magnitude of 9.6, which
occurred on 22 May 1960 in southern Chile, caused the greatest number of fatalities.
Approximately 1,655 people were killed; 3,000 were injured. In the last 30 years, two intense
earthquakes also took place. For example, 180 people were killed on 3 March 1985. The
magnitude 8.8 earthquake that took place on 27 February 2010 in Chile caused the deaths of
562 people.
The seismicity of the Far East of Russia is slightly lower. The most intense earthquakes (with
magnitudes of about 8) are characteristic of Kamchatka. However, the most serious
consequences were found for the earthquake on 28 May 1995 in the northern Sakhalin, which
registered a magnitude of 7.5 on the Richter scale. As a result, 1,992 people were killed.
Chile experiences significant volcanic activity due to the more than three dozen active
volcanoes situated within the Andes Mountains. Lascar, which last erupted in 2007, is the
most active volcano in the northern Chilean Andes; Llaima, in central Chile, which last
erupted in 2009, is another of the country’s most active volcanoes. Chaiten’s 2008 eruption
forced major evacuations. Other notable historically active volcanoes include Cerro Hudson,
Copahue, Guallatiri, Llullaillaco, Nevados de Chillan, San Pedro, and Villarrica.
In Kamchatka, 29 active volcanoes are present, while in the Kuril Islands 40 are present.
However, the most hazardous volcanoes are concentrated in Kamchatka. Among them are the
volcanoes Klyuchevskoy, Bezymianny, Sheveluch, Mutnovsky, Plosky Tolbachik, Avachinsky,
Gorely, and Koriaksky in Kamchatka, and Alaid and Chikurachki in the Kuril Islands.
During 1980–2010, from three to five volcanoes erupted each year in Kamchatka. Great
eruptions causing volcanic ash to rise to heights of more than 8–15 km above sea level happen
about once every 1.5 years (Seismic dangers, 2000).
Tsunamis are fairly common phenomena in both regions. The tsunamis that occurred in Chile
on 22 May 1960, 30 July 1995, and 28 February 2010 were the strongest. As for the Far East
of Russia, the Pacific coasts of the Kuril Islands and Kamchatka are the most tsunami-prone.
The tsunami recorded on 4 October 1994 is considered to be the most intense in the last 30
1
years. At that time, the islands of Shikotan, Kunashir, and Iturup suffered badly from the
11 m waves (Aprodov, 2000).
River floods are another typical natural disaster in both regions. However, there are
fundamental differences in their characters. Because the characteristics of rivers (lengths of
the rivers, basin areas, volumes of runoff, etc.) differ considerably, the durations of floods in
the regions differ. In Chile, short-term floods occur, whereas in the large rivers of the Russian
Far East (Ussuri, Zeya, and Bolshaya Ussurka), they last 3–4 months and, at times, in the
lower reaches of the Amur River, up to 6 months.
Differences in natural disasters for the two regions are, to a greater degree, related to
geographical latitude. By virtue of the location of the Russian Far East within the higher
latitudes, processes such as avalanches, snowstorms, river ices, extremely low temperatures,
and different cryogenic processes (frost heaving, solifluction, thermokarst, thermal erosion,
thermal abrasion, and cryogenic cracking) are characteristic.
In turn, aeolian processes that block railroads (Govorushko, 2007), El Niño phenomena,
extremely high temperatures, and glacial-lake outburst floods are characteristic
predominantly of Chile. In Chile, significant landslides are also more frequent. The most
catastrophic event of this type took place on 3 May 1993, when several landslides affected
Santiago, causing about 30 fatalities and significant financial losses, with over a thousand
houses damaged or totally destroyed.
Thus, both regions are, to a considerable extent, subject to natural disasters. In the last 30
years, the mortality related to them in Chile amounted to 1,581 people, with 50% due to
earthquakes, 26% due to floods, and 12% due to storms. In the Far East of Russia, more than
2,200 people were killed during the same period, and earthquakes claimed about 90% of the
victims.
As for economic damage in Chile, it is related mainly to earthquakes (about 95%), and the
remaining portion falls predominantly to floods and forest fires. In the Far East of Russia,
financial losses were much more diverse. Apart from earthquakes, significant losses were
caused by river floods, jams, wind surges, snowstorms, sea ices, and cryogenic processes. On
the whole, the extent of economic losses caused by natural disasters in the Far East of Russia
is much lower, which is related to the lesser development of the territory.
Introduction
The geographical positions of Chile and the Far East of Russia have a number of features in
common. Each region is situated in a transitional area from a continent to the Pacific Ocean. A great
meridional extent is characteristic of both of them: Chile, along with its islands, extends over 39°
(18°–57°S), while the Far East of Russia extends over 36° (42°–78°N). In this connection,
identifying similarities and differences in the nature of natural disasters in these regions is of
interest.
The aim of these studies was to compare the major groups of natural hazards of these two regions
and to evaluate the extent of human mortality and economic damage caused by natural disasters.
Primarily occurrences over the last 30–40 years were analyzed; however, earlier extreme events
were also taken into account.
Information concerning the Far East of Russia was obtained through my own studies, and different
literature and library materials were also used. Data for Chile were taken from journal articles and
materials posted on the Internet.
Main arguments
Similarities are manifested to the fullest extent in the development of processes such as
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tsunamis. High seismic activity is characteristic of Chile. In its
territory, earthquakes with magnitudes greater than 8 have been noted repeatedly. From the
viewpoint of human mortality, an earthquake that occurred on 24 January 1939 and had an intensity
of 8.3 in the Richter scale caused the greatest number of fatalities. Approximately 30,000 people
2
were killed (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1939_Chill%C3%A1n_earthquake). An earthquake with a
magnitude of 9.6, which occurred on 22 May 1960 in southern Chile, caused large quantity of
fatalities also. Approximately 1,655 people were killed; 3,000 were injured
(http://geol105naturalhazards.voices.wooster.edu/biggest-earthquake-ever/). In the last 30 years,
two intense earthquakes also took place. For example, 180 people were killed on 3 March 1985.
The magnitude 8.8 earthquake that took place on 27 February 2010 in Chile caused the deaths of
562 people.
The seismicity of the Far East of Russia is slightly lower. The most intense earthquakes (with
magnitudes of about 8) are characteristic of Kamchatka (Aprodov 2000). However, the most serious
consequences were found for the earthquake on 28 May 1995 in the northern Sakhalin, which
registered a magnitude of 7.5 on the Richter scale. As a result, 15 bearing-wall, five-storeyed buildings
out of 22 were demolished, and 2 more buildings were burned (Fig. 1). Of the 3,176 residents of the
settlement, 2,247 people were trapped under destroyed buildings, and 1,992 of them were killed
(Govorushko 2011).
Fig. 1. Consequences of Neftegorsk earthquake in Sakhalin dated May 28, 1995. Destructive
character of it was mainly caused by the earth tremor.
Photo credit: G.L. Koff, May 30, 1995.
Chile experiences significant volcanic activity due to the more than three dozen active volcanoes
situated within the Andes Mountains. Lascar (elev. 5,592 m), which last erupted in 2007, is the
most active volcano in the northern Chilean Andes (Fig. 2); Llaima (elev. 3,125 m), in central
Chile, which last erupted in 2009, is another of the country’s most active volcanoes. Chaiten’s 2008
eruption forced major evacuations. Other notable historically active volcanoes include Cerro
Hudson, Copahue, Guallatiri, Llullaillaco, Nevados de Chillan, San Pedro, and Villarrica (Cecion
and Pineda 2009).
3
Fig. 2. The photo shows the eruption of Laskar Volcano of April 19, 1993.
Photo credit: Caspar Amman
In Kamchatka, 29 active volcanoes are present, while in the Kuril Islands 40 are present. However,
the most hazardous volcanoes are concentrated in Kamchatka. Among them are the volcanoes
Klyuchevskoy, Bezymianny, Sheveluch, Mutnovsky, Plosky Tolbachik, Avachinsky, Gorely, and
Koriaksky in Kamchatka, and Alaid and Chikurachki in the Kuril Islands (Seismic dangers 2000).
During 1980–2010, from three to five volcanoes erupted each year in Kamchatka. Great eruptions
causing volcanic ash to rise to heights of more than 8–15 km above sea level happen about once
every 1.5 years (Atlas of natural and technogeneous dangers 2005). Tsunamis are fairly common
phenomena in both regions. The tsunamis that occurred in Chile on 22 May 1960, 30 July 1995, and
28 February 2010 (Fig. 3) were the strongest (Marın et al., 2010). As for the Far East of Russia, the
Pacific coasts of the Kuril Islands and Kamchatka are the most tsunami-prone. Weak tsunamis
appear in the Sea of Okhotsk, the Sea of Japan, and the Bering Sea. The tsunami recorded on 4
October 1994 is considered to be the most intense in the last 30 years. At that time, the islands of
Shikotan, Kunashir, and Iturup suffered badly from the 11 m waves (Exogenous geological
hazards 2002).
Tsunamis are fairly common phenomena in both regions. The tsunamis that occurred in Chile on 22
May 1960, 30 July 1995, and 28 February 2010 (Fig. 3) were the strongest (Marın et al., 2010). As
for the Far East of Russia, the Pacific coasts of the Kuril Islands and Kamchatka are the most
tsunami-prone. Weak tsunamis appear in the Sea of Okhotsk, the Sea of Japan, and the Bering
Sea. The tsunami recorded on 4 October 1994 is considered to be the most intense in the last 30
years. At that time, the islands of Shikotan, Kunashir, and Iturup suffered badly from the 11 m
waves (Exogenous geological hazards 2002).
4
Fig. 3. Destructive tsunamis are typical for Chile. Photograph shows tossed spawned by the giant
February 27, 2010, earthquake, fishing boats lie in downtown Talcahuano, Chile, on March 1.
Photo credit: Martin Bernetti, AFP, Getty Images
River floods are another typical natural disaster in both regions. However, there are fundamental
differences in their characters. Because the characteristics of rivers (lengths of the rivers, basin
areas, volumes of runoff, etc.) differ considerably, the durations of floods in the regions differ. In
Chile, short-term floods occur, whereas in the large rivers of the Russian Far East (Ussuri, Zeya,
and Bolshaya Ussurka), they last 3–4 months and, at times, in the lower reaches of the Amur River,
up to 6 months (Hydrometeorological dangers 2001).
Differences in natural disasters for the two regions are, to a greater degree, related to geographical
latitude. By virtue of the location of the Russian Far East within the higher latitudes, processes such
as avalanches, river ice jams (Fig. 4), snowstorms (Fig. 5), extremely low temperatures, and
different cryogenic processes (frost heaving, solifluction, thermokarst, thermal erosion, thermal
abrasion, and cryogenic cracking) are characteristic (Geocryological dangers 2000). In turn, aeolian
processes that block railroads, El Niño phenomena, extremely high temperatures, and glacial-lake
outburst floods are characteristic predominantly of Chile. In Chile, significant landslides are also
more frequent. The most catastrophic event of this type took place on 3 May 1993. According to
government accounts, 26 people died and 8 were reported missing. Over 5,000 houses were
damaged, and 307 were destroyed. Over 28,000 people were affected by the event. A rough
estimate accounts for around 5 million dollars in damage and costs to solve the emergency
(Sepulveda etal. 2006).
5
Fig. 4. May 1998 brought several heavy ice jams which caused inundations in the middle streams of
the Lena River and in a couple of its inflows in its water basin. 135 localities were touched, 14
people and 2728 cattle died. One can see the roofs of floating houses.
Photo credit: I. S. Seleznev
Fig. 5. Snow storms are typical for many regions of Russian Far East. Consequences of
snow storm in Vladivostok are shown here.
Photo credit: S.M. Govorushko, 7 of March 2007.
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Thus, both regions are, to a considerable extent, subject to natural disasters. In the last 30 years, the
mortality related to them in Chile amounted to 1,581 people, with 50% due to earthquakes, 26% due
to floods, and 12% due to storms (table 1)
No of events:
61
No of people killed:
1,581
Average killed per year:
51
No of people affected:
5,875,996
Average affected per year:
189,548
Ecomomic Damage (US$ X 1,000):
33,049,160
Ecomomic Damage per year (US$ X 1,000):
1,066,102
Table 1. Natural Disasters in Chile from 1980 – 2010
(http://www.preventionweb.net/english/countries/statistics/?cid=35)
In the Far East of Russia, more than 2,200 people were killed during the same period, and
earthquakes claimed about 90% of the victims (Atlas of natural and technogeneous dangers 2005).
As for economic loss in Chile, it is related mainly to earthquakes (about 95%), and the remaining
portion
falls
predominantly
to
floods
and
forest
fires
(http://www.preventionweb.net/english/countries/statistics/?cid=35). Ten events with most financial
loss are shown in table 2.
Disaster
Date
Damage (000 US$)
Earthquake (seismic activity)
27-Feb-2010
30,000,000
Earthquake (seismic activity)
3-Mar-1985
1,500,000
Wildfire
2-Jan-1999
280,000
Flood
24-May-2002
200,000
Drought
Jan-1991
200,000
Flood
10-Jun-1997
182,400
Flood
17-Jul-1987
177,000
Wildfire
1992
120,000
Earthquake (seismic activity)
15-Nov-2007
100,000
Wildfire
Feb-2002
80,000
Table 2. Top 10 natural disasters in Chile (economic loss)
(Source:"EM-DAT: The OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database, www.emdat.be)
In the Far East of Russia, financial losses were much more diverse. Apart from earthquakes,
significant losses were caused by river floods, jams, wind surges, snowstorms, sea ices, and
cryogenic processes. On the whole, the extent of economic losses caused by natural disasters in the
Far East of Russia is much lower, which is related to the lesser development of the territory.
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Conclusions
Similarities are manifested to the fullest extent in the development of processes such as
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tsunamis. Differences in natural disasters for the two regions
are, to a greater degree, related to geographical latitude. By virtue of the location of the Russian Far
East within the higher latitudes, processes such as avalanches, snowstorms, river ices, extremely
low temperatures, and different cryogenic processes (frost heaving, solifluction, thermokarst,
thermal erosion, thermal abrasion, and cryogenic cracking) are characteristic.
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