A Christian Response to Female Circumcision in Kenya
A Study from the book entitled
Female Circumcision: The Interplay of Religion, Culture and
Gender in Kenya by Mary Nyangweso Wangila
An Essay
in partial fulfillment for
Introduction to Sexuality Studies
—required course for MCC clergy—
MCC Manchester Learning, Manchester, England
Tutors:
Rev. Andy Braunston
and Rev. Jane Clarke
by
Rev. Stephen R. Parelli, Bronx, NY
October 31, 2009
Table of Contents
Preface . . . . p 2
Introduction and Overview of Essay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p 3
1. Understanding the Role of Religion in Kenya. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p 4
1a. Why Female Circumcision Persists: The Role Religion Plays . . . p 5
1b. How Female Circumcision Can Be Eradicated: The Role Religion
Must Play . . . p 6
2. Christian Authority and Female Circumcision in Kenya. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p 6
2a. The Relevant Bible Teachings and Biblical Principles . . . p 7
2b. The Relevancy of the Idea of Tradition in Kenya and
in Christian Authority . . . p 9
2c. Conscience and Reason and Female Circumcision in Kenya . . . p 10
3. A Suggested Christian Approach to Curbing Female Circumcision in Kenya. . . . p 12
Mary Nyangweso Wangila's Five Strategies . . . p 12
3a. Christian Authority and Female Circumcision in Kenya . . . p 13
3b. Authentically Christian . . . p 14
3c. The Values of Metropolitan Community Churches . . . p 16
Sources Used in Compiling this Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p 19
1
The word Westernization has sometimes been used as "a rhetorical device,
predicated on double-standards and bad faith, used to smear selectively only
those changes, those breaks with tradition, that those with authority to define
'tradition' deplore. Sometimes little attention is paid to how the word
Westernization is used to resist even constructive changes." p 13, Female
Circumcision, Mary Nyangweso Wangila
--------------------------------------"It is . . . important to distinguish misrepresentations and cultural imperialism
from normatively justifiable criticisms of sociocultural institutions and values
that promote this practice." p 14, Female Circumcision, Mary Nyangweso
Wangila
--------------------------------------"Female circumcision encountered resistance in Kenya well before Western
scholars attempted to condemn it." p 38, Female Circumcision, Mary
Nyangweso Wangila
--------------------------------------"For many Christians and Muslims, the basis of moral values still derives from
their Indigenous cosmology." p 38, Female Circumcision, Mary Nyangweso
Wangila
--------------------------------------Go labor on: Spend and be spent, my joy to do the Father’s will;
It is the way the Master went, should not the servant tread it still?
—H. Bonar
2
Introduction and Overview of Essay
An estimated 100 million to 140 million girls and women worldwide have been
circumcised. Each year another 3 million girls are circumcised.1 The practice occurs
largely in Africa (28 countries) but also in Asia, the Middle East and parts of Europe and
North America where immigrant communities can be found. 2
Mary Nyangweso Wangila, in her book Female Circumcision: The Interplay of Religion,
Culture, and Gender in Kenya (2007), defines female circumcision as "a sociocultural
practice that involves the pricking, piercing, stretching, burning, or excision,
clitoridectomy, and/or the removal of part of or all tissues around a woman's reproductive
organs and in some cases infibulations (the stitching together of the vulva in order to
narrow the vaginal opening)."3
In Uganda the practice is legal, although President Yoweri Museveni recently called for
its ban. "If a girl dies during circumcision that would be murder," said Press Secretary
Tamale Mirundi. "The punishment for murder in Uganda is death. You will be hanged."4
In Kenya to the southeast, and further south still in Tanzania, where female circumcision
is illegal, laws are not enforced and female circumcision still "runs rampant."
Based on a 1992 survey of four regions of Kenya, it is estimated that 50% of the female
population participate in female circumcision.5
There are seven or eight forms of female circumcision. In Kenya, three types of female
circumcision are performed on girls between the ages of four and sixteen: clitoridectomy
1
The World Health Organization
United Nations Children's Fund
3
Wangila, Mary Nyangweso, 2007, Orbis Books, Female Circumcision: The Interplay of Religion, Culture,
and Gender in Kenya, Maryknoll, New York. p. 8.
4
CNN, July 2009
5
The survey was conducted by MYWO.
2
3
and excision,6 and some infibulations.7 In rural areas it is performed most often by
women and generally without an anesthetic. In urban areas it may be performed in
hospitals.
This essay discusses a possible Christian response to female circumcision in Kenya. This
essay will show that Mary Nyangweso Wangila, in her book Female Circumcision: The
Interplay of Religion, Culture, and Gender in Kenya, argues that the role of religion in
Kenya is central to understanding (1a) why female circumcision persists and (1b) how
female circumcision can be eradicated.
Secondly, in keeping with the course assignment to discuss Christian authority, this essay
will address, while discussing female circumcision in Kenya, (2a) which direct Bible
teachings, or Biblical principles, are relevant, (2b) which Christian doctrines or aspects of
"tradition" are relevant, and (2c) how conscience and reason impact the issue. Finally,
this essay will suggest a Christian approach to female circumcision in Kenya that is in
keeping with (3a) Christian authority, and is (3b) authentically Christian, and is (3c) in
accordance with the values of Metropolitan Community Churches.
1. Understanding the Role of Religion in Kenya8
Mary Nyangweso Wangila is a Kenyan theologian and sociologist. In her book, Female
Circumcision, she maintains that "religion can sanction social order and also challenge
6
"Removal of part or all of the clitoris and part or all of the labia minora. The vaginal opening is often
occluded by the extensive scar tissue that results from the procedure. This makes sexual encounters
painful." Wangila, Mary Nyangweso, 2007, Orbis Books, Female Circumcision: The Interplay of Religion,
Culture, and Gender in Kenya, Maryknoll, New York, p. 3.
7
"Clitoridectomy and the excision of the labia minora and the inner layers of the labia majora. The raw
edges are subsequently sewn together with catgut or made to adhere to each other by means of thorns. This
causes the remaining skin of the labia majora to form a bridge of scar tissue over the vaginal opening. A
small sliver of wood or straw inserted into the vagina prevents complete occlusion and thereby leaves a
passage for urine and menstrual flow. The procedure is different when done in the hospital. Ibid., p. 3
8
This idea, the centrality of religion in Kenyan practices, is repeated multiple times throughout her book.
It is a singular thought that the author is persistent in telling us, like a school teacher who might use
repetition as her most significant teaching method. See, for example, p 10, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 27, 35,
37, 68, 75, 99, 103, 125, 136, 162 and 163. The title of the book is an apt description of its contents:
Female Circumcisions: The Interplay of Religion, Culture, and Gender in Kenya.
4
it"9 and that in Kenyan this is especially true because "unlike modern Western world
views that distinguish the sacred from the profane, Kenyans tend to seek religious
explanations for everything that happens to them . . . It is important that any practice of
the Kenyan people be perceived in this context."10 This centrality-of-religion-ineverything11 is a trait that generally characterizes Africa. Africans are "notoriously
religious: wherever the African is, there is his religion: he carries it to the fields . . .; to
the beer party or . . . funeral ceremony; to . . . school or . . . university; [and] if he is a
politician, he takes it to the house of parliament."12
1a. Why Female Circumcision Persists: The Role Religion Plays13
In spite of Christian missionaries in the early part of the twentieth century to aggressively
condemn the practice, female circumcision was, and remains, sanctioned by Kenya's
religions, including, by some, the Christian religion.14 Early missionaries "who took on
the task of condemning social and religious practices such as the dowry, polygamy,
witchcraft, belief in the ancestral spirits, traditional dances, widow inheritance, sacrificial
offerings, and, of course, female circumcision" were thought to be acting in cooperation
with the oppressive imperialistic government.
This conclusion of missionary-imperialistic cooperation was argued from the standpoint
that "polygamy" was obviously an acceptable Bible practice that missionaries could not
explain away. Therefore, the rejection of female circumcision, like the ungrounded
rejection of polygamy, was simply an imperialistic strategy to justify the eradication of
female circumcision in order to "decrease their population" and "wipe out of existence
the African species."15
9
Wangila, Mary Nyangweso, 2007, Orbis Books, Female Circumcision: The Interplay of Religion, Culture,
and Gender in Kenya, Maryknoll, New York, p 34.
10
Ibid., p 35
11
Ibid., p 15, "Religion is one of the main factors that define the social behavior of Kenyan people."
12
Ibid., p 35, The author is quoting John Mbiti.
13
Ibid., p 99, "Because religion so strongly influences social practices in general, it is important to
understand the significant role religion plays in constructing the practice of female circumcision."
14
Ibid., p 105, "Female circumcision is one of the sociocultural practices sanctioned by religion."
15
Ibid., p 21
5
Indeed, early missionaries did seek the aid of, and did cooperate with colonial
government in the attempt to eradicate female circumcision. Kenyatta, "the political
figure who most symbolized nationalism and resistance to imperialism," upheld the
practice of female circumcision comparing it to "the Jewish rite of circumcision" as
"conditio sine qua non of the moral and religious teaching of the circumcising
communities."16 Female circumcision, as a religious and moral rite, became identified
with resisting the imperialistic government.
1b. How Female Circumcision Can Be Eradicated: The Role Religion Must Play
According to Mary N. Wangila, religion can and must play a role in eradicating female
circumcision in Kenya. A reading of her book will yield the following reasons: (1)
social behavior is informed and sanctioned by religion;17 (2) religion and every day living
go hand-in-hand; (3) myths and religion have been comingled and must be set apart by
the right use of religion;18 (4) sacred texts, with inherent authority, empower; (5)
religious leaders and communities are very influential as religion is central to everything
in life;19 (6) religion is, by definition, an institution for social justice20 as well as a
sanctuary for the oppressed; and (7) the nature of the gospel is to set the captive free.
2. Christian Authority and Female Circumcision in Kenya
Secondly, in keeping with the course assignment to discuss Christian authority, this essay
will address, while discussing female circumcision in Kenya:
16
Ibid., p 121
Ibid., p 15, "Religion is one of the main factors that define the social behavior of Kenyan people."
18
Ibid., p 75, "Religious ideals promoting female circumcision can be countered only by the use of
religious ideals that demystify any religious links associated with this practice."
19
Ibid., p 15, "In my interviews with Kenyan women, religion is one of the reasons consistently cited, not
only for performing this practice, but also as a strategy for addressing the issue."
20
Ibid., p 68-69, "There is a need to be cautious of moral precepts in religions that can be used to justify
inequality and deny fundamental human rights."
17
6
2a. The Relevant Bible Teachings and Biblical Principles21
Christianity, like Islam, does not, in its teachings, necessarily condone the practice of
female circumcision. Nonetheless, religious justification has always been given, and is
still given, among certain Christian and Muslim communities, for the practice of female
circumcision.22
While it is difficult to categorize religious factors as distinct from social, psychological
and aesthetic factors, there are persuasive arguments for female circumcision that might
be considered particularly religious. These arguments are spiritual in nature and are tied
to blessings or curses. Female circumcision is a cleansing ritual; it connects one to
religious icons, like Abraham and Jesus who were also circumcised; it frees the soul from
its bisexual state of being so that a clear distinction is made between male and female; it
is decreed by the supernatural and therefore authoritative and to be received; the one who
is circumcised will receive blessings associated with the gods, parents and ancestors,
whereas the one who foregoes circumcision will suffer "infertility, still births, and the
death of child or husband;"23
Sacred texts, with the assertion that they are divinely authoritative, play a significant role
in legitimizing female circumcision in Kenya.24 Although "Christianity has been the
most vocal in opposing the practice of female circumcision," Christian teachings, texts
and narratives are used by Christian Kenyans to support the practice.25
As with Abraham (Genesis 17:1-27), so with female circumcision: circumcision, it is
reasoned, is a sign of covenant between God and any individual. One Christian Kenyan
woman who participated in an interview with Mary N. Wangila believes one's "righteous
standing before God" is one's faith in God, but a faith testified to, by women, through
21
Ibid., p 99, "The role religion plays . . . citing religious statements . . . or interpreting religious texts."
Ibid., p 19
23
Ibid., p 103
24
Ibid., p 105 "Religious narratives make custom normative and, most important, they contain the sacred
authority to maintain them."
25
Ibid., p 119
22
7
female circumcision. "Since Abraham," she says, "was circumcised as a sign of his faith
in God, we also should emulate him if we want to be righteous before God as he was."26
Christian tradition, as per The Ante-Nicene Fathers, would take issue with this Kenyan's
reasoning if she is saying Abraham's circumcision was somehow tied in to his righteous
standing before God: "Moreover, we learn from the Scripture itself, that God gave
circumcision, not as the completer of righteousness, but as a sign, that the race of
Abraham might continue recognizable."27 On the other hand, perhaps this Kenyan
woman is expressing the idea Paul has in mind when he says, "He [Abraham] received
the sign of circumcision as a seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was
still uncircumcised" (Romans 4:11, NRSV, 1989).
A second narrative is used to justify female circumcision. That Mary, the mother of
Jesus, was a virgin indicates that she was circumcised. Only circumcised girls can be
kept virgins. The very term itself – virgin – is a reference to unmarried women who have
been initiated and therefore circumcised.28
In contradiction to those who appeal to the Abraham and Mary narratives, those who
object to female circumcision cite the Apostle Paul to show that circumcision is not
essential to the Christian faith (I Cor. 7:18-19).
Because some cultures practice female circumcision, and because language does not
always distinguish between masculine and feminine pronouns, the TEV (Today's English
Version) renders his in Leviticus 12:3 as the child so that the verse will not be
misunderstood as a reference to female circumcision.29
26
Ibid., p 119
Roberts, Alexander ; Donaldson, James ; Coxe, A. Cleveland: The Ante-Nicene Fathers Vol.I :
Translations of the Writings of the Fathers Down to A.D. 325. Oak Harbor : Logos Research Systems,
1997, S. 480.
28
Wangila, Mary Nyangweso, 2007, Orbis Books, Female Circumcision: The Interplay of Religion,
Culture, and Gender in Kenya, Maryknoll, New York, p 120.
29
Péter-Contesse, René ; Ellington: A Handbook on Leviticus. New York : United Bible Societies, 1992
(UBS Handbooks; Helps for Translating), S. 177.
27
8
2b. The Relevancy of the Idea of Tradition in Kenya and in Christian Authority
"It is important to note that in Kenya, and in other African communities, tradition
describes the various elements that legitimate the social structure."30 The same can be
said about tradition and Christian belief. Tradition describes what the Church has
believed in preceding ages. These traditions, to some degree, give legitimacy to what the
Church does or does not teach today.
Male circumcision, the cutting off of the foreskin, most likely first occurred in prehistoric
times. Besides Israel and Judaism, the practice was common among other peoples (for
example, Egypt, see Jer. 9:25-26). In the New Testament book of Acts, the early
Christians set male circumcision aside.
Islam does not practice female circumcision per se. However, some legal experts of
Islam, like Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 855) have sanctioned female circumcision.31 The
Ethiopian Orthodox Church at times practices female circumcision.32
The Church Fathers, it would appear, did not find in the sacred text a reference, directly
or by implication, in support of the practice of female circumcision. According to the
The Ante-Nicene Fathers:
"And, furthermore, the inability of the female sex to receive fleshly circumcision (italics
mine), proves that this circumcision has been given for a sign, and not for a work of
righteousness. For God has given likewise to women the ability to observe all things
which are righteous and virtuous; but we see that the bodily form of the male has been
made different from the bodily form of the female; yet we know that neither of them is
30
Wangila, Mary Nyangweso, 2007, Orbis Books, Female Circumcision: The Interplay of Religion,
Culture, and Gender in Kenya, Maryknoll, New York, p 100.
31
Fahlbusch, Erwin ; Bromiley, Geoffrey William: The Encyclopedia of Christianity. Grand Rapids, Mich.;
Leiden, Netherlands : Wm. B. Eerdmans; Brill, 1999-<2003.
32
Ibid.
9
righteous or unrighteous merely for this cause, but [is considered righteous] by reason of
piety and righteousness."33
The Church Fathers, following the first Christians, continued to set male circumcision
aside:
"For if it [circumcision] were necessary, as you suppose, God would not have made
Adam uncircumcised; would not have had respect to the gifts of Abel when, being
uncircumcised, he offered sacrifice and would not have been pleased with the
uncircumcision of Enoch, who was not found, because God had translated him. Lot,
being uncircumcised, was saved from Sodom, the angels themselves and the Lord
sending him out. Noah was the beginning of our race; yet, uncircumcised, along with his
children he went into the ark. Melchizedek, the priest of the Most High, was
uncircumcised; to whom also Abraham the first who received circumcision after the
flesh, gave tithes, and he blessed him."34
"For Abraham was declared by God to be righteous, not on account of circumcision, but
on account of faith. For before he was circumcised the following statement was made
regarding him: ‘Abraham believed God, and it was accounted unto him for
righteousness.’35
2c. Conscience and Reason and Female Circumcision in Kenya36
That rationality alone can inform one's ethics and indicate one's humanity, is a Western
idea. In the West, relatedness is a biological and rational understanding. In Kenya,
though biological and rational, too, relatedness goes beyond that and embraces a
33
Roberts, Alexander ; Donaldson, James ; Coxe, A. Cleveland: The Ante-Nicene Fathers Vol.I :
Translations of the Writings of the Fathers Down to A.D. 325. Oak Harbor : Logos Research Systems,
1997, S. 206.
34
Ibid., S. 203.
35
Ibid., S. 245.
36
"In most Kenyan communities the establishment of norms for ethical conduct cannot be justified by
reason alone." Wangila, Mary Nyangweso, 2007, Orbis Books, Female Circumcision: The Interplay of
Religion, Culture, and Gender in Kenya, Maryknoll, New York, p 37.
10
knowledge that is both supernatural and invisible. Behavior is rationalized on the basis
of how everyone will be affected, "including the unborn and the spirits of the departed."37
Most Kenyan communities do not justify ethical norms by reason alone. Some form of
mystery comes into play which cannot be rationally explained. Mystical forces, and not
reason, are used to justify a misfortune, or someone's suffering, or an accident or
diseases. Without any rational explanation, facts are established on the grounds of
mystery. To object to female circumcision by making an appeal to reason, that it is, for
example, "unnecessary" or "unnatural" is "doomed to fail."38
An individual can not exist in isolation. One only exists corporately, owing one's
existence to the clan, the family, and departed spirits of past generations. "I am, because
we are, and since we are, therefore I am"39 summarizes accurately what it means to be a
human being. The West thinks in binary terms of either/or. Kenyans think in categories
of both/and.
In interviews, fifty Kenyan women from Islam, Christianity and Indigenous religions,
were asked why women choose to be circumcised. They were given four selections.
Most responded by choosing more than one of the four selections. The number one
reason, selected by all 50 interviewees, was "to curb sexual aggression." The next two
choices were selected equally: 45 interviewees chose "social status" and "tradition,
culture, religion (including Christianity, Islam, and Indigenous religions)."40 The last
reason, selected by 30 interviewees, was "to attain a marriage partner."41
Factors that have tended to justify the practice of female circumcision include (1) sacred
texts (Christian texts discussed above); (2) missionary attitudes toward Kenyan culture
and (3) missionaries' cooperation with government officials to eradicate female
37
Ibid., p 36-37
p 37
39
Ibid., p 36 quoting Mbiti
40
Ibid., p 105 "Violating purported religious decrees can be disastrous"
41
Ibid., p 101, Table 4 "Reasons for the practice of Female Circumcision, in Kenya (Sample of Fifty
Women)"
38
11
circumcision (discussed above), and (4) the contextualization and enculturation of
Kenyan values within the faith (the rise of AICs, Africa Initiated Churches42).
3. A Suggested Christian Approach to Curbing Female Circumcision in Kenya
Mary Nyangweso Wangila's Five Strategies
Effective strategies in curbing female circumcision43 will (1) seek solidarity among
women as well as between women and men "who must resist [together]" cultural norms
that are oppressive. Men44 must be in solidarity with women because "female
circumcision is a socially instituted practice that serves the interest of both men and [as it
is believed by society] women."
(2) Organizations must network for the purpose of (a) informing each other of social
injustice, for (b) obtaining a workforce by learning who is available to help, and for (c)
the purpose of educating the general public through "campaigns, brochures, stickers, and
posters."
(3) Support for victims, regardless of their status, must be ensured by providing for
"moral, psychological, medical and material support" through "providing shelter,
counseling services, workshops, medical services, legal resources, and economic
support."
(4) Women and even girls must speak out to raise the level of awareness so that "the
power relations involved" will be voiced. Motivation and empowerment must be
provided for victims to break the silence. Resources like the film The Day I Will Never
Forget can illustrate how women speak out.
42
Ibid., p 125
Ibid., p 132
44
Ibid., p 79, "What is considered to be female sexuality is essentially the male-objectified expectations of
what sexuality ought to be."
43
12
(5) "Finally, and most important, strategies . . . must be grounded in the religious
systems of these communities."
To recap, a strategy for curbing female circumcision in Kenya should include: (1)
Kenyan solidarity, (2) networking with organizations, (3) support for victims, (5)
empowering women and girls to speak out, and (5) a grounding in the religions of
circumcising communities.
3a Christian Authority and Female Circumcision in Kenya
Christian authority, as outlined by John Wesley and rooted in his Anglican tradition, says
"that when we do our theological reflection, we must draw on more than one source."45
The primary source is the Scriptures. Tradition, reason and experience are the other
three sources for Christian authority. This is known as "the 'quadrilateral' interpretation
of authority."46 Scripture, tradition and reason (coupled with conscience47), have all been
addressed thus far in this essay. Here, we look at the fourth source of Christian authority,
experience. "The Spirit, Wesley believed, inwardly validates God's truth through our
experience. I believe that is true."48
Just like "social practices are often indistinguishable from religious beliefs,"49 experience
can be wrongly felt, the sayings of the circumcising community preventing the
participant from hearing inwardly what experience is really saying.
45
Siker, Jeffrey S., editor, 1994, Westminster John Knox Press, Homosexuality in the Church: Both Sides
of the Debate, Louisville, Kentucky. "Source for Body Theology: Homosexuality as a Test Case," James
B. Nelson, p 78.
46
Ibid., p 78
47
In this essay I have followed the outline as provided from the course instructions and therefore have
coupled reason and conscience together. My thinking, however, as developed in this segment of the essay
and as briefly mentioned in class, is that scripture, tradition, reason and experience are the four
"interpretations of authority." Conscience is informed by these four sources by which it makes its
decisions.
48
Ibid., p 86
49
Ibid., p 37
13
Morality, justice, and human worth are universal values that are basic to social justice.50
As universally accepted as these may be, religion, tradition, myth and accepted social
norms, can prevent one's understanding of what is moral, just and of human worth.
Scripture, tradition and reason may all fail when under the dominance of cultural norms.
In the final analysis, it may fall to the inward voice of experience51 to tell us "to be
cautious of moral precepts in religions that can be used to justify inequality and deny
fundamental human rights"52 and that "it is immoral to overlook the cries of those women
and children who want nothing to do with the practice [of female circumcision] and
especially those who are unable to make an informed choice, due to their ignorance of the
potential risks associated with this practice."53
In Kenya, where scripture is tied to myth and cultural norms; where reason is centered in
the sayings of the circumcising group; where tradition is the mere repetition of these
same myths, cultural norms and sayings by the departed dead; then experience – that
inward voice that says something is not right – is vitally important.
3b. Authentically Christian
The Christian gospel liberates the oppressed.54 Unjust indigenous practices incorporated
into the Christian faith through the guise of contextualization and enculturation, belies the
very heart of the gospel. To enculturate the sociocultural practice of female circumcision
into the Christian faith without providing for an informed consent from those who are
subjected to circumcision, is unjust. If enculturation means "analysis of the culture" is
50
Ibid., p 68
The inner voice of experience is perhaps an apt way to describe how Mark Twain in The Adventures of
Huckleberry Finn brings Hunk to the place where he can help a run away slave. Hunk helps the run away
slave in spite of Scripture, tradition and reason, these there authorities addressing his conscience and
arguing for the rightness of slavery in the South. Huck is willing to go to hell, as most certainly he will, by
doing what he feels (experience) is right in helping the run away slave. His conscience, therefore, follows
the impulses of experience.
52
Wangila, Mary Nyangweso, 2007, Orbis Books, Female Circumcision: The Interplay of Religion,
Culture, and Gender in Kenya, Maryknoll, New York, p 68-69.
53
Ibid., p 17
54
Ibid., p 142-145, See the author's discussion on Liberation Theology.
51
14
blindly dismissed, then organizations like AIC (Africa Initiated Churches) fail to "ensure
the welfare of all members of the community" (italics mine).55
We dismantle moral evils "by analyzing and critiquing the social institutions that promote
[them]."56 This is pure and undefiled religion.57 Because religion "grounds reality in the
extraordinary – the sacred," it is a significant force for social good (or social evil).58
Five different strategies to curb female circumcisions were suggested to fifty Kenyan
women. Each participating in the interview could select as many strategies as she
deemed significant. "Educate and sensitize communities on risk," was chosen by 49
women. 43 women chose "Use religion to teach about attitudes toward female
circumcision." "Select alternative rite of passage" was chosen by only 14 women. Only
13 women chose "Reward girls who say no to female circumcision," and only 10 chose
"use law or prosecute those encouraging female circumcision."59
Education60 and religion far outflanked the other choices. The use of force was the least
likely choice. Most people will reject the oppression of others (and themselves) when
they are motivated to do so through education, through an understanding of justice versus
injustice (often equated with religious values), and through an understanding of the needs
of the community.61
Some churches in Kenya provide shelters for girls who have run away in order to resist
coming under the knife of female circumcision (as shown in the film The Day I Will
Never Forget). Some of these same churches, like the Norwegian Lutheran mission in
55
Ibid., p 125
Ibid., p 135
57
James 1:27 NRSV, 1989, "Religion that is pure and undefiled before God, the Father, is this: to care for
orphans and widows in their distress, and to keep oneself unstained by the world."
58
Wangila, Mary Nyangweso, 2007, Orbis Books, Female Circumcision: The Interplay of Religion,
Culture, and Gender in Kenya, Maryknoll, New York, p136.
59
Ibid., p 134, "Table 8. Views on Possible Strategies to Curb Female Circumcision
60
Ibid., p 149, "Because there are Christians who believe that Christian teachings actually sanction
practices such as female circumcision and because segments of a community may not be Christian, it is
important to employ a variety of strategies in designing educational programs."
61
Ibid., p 135
56
15
the Pokot area, also provide educational programs to address the issues of female
circumcision. The Norwegian Lutheran church has seen encouraging results from their
"information services." Pokot women are "hungering for education and information and
[are] receptive to information about health complications following female genital
mutilation (FGM)."62
Just like social practices and norms must be scrutinized, so too must Christian teachings.
For example, during the first centuries of the Christian era, dualism, a Greek idea that the
spirit world is good and the physical world is evil, negatively influenced the Christian
view of the body, human sexuality, and gender. Many of the Church Fathers adopted a
dualistic world and life view. "This dualism identified masculinity with transcendence,
rationality, and logos, and femininity with immanence, emotionality, and eros. It was
believed that the higher or male reality must dominate and control the lower female
reality."63 In this instance, "values and structures . . . have outlived their meaning" and
when they are socially critiqued, they give way to social change.64
Basic human rights apply to all – both to the individual him/herself and to groups of
individuals like children and women – by the simple reality that all are human
(Wynter).65 Impartial sympathy, which asks "how would I want to be treated in a similar
situation," ensures that the rights of all will be protected.66 This impartial sympathy is
commonly called the golden rule. "Jesus' message should be presented to Christians in
Kenya as a message of liberation from all practices that harm and dehumanize people.
Christ seeks to empower those who are unaware of their oppressive cultural practices."67
3c The Values of Metropolitan Community Churches
62
Ibid., p 135
Ibid., p 89
64
Ibid., p 13
65
Ibid., p 64
66
Ibid., p 65
67
Ibid., p 149
63
16
In keeping with the MCC value "to act on behalf of those who cannot effect change on
their own," the MCC Global Justice Center and Team works worldwide "to build bridges
that liberate and unite voices of sacred defiance." MCC's Statement of Vision calls its
constituents to "Do justice, show kindness and live humbly with God (Micah 6:9)" as did
Jesus.68
The MCC Human Rights Protocol affirms that "the demand of God for justice is so
central that other responses to God are empty or diminished if they exist without it (Amos
5:1-24; Micah 6:6-8; Matthew 23:23)." In building bridges, The Global Justice Center
has specified guidelines around the following headings: "Go where invited; Assume we
have a lot to learn; Listen to our hosts; Forge partnerships; Respond when requested
(TV/press conferences); Be flexible to the realities and differences in establishing
churches internationally."69
These MCC Global Justice guidelines (positive – what to do) dovetail with the reasons
(negative – what not to do) Mary N. Wangila gives for failed strategies when "attempting
to curb the practice of female circumcision." Causes for failed strategies are: "(1)
disregard for the cultural context, values, and reality that inform the practice; (2) failure
to distinguish among the forms of the practice; (3) imperialistic assumptions about the
practice and the communities that perform it; (4) the tendency of these strategies to adopt
an alien, coercive, or confrontational approach; and (5) failure to acknowledge the agency
of women in circumcising communities and the need to empower them to critique and
transform social behavior."70
MYWO and PATH 71in Kenya, RAINBO in New York and London, and AAWORD in
Africa are organizations that should be consulted when considering strategies for curbing
female circumcision.72
68
www.mccchurch.org.
Ibid., Written by Rev. Elder Diane Fisher; adopted by the MCC Board of Elders, August 11, 2008.
70
Wangila, Mary Nyangweso, 2007, Orbis Books, Female Circumcision: The Interplay of Religion,
Culture, and Gender in Kenya, Maryknoll, New York, p 130.
71
Ibid., p 73
72
Ibid., p 131
69
17
"Kenya," writes Mary N. Wangila, "has made some significant efforts by creating
women's departments in key ministries such as education, agriculture, health, appropriate
technology, technical training and culture, and social services."73 In creating these
departments, Kenya did so "by building on . . . international principles of equality
espoused by the UN Charter (1948), such as the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights,74 the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the 1979
CEDAW, and the Declaration on the Participation of Women in the Promotion of
International Peace and Cooperation."75 In addition, events and significant occasions such
as "the proclamation of 1975 as the International Women's Year by the 1972 UN General
Assembly Resolution 3010, the UN General Assembly's 1976 proclamation of the UN's
Decade for Women (1976-85) (Resolution 3520), and the 1985 Nairobi Forward Looking
Strategy . . . have inspired efforts to advance the status of women in Kenya."76
73
Ibid., p 29
Ibid., p 67-68, M. N. Wangila discusses the failed validity of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
in some societies in Africa because Africa was not present at the UN in 1948 and because "most African
societies do not consider a non-socialized individual [to be] a self-reflecting being . . . The human group
takes precedence over the human person."
75
Ibid., p 29
76
Ibid., p 28-29
74
18
Sources used in Compiling this Study
Fahlbusch, Erwin ; Bromiley, Geoffrey William: The Encyclopedia of Christianity.
Grand Rapids, Mich.; Leiden, Netherlands : Wm. B. Eerdmans; Brill, 1999-<2003.
Holy Bible, New Revised Standard Version, 1989.
Péter-Contesse, René ; Ellington: A Handbook on Leviticus. New York : United Bible
Societies, 1992 (UBS Handbooks; Helps for Translating).
Roberts, Alexander ; Donaldson, James ; Coxe, A. Cleveland: The Ante-Nicene Fathers
Vol.I : Translations of the Writings of the Fathers Down to A.D. 325. Oak Harbor : Logos
Research Systems, 1997.
Siker, Jeffrey S., editor, 1994, Westminster John Knox Press, Homosexuality in the
Church: Both Sides of the Debate, Louisville, Kentucky. "Source for Body Theology:
Homosexuality as a Test Case," James B. Nelson.
Wangila, Mary Nyangweso, 2007, Orbis Books, Female Circumcision: The Interplay of
Religion, Culture, and Gender in Kenya, Maryknoll, New York.
Internet Sources
CNN News Report (The World Health Organization, UN Children's Fund).
Metropolitan Community Churches.
19