Guidance Notes for Tutors.
Section 3: Time Management
Introduction
Managing time can be a difficult process for many HE students. A survey at the
University of Reading, for example, found that 32 per cent of the students
consulting the Study Advisers at the University of Reading initially came asking
for support with time management (LearnHigher 2009).
Students are expected to research and read a wide range of sources and to write
a range of module assignments each semester. If they are in a hall of residence,
they will need to look after themselves, and most need to find employment to
supplement any loans or other financial assistance they receive.
Not surprising then, that procrastination is an issue for many of them.
Procrastination has been the subject of considerable research in recent years
and it appears to affect a significant number of students. Self-reporting by
students suggest that 80-95 per cent engage in procrastination of some sort (Ellis
& Knaus, 1977; O'Brien, 2002), and almost 50 per cent procrastinate consistently,
which leads to problems with assignments or other set tasks (Day, Mensink, &
O'Sullivan, 2000; Haycock, 1993; Onwuegbuzie, 2000). A common form of
procrastination in education is for the student to delay starting an assignment
beyond the envisaged start point and then have to work furiously to finish it on
time.
However, other forms of time management concerns for students include
perfectionism and poor planning.
This Section of Trans:it aims, therefore, to help students consider their own
attitudes and approaches to time management.
There are four Units:
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Unit 1: How well do you manage time?
Unit 2: Time traps
Unit 3: About time
Unit 4: Four case studies
Each unit offers enough material for a 50-60 minute taught session. These
guidance notes include teaching tips from tutors who have successfully used the
material featured in the Section.
Unit 1: How well do you manage time?
This unit starts with a self-assessment exercise of students’ perceptions of their
strengths and weaknesses in relation to managing time. Some students may find
it more difficult to identify their strengths than their weaknesses - and may need
some help to get started with this. The exercise does give one example of a time
management strength to get the students started, but they may need further
encouragement. If so, additional examples are included in the list that follows.
Strengths could include:

Being punctual for college classes.

Having understanding on the time it takes to complete set tasks.

Good sense of time in relation to journeys, e.g. how long it might take
to get from A to B.

Self-discipline in getting out of bed at the time required by self or
others.

Sticking to any time agreed for going out or returning home.

Being aware of the impact of unpunctuality on the lives of others.

Not procrastinating at getting started on tasks they dislike.

Letting others know if they are going to be delayed.

Being time reliable with siblings.
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
Being time reliable with pet animals, e.g. exercising/feeding a dog
when needed.

Being time reliable with dependent others, e.g. older relatives.

Effective at prioritising tasks.

Not getting distracted or sidetracked from tasks.
The time-management questionnaire that features in Unit 1 is widely used by
undergraduate and post-graduate students at the School of Management,
University of Bradford. One of its main uses is to identify individual elements of
time and to encourage students to think about how effective they are in managing
these.
Teaching tip!
Students can be encouraged to review their time-management strengths and
weaknesses in the light of their questionnaire result.
Unit 1 concludes by encouraging students to identify possible solutions to two of
their most intractable time management issues. This encourages students and
their peers to solve their own problems, rather than rely on their tutors to solve
them for them.
Teaching tip!
This exercise is often more effective when done in a group, with students
presenting their issues and the possible solutions to these, but then inviting
their peers to contribute additional ideas.
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Unit 2: Time Traps
This unit looks at three big time traps for students: procrastination; perfectionism;
and poor planning (Neville 2007).
Each of these ‘time traps’ is described and presented with a short self-evaluation
questionnaire and students asked to tick any which apply to them. They are also
asked to think about possible solutions to two items self selected from each of the
three traps.
Teaching tip!
As with the similar exercise in Unit 1, this exercise can be more effective
when done in a group, with students presenting their issues and the possible
solutions, but then inviting their peers to contribute additional ideas.
Additional information for tutors:
1. Procrastination
Procrastination is the deferment or avoidance, without good reason, of an
intended or scheduled task until later. The word has its origins in latin: pro(forward) and crastinus (of tomorrow).
Teaching tip!
It can be useful to ask students for examples of when procrastination can
be a positive thing to do. There are negative connotations attached to the
word, but it is important to remember that not all deferment of action is
bad. Sometimes deferment is the wise and positive choice: in the case of
war, for example, or any other situation when the outcome of an action is unpredictable
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and might even be harmful to others. It can also be seen as a useful personal ‘rebellion’
against the unquestioning acceptance of task upon task that may be given to us. It can
be an opportunity to think about the range of tasks that we face – and whether they are
all necessary, or need to be accomplished in the time frames set for us by others.
Causes of procrastination
The causes of procrastination are complex and as yet far from being fully
understood. However, Steele (2007) examined several hundred academic
studies of procrastination dating from the 1930s onwards in an attempt to identify
the cause, effect and remedies for this trait or response.
There appear to be five factors at work relating to:
1. Importance or value of set task to an individual
2. Desirability, or attractiveness, of the set task to individual
3. Confidence levels of person to successfully accomplish set task
… and
4. Proneness of person to procrastination
5. Time available to do the set task
These relate and connect with each other. Items 1-3, can be balanced against
items 4 and 5. Items 1-3, if set on a ‘high’ priority scale setting, with 4-5 on ‘low’,
will lead to reduced incidences of procrastination; whereas the converse situation
is more likely to result in procrastination.
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Proneness to procrastination
Steele’s survey suggests that the following factors can impact on individual response to task
procrastination:
Aversion to the task
Avoidance of an unpleasant,
boring or difficult task for as long
as possible
Worry about failure
Worry about failing; prefer to be
viewed and judged by others as
lacking in effort, rather than ability
Rebellion
Delaying starting tasks because
of resentment about the task
itself, or the person imposing it
Poor time management
Under-estimation of time
needed to complete set tasks
Depression or mood related
Low energy/motivation levels,
arising depression, or just ‘not in
the mood’ responses to tasks
Impulsiveness
Procrastination
Environmental factors
Environmental factors, e.g.
place of study, have an impact
on motivation to start
Easily swayed from one task
to another; pursuit of
immediate gratification or
sensation.
Enjoy working under pressure
Relishing the ‘buzz’ of working
close to the time limits
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What is not clear is if chronic procrastinators are born or made. Joseph Ferrari
believes that procrastination are generally made and moulded by family influence
in one way or another. This might be by imitation of parental behaviour – or in
rebellion of an over-controlling parent or parents who nag their children to do
things to the parent’s agenda and timetable (Ferrari et al 1995). However, some
commentators see a link between procrastination and anxiety traits (see Burka
and Yuen, 1984), which can be the result of both inherited and nurture influences.
It may be worth discussing these factors with students, to see to what extent they agree
or identify with Steele’s analysis.
Perfectionism
Stoeber and Otto (2006) have identified two types of perfectionist, categorised
as ‘perfectionistic strivings’ and ‘perfectionistic concerns’. Perfectionistic
strivings are associated with positive aspects, and perfectionistic concerns
with negative aspects.
Healthy perfectionists rate high in perfectionistic strivings and low in
perfectionistic concerns, whereas unhealthy perfectionists rate highly in both
strivings and concerns (i.e. a flawed perfectionist).
Working as hard and as well as one can in the time available is a healthy form
of perfectionism. Sometimes an individual’s talents and interest in the task will
lead them to exceptional results; other times the results are less spectacular.
The flawed perfectionist will, however, beat themselves up emotionally for
achieving less than perfect results. A less than perfect grade, for example, will
cause them to fixate on a task and spend more time on it than is reasonable or
necessary, whilst remaining oblivious to their own need to rest and keep their
life in perspective. The following student comment summarises this paradox:
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I’ve written and rewritten this essay, maybe five times, and I still don’t feel
I can hand it in. The problem is that it has taken over my life. I’ve cut
some lectures, left an important assignment for next week, which I know
will cause even more problems, and I am spending all my time just
endlessly trying to improve this essay. It’s crazy because I know it’s
probably good enough, but I can’t help it… I so want it to be absolutely
right.’ (University of Dundee Counselling Service 2003)
The irony is, of course, that this fixation on a single assignment leads to time
management going completely haywire and the flawed perfectionist is left to
cope with a personal timetable now out of control, as other tasks stack up.
The flawed perfectionist believes that only the best grades will give them
peace and satisfaction. But it does not happen. Living life this way will deny
them peace of mind - because demanding ‘perfection’ from self or others
usually results in long term failure. What seems a perfect result at first rapidly
becomes only ‘very good’ in their minds as they strive for something better,
then better than better, and better still. Nothing is ever good enough.
Being this type of perfectionist may also hinder their future chances of
success in their professional lives, because they can become anxious ‘jobsworth’ types, worried about taking any new or creative actions that might
produce an imperfect result, or draw criticism to them. The flawed
perfectionist, if they get into a position of authority, can also make
unreasonable demands on others, which can lead them into conflict with
subordinates.
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Tackling flawed perfectionism begins by saying ‘no’ to making unreasonably
high demands of self or others; demands that produce only failure and
frustration. It also means refusing to accept the unreasonable expectations of
others. This is, of course, easier said than done, and it may be necessary for
students with flawed perfectionist tendencies to seek support from the
Counselling Service of an HE institution. A case study is included in Unit 4 of
this Section to help students think about these issues in more depth.
Poor Planning
Poor forward planning is the third of the ‘time traps’ and the most common among
students (and many non-students!). For students, it is often the result of
inexperience of having to manage their lives: their time has often been monitored
and managed for them by others. Now they have to do it for themselves - and it
can be a shock.
Sheila Cameron (2002, p.42) argues that there is a correlation between poor
planning and a disorganized work area, and the first step toward improving
forward planning is to organise one’s working area. A chaotic working area can
add to a feeling that things are out of control. If a working area is in a mess- with
papers, books everywhere – this can slow progress. The student has to hunt
around for what they need, wasting time in the process.
Having a neat working area has a positive psychological effect. It can speed work
because, arguably, this makes the student feel more efficient and in control- and
they will respond positively to this feeling - which may include more readily
embracing the ideas presented in the next unit.
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Unit 3: About Time
This unit presents a range of time management tips that connect with:
Taking a long term view
Prioritisation of tasks
Daily scheduling of tasks
Avoiding distractions
The Unit starts with a selection of time management ideas presented by students at a
time management workshop at the University of Bradford. However, there are two blank
spaces in the exercise and Trans:it students are invited to suggest two ideas of their
own to the list.
Teaching Tip!
Ideas generated can be presented to others in the group, with a vote taken at the
end of the session as to the ‘most useful’ suggestions made.
The ‘Avoiding Distractions’ part of this unit presents the result of a survey at the
University of Reading on the ‘top ten’ of student distractions (LearnHigher 2009).
Trans:it students are encouraged to prepare their own ‘top ten’ distractions, then to
compare it with the University of Reading list.
Teaching Tip!
Encourage students to contribute their own solutions to the Reading list of student
comments.
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Unit 4: Case Studies
Case studies can be an effective way for students to address time management
problems; it can be easier to give advice to others, but the process can also lead
to some useful self-reflection on one’s own shortcomings.
The case studies are drawn from the LearnHigher Centre of Excellence in
Teaching and Learning (CETL) website, Time Management Learning Area; and
from the University of Bradford, School of Management, Time Management
workbook for students.
Trans:it students can discuss these case studies among themselves and their
own suggestions compared with the tutor suggestions presented on the
LearnHigher website and in the University of Bradford workbook.
The case studies
1. Dina
Dina was a 2nd year Law student who was struggling to complete her
assignment because she was unable to concentrate on reading. She
tended to concentrate her reading into the afternoon, as most of her
mornings were taken up with attending lectures. She described how she
kept reading the same page over and over again without understanding
or remembering what she’d just read, eventually giving up in despair.
Dina described herself as someone who loved reading, who habitually
read for pleasure and whose only real problems were on focusing on
academic reading. She feared that this difficulty might be a symptom of
her being “not clever enough” for her very competitive course.
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LearnHigher presents the following advice:
“The adviser explained to Dina that everyone has a good and bad time for
focusing on difficult tasks and getting things done. For most people it is
easiest to focus in the mornings and most difficult after lunch. Dina was
using her most unfocused time of day to attempt the study tasks that
needed most concentration. It was suggested that Dina should make
herself a timetable, committing herself to studying at her best times (as
many morning sessions as were available, plus late afternoons and early
evenings when necessary). It was suggested that she ringfence time in
the afternoons when she tended to lose focus for doing chores,
answering emails, going to the gym etc. The adviser also explained how
she might use the principles of active reading; that is, taking notes of key
ideas”
(LearnHigher 2009).
2. Leroy
Leroy was in the final year of a Geography degree. Having thrown himself
into university life with enthusiasm, he was now the Entertainment Editor
of the weekly student newspaper and president of the Geography Society.
These commitments took up a substantial amount of time, in addition to
which Leroy was trying to complete a 12,000 word dissertation, two
essays, and begin his revision for Finals.
He felt completely overwhelmed and had got to the stage where he could
not decide what to do first, and so was doing nothing. This was increasing
his anxiety.
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LearnHigher presents the following advice:
“The adviser suggested that as a first step, Leroy should list everything he
had to do, with the dates he had to do them by. Although Leroy was
unenthusiastic (fearing that seeing it all written down would make him feel
more stressed), he completed the list and was able to work with the
adviser to decide on a few quick tasks to tackle straightaway to free up
his study paralysis.
Leroy also reluctantly agreed that he should relinquish at least one of his
extra-curricula responsibilities to focus on study. That agreed, his larger
study tasks (completing his dissertation, revising for Finals) were broken
down into smaller steps to provide a series of achievable goals. Lastly, he
was asked to mark up a realistic set of tasks he wanted to complete by
the end of the week.
Retuning two weeks later, Leroy agreed that although he found it difficult
to give up some of the positions he'd worked hard to achieve, he did now
feel more in control of his time. He said that, rather than seeing his tasks
as an undefined mass that was impossible to untangle, he could now
visualise them as a linear path to be followed to his goal - to complete his
degree and get the good marks he deserved”
(LearnHigher 2009).
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3. Joe
Joe has a tendency to build a task up in his mind into something bigger
than it really is and beyond what is expected of him by his tutors. He
becomes convinced he cannot deliver what he thinks is expected of him by
the university in the time available. This reduces his confidence, increases
his anxiety and leads to procrastination in starting assignments.
The University of Bradford, School of Management, advice to Joe was, as
follows:
Joe should not fall into the trap of perfectionism. ‘Perfection’ as a concept and a
life target is impossible to attain. It is a slippery eel of an ambition, as perfection
will always elude us; a voice in our head will always say ‘do more, more, more’. It
may be that others have pushed him too hard and too far in the past in this
direction. He needs to aim at doing his best in a conscientious way. If he makes
mistakes, so what? This is how we learn.
He also needs to ‘deconstruct’ the assignment by re-phrasing the task into
simple, manageable terms. With assignment questions, for example, he could try
writing a mini-essay (50 words) that simply highlights the main point, or by
explaining to another person his opinion on the subject. When you do this you
reduce seemingly difficult tasks into something within your grasp. Even complex
concepts have a core or key point, around which other ideas revolve. Get to the
core, understand the core, and you start to control the written task.
Joe could also break the assignment task down into easy manageable sub-tasks,
and tackle each one of these separately. Often it is the apparent magnitude of the
assignment task, combined with ‘perfectionism’ tendencies, which lead to
procrastination. Dividing tasks up into bite-sized chunks can be the way out of
this emotional impasse.
(University of Bradford 2006).
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4. Anita
Anita is a part-time mature student in higher education and is finding it
increasingly difficult to prioritise her time. She has a partner and two
children in their teens, and is rapidly becoming overwhelmed with all the
things required of her both at home and for the HE course. These include
all the chores she feels she has to do for others in her household, plus the
set reading and work for course assignments.
The University of Bradford, School of Management, advice to Anita was, as
follows:
Anita could start by looking at the issue of the chores she feels she has to do at
home. Are other people supporting her enough with her studies? If not, why not?
Is the issue of perfectionism – about chores – one that she also needs to
consider?
4-D Approach. Students in Anita’s position may have to adopt a ‘4 D’ approach to
managing their time: De-commitment: identifying things that do not really need
doing, and abandoning these; Deferment: putting things off till after exams or
assignments have been completed; Downgrading: doing things to a less perfect
standard; Delegation: negotiating with others to do things that you previously felt
to be your responsibility.
Anita could also start each day by listing in writing the things she has to do on
that day, and into the near future. There is something very satisfying about
having a list of things to do and ticking these off one by one when you do them!
You start to feel more in control. However she needs to avoid starting with an
unrealistically long list of things to do at the start of the day.
(University of Bradford 2006).
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References
Burka, J. B., and L.M. Yuen (1983). Procrastination: Why you do it, what to do
about it. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Cameron, S. (2002). Business Student’s Handbook: learning skills for study and
employment. 2nd edn. Harlow: Prentice Hall.
Day, V., Mensink, D., and M. O'Sullivan (2000). Patterns of academic
procrastination. Journal of College Reading and Learning, 30, 120-134.
Ellis, A., and W.J. Knaus (1977). Overcoming procrastination. New York: Signet
Books.
Ferrari, J.R. et al (1995). Procrastination and Task Avoidance Theory, Research,
and Treatment. New York: Plenum.
Haycock, L. A. (1993). The cognitive mediation of procrastination: An
investigation of the relationship between procrastination and self-efficacy
beliefs (Doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota, 1993). Dissertation
Abstracts International, 54, 2261.
LearnHigher (2009). Time Management Learning Area: resources for staff.
Available at www.learnhigher.ac.uk [Accessed 29 Dec. 2009].
Neville, C. (2007). Procrastination [Workbook]. University of Bradford, School of
Management Effective Learning Service. Available at
http://www.brad.ac.uk/acad/management/external/els/pdf/procrastination.pdf
[Accessed 2 Jan 2010].
O'Brien, W. K. (2002). Applying the transtheoretical model to academic
procrastination. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Houston.
Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2000). Academic procrastinators and perfectionistic
tendencies among graduate students. Journal of Social Behavior and
Personality,15, 103-109.
Steele, P. (2007). The Nature of Procrastination: A Meta-Analytic and Theoretical
Review of Quintessential Self-Regulatory Failure. Psychological Bulletin Vol.
133(1), Jan. 2007, pp. 65-94.
University of Bradford (2006). Time Management. School of Management
Effective Learning Service. Available at
http://www.brad.ac.uk/acad/management/external/els/pdf/timemanagement.pdf
[Accessed 2 Jan 2010].
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University of Dundee Counselling Service (2003). Perfectionism. Available at
http://www.dundee.ac.uk/studentservices/counselling/leaflets/perfect.htm
[Accessed 2 Jan 2010].
Stoeber, J. and K. Otto (2006), ‘Positive conceptions of perfectionism:
Approaches, evidence, challenges’, Personality and Social Psychology Review ,
10 (4): 295–319.
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