The Formal Literary Essay
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The Formal Literary Essay
Writing about Literature
 gathering evidence
 direct and indirect references
 contextualizing quotations
 working with long quotations
 how to document plays and poetry
 putting it all together
An Essay is Like a Journey:
 Introductions
 Body (argumentative) Paragraphs
 Conclusions
Format: what your essay should look like
 The Title Page
 The Essay Itself
 The Works Cited Page
Language and tone: What your essay should sound like
 levels of formality- what does formal mean?
 can I use “I”?
 avoiding sexist language
Appendix:
Writing about Film, Television, Video Games and other media
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Writing about Literature
When we write about literature, we always need to refer to the text. If we
don’t, it is very difficult to persuade our readers or to clearly explain our opinions
about the text. For example, I could say that Janie, in Their Eyes Were Watching God
is a spoiled, immature girl, but Saira, who is a bit immature herself, might disagree.
If neither of us supports our positions with words or events from the text, our
conversation will look a little like this:
Me: She’s spoiled.
Saira: No, she isn’t.
Me: She’s spoiled!
Saira: No, she isn’t!
Me: I tell you, she’s spoiled!
Saira: No SHE ISN”T!
As the fellows in Monty Python’s Flying Circus pointed out, this is NOT an argument.
argument (n)
1. a disagreement in which different views are expressed, often angrily
2. a reason put forward in support of a point of view
3. the main point of view expressed in a book, report, or speech
4. a unit of reasoning moving from premises that provide evidence to a
conclusion
In this lesson, when we use the word “argument, “ we’re using it in the sense
implied by definitions 2 & 4
Before we can convince anyone of our conclusions about a text, we need to
make a series of statements about it that are supported by evidence from the text.
We call this evidence references or quotations.
I am going to write a
paragraph to prove or
explain my opinion that
Janie, in the beginning of
the novel, is immature.
Can you think of some
evidence to support this
opinion?
Take a moment to write
down this evidence.
immature: characteristic of a lack of maturity, lack of development,
young, not fully formed
synonyms for immature:
young, infantile, adolescent, juvenile, childish,
puerile
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Gathering evidence about a character:
what the character does:
She pouts when Nanny told her about Logan Killicks (14).
She refuses to chop wood (26).
what the character says:
“...Ah hates the way his head is so long one way and flat on de sides and dat pone
uh fat back of his neck” (24).
what the character thinks (revealed by omniscient narrator)
“Husbands and wives always loved each other, and that was what marriage meant”
(21).
what others say about the character:
“Yo’ Grandma and me done spoil yuh now, and Ah reckon AH have tuh keep on wid it
(26).”
Exercise # 1
1) As a group, gather evidence from the text about a character from chapters 1-4.
Find at least THREE of EACH type of evidence. (NOTE: we are not, for the moment,
interested in the physical descriptions of the characters.) Include page references,
properly documented.
2) Using the character vocabulary sheet, based on your evidence, come up with
three different adjectives to describe this character.
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Evidence to demonstrate that Janie is immature:
Indirect references
Direct References
“That was the end of her childhood” (12).
She pouts when Nanny told her about
Logan Killicks (14).
“Husbands and wives always loved each
other, and that was what marriage
meant” (21).
She refuses to chop wood (26).
“...Ah hates the way his head is so long
one way and flat on de sides and dat
pone uh fat back of his neck” (24).
“Yo’ Grandma and me done spoil yuh
now, and Ah reckon AH have tuh keep on
wid it (26).”
You’ll notice that I’ve divided this evidence into TWO categories: direct references&
indirect references.
What’s the difference?
Direct references to the text are quotations. When you use a direct reference in
your writing, you




take the author’s words directly from the book
insert them into your own writing
indicate that these are not your words through the use of quotation marks,
or in the case of a long quotation, by indenting
document the source of the quotation, using the proper rules for your writing
Indirect references are references you make to events or ideas in a text using
your own words. When you make an indirect reference to a text, you



paraphrase the event or idea from the text
insert your paraphrase in your own writing
document the source of the quotation, using the proper rules for your writing
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EXERCISE #2: IDENTIFYING DIRECT & INDIRECT REFERENCES
Read the following passage carefully, and identify the direct and indirect references:
Joe Smith, the protagonist of One Hundred and One Ways to Rid your Drains
of Jello, is a walking contradiction. Just when he demonstrates one kind of
behaviour, he immediately acts in the exact opposite way. For example, Joe is both
honest and dishonest. In the opening sentences of the book, he very bluntly states
that he is not going to give his audience the details about his life that they probably
want to hear. [A] -> He tells the reader directly, "·that stuff bores me" (1). [B] ->
Joe again shows himself to be a fairly honest person when he writes the note of
apology to Mr. Murch for his poor performance on the exam. He admits that he
knows nothing else about the Egyptians and that Murch has every right to flunk him
(12). [C] -> Joe also clearly values honesty as he tells us repeatedly how much he
hates phonies (13 ). Yet, Joe is paradoxically also very honest about the fact that he
is dishonest. [D] -> He declares, "I’m the most terrific liar you ever saw in your life"
(16). It is a true enough statement. [E] -> He lies to Mr. Murch about having to go
to the gym (16). [F] -> He lies to Mrs. Spingle about his name. He lies to her about
his feelings about her son (54-55). Therefore, Joe is, indeed, a walking contradiction.
He is an honest liar.
Indirect or Direct Reference?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
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Direct or Indirect References: WHICH SHOULD I USE?
Sometimes an indirect quotation is all you need. These are best used when your
claim can be supported by a reference to an event in the text.
If there is something significant, however, in the manner in which the event was
described, or the way a character thinks or speaks, then a direct quotation
will be a much stronger piece of evidence.
Look again at the evidence gathered to show that Janie is immature:
Indirect references
Direct References
“That was the end of her childhood” (12).
She pouts when Nanny told her about
Logan Killicks (14).
“Husbands and wives always loved each
other, and that was what marriage
meant” (21).
She refuses to chop wood (26).
“...Ah hates the way his head is so long
one way and flat on de sides and dat
pone uh fat back of his neck” (24).
“Yo’ Grandma and me done spoil yuh
now, and Ah reckon AH have tuh keep on
wid it (26).”
The indirect references all refer to events in the text. The direct references are
concerned with the way a character thinks or speaks.
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EXERCISE #3: Using direct or indirect references
Record your evidence about the character you are studying in the chart below.
Decide whether the textual evidence would best be offered as a direct or indirect
reference. Try to find at least 2 of each kind of reference.
For an
1.
2.
3.
indirect reference:
paraphrase the reference (put in your own words)
record your paraphrased version in the chart
document it with pages numbers as you’ve been taught
For an direct reference
1. record the quotation directly into the chart
2. document it with pages numbers as you’ve been taught
Indirect References
Direct References
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Embedding quotations
Alright. Now that you know that you need to use references when you write about
literature, it’s time to talk about what you should do with them once you’ve chosen
them. Let’s take a look at that sample paragraph again:
Joe Smith, the protagonist of One Hundred and One Ways to Rid your Drains
of Jello, is a walking contradiction. Just when he demonstrates one kind of
behaviour, he immediately acts in the exact opposite way. For example, Joe is both
honest and dishonest. In the opening sentences of the book, he very bluntly states
that he is not going to give his audience the details about his life that they probably
want to hear. He tells the reader directly, "·that stuff bores me" (1). Joe again
shows himself to be a fairly honest person when he writes the note of apology to Mr.
Murch for his poor performance on the exam. He admits that he knows nothing else
about the Egyptians and that Murch has every right to flunk him (12). Joe also
clearly values honesty as he tells us repeatedly how much he hates phonies (13 ).
Yet, Joe is paradoxically also very honest about the fact that he is dishonest. He
declares, "I’m the most terrific liar you ever saw in your life" (16). It is a true
enough statement. He lies to Mr. Murch about having to go to the gym (16). He lies
to Mrs. Spingle about his name. He lies to her about his feelings about her son (5455). Therefore, Joe is, indeed, a walking contradiction. He is an honest liar.
Indirect references, you’ll notice, slip right into the text. They’re just another one
of the sentences you’re using to prove your point. BUT!!! Don’t forget to include the
page number in brackets, even when you’re using an indirect reference to the text.
Direct references are another matter. You can’t just stick them into the text willynilly.
Documentation: How to reference primary sources
Any time you quote another person's work or refer to something from their writing,
you MUST acknowledge that reference. Even if you only quote a few words, if you
use a phrase that is not your own in an essay without acknowledging it, it is
considered plagiarism. It's like stealing somebody else's ideas, and it's a very serious
matter. This is the kind of thing that can get you expelled at university. Oh, by the
way, it's very easy to spot in your writing when you start using someone else's
words. It's like watching Austin Powers playing basketball, and then all of a sudden
he pulls a move that only Michael Jordan could do. Something just ain't right.
So.. save yourself the trouble. Acknowledge your references. There is nothing wrong
with using someone else's words in your essay. In fact, it's necessary in a literary
paper. Just let us know that you know when you are doing it!
Here's the nice and easy way to do it that the good people at the MLA (Modern
Languages Association) have deemed acceptable for a literary paper. It's called
Parenthetical Documentation. The deal is, any time you mention or quote something
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from a text, you follow it with the author's last name and the page number in
brackets. Brackets are these things  ( )
example:
The central idea in the novel is found in Grover's words when he cries, "but I don't
want to be a tool for the corporate machine! I want to build tree-houses" (Smith
234).
Punctuation marks such as periods, commas, and semicolons should appear after the
parenthetical citation. Question marks and exclamation points should appear within
the quotation marks if they are a part of the quoted passage but after the
parenthetical citation if they are a part of your text.
example
The central idea in the novel is found in Grover's words when he cries, "but I don't
want to be a tool for the corporate machine! (Smith 234)
That's the technical side down. Fairly simple.
Here's the tricky part. Something called embedding.
Embedding means you must put your quotations in context. This means that:
1) You must introduce the quotation in some way. That means you can't do
this:
The central idea in the novel is found in Grover's words. "But I don't want to be a
tool for the corporate machine!"
The problem here is that I, as a reader, don't know where this quotation came from.
It MAY be Grover's words, but it could just as well be anything else from the work
you are citing. Quotations need to have words that surround them that tell the
reader a bit about the context of the quotation, especially important details that let
the reader know the speaker of the quotation, and any important plot events that
help us understand the significance of the quotation.
2) When you embed a quotation, it must still make grammatical sense as a
sentence.
3.) When you embed a quotation, never, NEVER, EVER write that a character,
narrator or author QUOTES something.* YOU are the one doing the quoting.
4.) You should never write in words in the body of your essay that an event happens
on a page of a novel. i.e. When Jody slaps Janie on page 135, she does not cry. If
you want to give some sense of when the event happened, use the events in the
novel as your reference. i.e. When, ten years into their marriage, Jodie slaps Janie,
she does not cry (135).
* (*Unless it is one of those rare occasions where you are quoting a character who is quoting someone
else. We’ll deal with those as they arise.)
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This probably sounds very confusing- some examples will help clear things up:
the wrong way
the right way
1. In the early part of the story, Janie
had been indulged and pampered by
those who cared for her. “Yo’ Grandma
and me done spoil yuh now, and Ah
reckon AH have tuh keep on wid it“ (26).
1. In the early part of the story, Janie
had been indulged and pampered by
those who cared for her. Logan
observes, “Yo’ Grandma and me done
spoil yuh now, and Ah reckon AH have
tuh keep on wid it“ (26).
2. Janie is immature because she is only
concerned with her husbands’ looks. “Ah
hates the way his head is so long one
way and flat on de sides and dat pone uh
fat back of his neck” (24).
2. . Janie is immature because she is
only concerned with her husbands’ looks.
When Nanny asks her what is wrong
with her new husband, Janie replies,
“Ah hates the way his head is so long
one way and flat on de sides and dat
pone uh fat back of his neck” (24).
3. Janie had a lot to learn about life and
marriage, “Husbands and wives always
loved each other, and that was what
marriage meant” (21).
3. Janie had a lot to learn about life and
marriage. She believed that “Husbands
and wives always loved each other, and
that was what marriage meant” (21).
This example is incorrect because it is an
example of a comma splice- two
complete sentences have been
incorrectly joined with a comma.
4. When Janie kisses Johnnie Taylor
across the gatepost, it was the beginning
of her maturity. As the narrator quotes,
“That was the end of her childhood” (12).
4. . When Janie kisses Johnnie Taylor
across the gatepost, it was the beginning
of her maturity. As the narrator notes,
““That was the end of her childhood”
(12).
This example is wrong because YOU are
the one doing the quoting. To quote
means to refer to someone else’s words.
Characters and the narrator don’t quote
(unless they are indeed quoting
someone within their own story.)
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Here some more examples of the right way to do it. T he contextual details have
been highlighted for you. (This is just to help you notice them. Do NOT use BOLD in
your essays.)
It has been said that Holden Caufield is a "walking contradiction." Just when
he demonstrates one kind of behaviour, he immediately acts in the exact opposite
way. For example, Holden is both honest and dishonest. In the opening sentences of
the book, he very bluntly states that he is not going to give his audience the details
about his life that they probably want to hear. He tells the reader directly, "·that
stuff bores me" (Salinger 1). Holden again shows himself to be a fairly honest
person when he writes the note of apology to Mr. Spencer for his poor performance
on the exam. He admits that he knows nothing else about the Egyptians and that
Spencer has every right to flunk him (12). Holden also clearly values honesty as he
tells us repeatedly how much he hates phonies (13 ). Yet, Holden is paradoxically
also very honest about the fact that he is dishonest. He declares, "I’m the most
terrific liar you ever saw in your life." (16). It is a true enough statement. He lies to
Mr. Spencer about having to go to the gym (16). He lies to Mrs. Morrow about his
name. He lies to her about his feelings about her son (54-55). Therefore, Holden is,
indeed, a walking contradiction. He is an honest liar.
In One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest, Kesey highlights the difference in the
relative strength and security of McMurphy and Harding by giving detailed
descriptions of their laughter. One of the first things we learn about McMurphy is the
nature of his laugh. Chief Bromden recalls that McMurphy’s laugh is "free and
loud" and it rings like a bell (Kesey 16). This forms a sharp contrast to the
"awful sound of that squeaking" that is Harding’s laugh (16). The effort with which
Harding laughs is emphasized by Kesey’s comparison of his laugh to a nail being
pulled out of a piece of wood (59). Mack, on the other hand, laughs effortlessly, his
laughter "hovering" around him, even when he isn’t laughing (16). McMurphy is in
full control of his laughter: "He laughs til he’s finished " (16). Harding "can’t stop
it" (59). Finally, the description of McMurphy’s laughter illustrated the role he has
come to play in the ward. His laughter has a contagious quality, as it "comes
out of his wide grinning mouth and spreads in rings bigger and bigger till it’s lapping
against the walls all over the ward" (16). McMurphy’s laughter is going to have a
powerful effect on the patients, and help them give them back their security. As he
relates to Harding, "when you lose your laugh, you lose your footing " (59).
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EXERCISE #4: a contextual vocabulary
1. Look up any of the words in the box on the right in a thesaurus.
2. Choose THREE words from your
search that you think might be helpful
to use when contextualizing quotations.
A character might
say state observe comment reply
respond retort….
3. Record these words, along with their
dictionary definitions.
EXERCISE #5: Embedding Quotations
a) label the following examples of quotation handling “correct” or “incorrect.”
b) write corrected versions of the incorrect ones.
1. After she scolds Janie for kissing Johnny Taylor over the gate post, Nanny says,
“Come to yo’ grandma’ honey” (14).
2. He becomes the mayor of the town and gets all the benefits and, as the narrator
quotes, “They bowed down to him rather, because he was all these things, and then
again he was all of these things because the town bowed down” (50).
3. Nanny tells Janie about her mother and her past life. “Ah wanted to preach a
great sermon about colored women sittin’ on high, but thy wasn’t no pulpit for me”
(16).
4. They spoke all about the happenings of the town and the happenings in the lives
of the town folk, “They passed nations through their mouths. They sat in judgment”
(1).
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Working with Long Quotations
Anything over three lines of text is considered a long quotation. Long quotations
are handled differently than short ones. They are "set apart" from the rest of your
essay in the following ways
*
they are single-spaced, where the rest of your essay is double-spaced
*
they are indented on BOTH sides by half an inch from the regular margins
*
because of these markings, you do not need to use quotation marks to
indicate that these are someone else's words
Here's an example:
Holden is not unaware of his difficulties in communication. He expresses his
frustration:
I thought what I'd do was, I'd pretend I was one of those deaf-mutes.
That way I wouldn't have to have any goddamn stupid useless
conversations with anybody. If anybody wanted to tell me something,
they'd have to write it on a piece of paper and shove it over to me.
They'd get bored as hell doing that after a while, and then I'd be
through with having conversations for the rest of my life. Everybody'd
think I was just a poor deaf-mute bastard and they'd leave me alone.
(Salinger 198-199)
Finally, sometimes you want to only quote part of a passage and omit some sections.
You might do this if you wish to emphasize a particular aspect of a passage, or if the
passage contains material that is irrelevant to your discussion. If, for example you
were exploring the symbolism of the dog in One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest, you
would likely wish to quote Bromden's description of the dog when he sees it from the
ward window. It's a long passage! Let's emphasize the parts which draw a parallel
between the dog and McMurphy:
The dog Bromden sees from his window can be seen as a symbol for
McMurphy. The Chief recounts:
I saw it was a dog, a young, gangly mongrel slipped off from home to
find out about things went on after dark... he became so took with
what was coming off... that he had to lie down on his back and roll. He
twisted and thrashed around like a fish, back bowed and belly up, and
when he got to his feet and shook himself a spray came off him in the
moon like silver scales. (Kesey 142)
We use the ... (called an ellipsis) to let the reader know we have omitted parts of the
text. When you use ellipsis, however, the text that remains must still make
grammatical sense.
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Quoting plays and poetry
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When referencing a poem, cite the author and line number. The first time you do this
in a document, you need to write or type the word “line.” After that, you can assume
that people will know that’s what you mean. If you quote two or three lines, you can
leave them embedded in the text, but you need to put slashes where the line breaks
are. Finally, if you are quoting 3 or more lines, as with any quoted text, you need to
single space and indent them, and no quotation marks are necessary.
“Keep your back to him,” advises the speaker in Karen Solie’s poem “Determinism” (
line 6). This is not only “sexier,” as the poem indicates, but it also creates suspense,
as the man’s approached can be sensed because, “There’s a breeze he’s pressing
through, boots/ in the grass. There’s a breeze and you smell him/ blowing in on it
(10-12). But the determinism of the poem suggests there’s no need to look to see
his approach anyway:
Because in turning
you will see the dinner in all its potential
as you speak, spring the catch, finish this, the weighted moment
buckling into consequence. The place
where you can face your history and see it coming. (23-27)
Follow the exact same instructions for Shakespearean plays, which are considered
“verse” plays because the metrical line is important. In addition to the line number,
you need to indicate the act and scene. Some people insist that you do this in Roman
numerals. This is a more traditional way of doing it. Arabic numerals are quite
accepted now.
Act, scene, line number(s)
Roman Numerals:
(V.iii.135)
Act uses capital Roman numerals
Scene uses small-case Roman numerals
Line numbers use Arabic numerals
(5.3.125)
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Putting it all together
argumentation (thinking & inquiry)
claim
support
discussion
C
S
D
the main point of the paragraph
direct & indirect evidence from the text that supports the claim
explanations that develop the claim, or show how the
support relates to the claim
Read the following paragraph:
The flower, in The Little Prince is a very vain creature. Her first appearance in
the story is delayed because she puts so much time and effort into her physical
appearance (35). It is clear that she is overly concerned with how she looks. In fact,
when the Prince is about to leave her, she encourages him to go quickly, because
she does not want him to see her cry (41). For the flower, it’s not how you feel, but
how you look! Furthermore, the flower is far from humble. When the Prince
compliments her on her beauty, she replies, “Am I not?” (36) Even the Little Prince,
“had to admit that she was not excessively modest” (36). Thus, we must also
conclude that the flower, though charming, is vain, self-obsessed, and conceited.
Label the following parts of the paragraph:
argumentation (thinking & inquiry)
claim
C
support
S
discussion
D
relates
the main point of the paragraph
direct & indirect evidence from the text that supports the claim
explanations that : develop the claim, or show how the support
to the claim
direct references
indirect references
DR
IR
organization (communication)
topic sentence
concluding sentence
transition words
TS
CS
trans
(words that help connect one sentence to
another)
Write your own paragraph to make an assertion about the character you have been
studying in Their Eyes Were Watching God, using the evidence you have gathered
from the text in the preceding exercises.
Your paragraph will be marked using the following rubric:
A Literary Argumentative Paragraph
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literary conventions
quotations properly contextualized &
documented
argumentation
claim, support, discussion
quotations contextualized so they make
sense
insightful choice of support
appropriate use of direct vs. indirect
references
all ideas in this paragraph relevant to
topic
Organization
strand : reading & lit
category : knowledge &
understanding
mark = level =
strand : reading & lit
category: thinking/inquiry
mark =
level =
strand: writing
category: communication
indentation
effective topic & concluding sentence
accurate use of transitions
quotations contextualized so as to clearly
communicate context
clear & effective use of formal language
to communicate ideas
mechanics
grammar
spelling
mark =
level =
strand : language
category : application
mark =
level =
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An Essay is like a Journey
from: http://www.calstatela.edu/centers/write_cn/journey.htm
Introduction
Your introduction is like a signpost at the beginning of a trail. It tells readers where
you are going to take them, and what they will see along the way.
As you think about your introduction, ask yourself:
 What is my main idea or thesis?
 Who are my readers?
 Why is my idea important here and now?
Body
The body of the essay moves the reader along toward the destination or goal. It
might have one paragraph, but usually it has several. Each paragraph is related to
one of the points you want to show the readers along the way. Some points may
take more than one paragraph to develop completely. There should be connections
and transitions between the points you show the reader.
As you think about the body of your paper, ask yourself:
 What points do I want to make to help my readers understand my idea?
 What examples can I use to help the reader understand each point?
 What evidence do I have that each point is true?
 How can I keep the reader interested in following my ideas?
Conclusion
The conclusion is the end of the journey. It looks back on the points you have shown
the reader, and reinforces the main idea. It also should create a feeling of ending, a
farewell to the reader.
As you think about your conclusion, ask yourself:
 How has the reader's mind been changed by following my points and
examples?
 If we continued this journey, where would we go next?
 If the reader ignores the points you have made, what might happen?
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
Introduction
The introduction has a number of jobs to perform.

First, you need to get your reader's attention.
There are a number of ways you can go about doing this.
A direct statement of fact:
"I underwent, during the summer I became fourteen, a profound religious crisis." -James Baldwin, "Letter from a Region in My Mind."
A statement intended to startle the reader with its bluntness or frankness:
"Lie detectors lie." --Jonathan Kwitney, "The Dirty Little Secret of Lie Detectors."
A question or series of questions
"How does the mind work? To answer that question we must look at some of the
work performed by the mind." --Noam Chomsky, "Language and the Mind."
An authentic illustrative anecdote:
"Someone said recently to an old black lady from Mississippi, whose legs had been
badly mangled by local police who arrested her for 'disturbing the peace,' that the
civil rights movement was dead, and asked, since it was dead what she thought
about it. The old lady replied, hobbling out of his presence on her cane, that the civil
rights movement was like herself, 'if it's dead it shore ain't ready to lay down!'" -Alice Walker, "The Civil Rights Movement: What Good Was It?"

Second, you need to introduce the general topic of your essay. In a
literary essay, the introduction will inform the reader which text is being explored.

And finally, you need to finish your introduction with your thesis
statement and a direct mention of the claims you will be making in support
of that thesis. These claims should appear in the order in which they will appear in
your essay. Think of it like a sneak preview, or a movie trailer.
Things NOT to do in an introductory paragraph
from http://webster.commnet.edu/grammar/intros.htm
 Apologize.
Never suggest that you don't know what you're talking about or that you're not
enough of an expert in this matter that your opinion would matter. Your reader
will quickly turn to something else. Avoid phrases like the following:
In my [humble] opinion . . .
I'm not sure about this, but . . .
 Announce your intentions.
Do not flatly announce what you are about to do in an essay.
In this paper I will . . .
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The purpose of this essay is to . . .
Get into the topic and let your reader perceive your purpose in the topic sentence
of your beginning paragraph.
 Use a dictionary or encyclopedia definition.
According to Merriam-Webster's WWWebster Dictionary,
a widget is . . .
Although definitions are extremely useful and it might serve your purpose to
devise your own definition(s) later in the essay, you want to avoid using this
hackneyed beginning to an essay.
 Dilly-dally.
Get to it. Move confidently into your essay. Many writers find it useful to write a
warm-up paragraph (or two, even) to get them into the essay, to sharpen their
own idea of what they'up to, and then they go back and delete the running start.
sample introduction:
When I was eleven years-old, I made a shocking discovery. My
mother had sent me to school with a very important task, a task that I
had completely forgotten to perform. In the inquisition that followed,
my mother, in exasperation, asked me, “What on earth do you think
about all day?” I do not remember what I told her. I do remember that
on that particular day, I had been day-dreaming about the boy with
the dark brown eyes and hair who sat across from me. I also will never
forget what she told me next. “Do you know what I think about all
day?” she asked. “I think about all of the things I have to do for that
day.” Horrified, I thought, “So this is what it means to be a grown-up.”
In The Little Prince, by Antoine De St. Exupery, another young child
learns a similar lesson. He learns that grown-ups and children have
very different views regarding what are “matters of consequence.” In
fact, he discovers that while grown-ups put great value on material
and external things, children value that which cannot be seen or
measured. Grown-ups care only for what lasts, whereas children will
love more ephemeral beauties. Grown-ups will sacrifice beauty and
meaning in order to save time. In other words, The Little Prince
suggests that to grow old is to forget what is truly important.
Evaluate the introductory paragraph above using the following checklist:
Introduction checklist:
1) does my introduction grab the attention of my reader? is it interesting?
2) does my introduction introduce the general topic of my essay?
3) does my introduction mention the literary work I am writing about?
4) If I'm writing about a novel or long play, have I underlined the title of the work?
If I’m writing about a short story of poem, have I put quotation marks around the
titles?
5) does my introduction conclude with a statement of my thesis?
6) is this thesis statement followed by a mention of the claims of my essay?
7) are these claims stated in the order in which they appear in my essay?
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The Body
Argumentative paragraphs : where the claims live
Your argumentative paragraphs are the meat of this literary sandwich. (or soyabased protein, for all the vegetarians in the house.)
They have two jobs: to provide evidence for your claims or arguments, and to
show how these claims do, in fact, support your thesis.
Here's a basic structure for these paragraphs:
topic sentence
support & discussion
concluding sentence
First: Topic sentence- make your claim
This sentence has two very important jobs

1) It mentions the main point of the paragraph. The main point of the
paragraph will be one of the claims of your essay.

2) It relates that claim back to the thesis of the essay.
Think of these topic sentences as being a thread that you use to tie together the
various paragraphs of your essay.
example
for an essay whose thesis is:
“Contrary to his own belief, Huckleberry Finn is the most civilized person in the
novel, because the true definition of a civil person is one who is compassionate, just,
and orderly. “
one might find the following topic sentence:
Huckleberry Finn shows himself to be civilized through his many acts of selfless
compassion.
Next: support and discussion
This topic sentence must then be followed by support from the novel, a mixture of
direct quotations and indirect references. Each of these should be discussed so that
the reader can see how they do, in fact, support the claims you are making.
A good pattern to follow looks something like this:
claim
support
discussion
More thread:
Transition words help us move from one set of the claim-support-discussion pattern
to another. They help to guide your reader down the winding path of your essay.
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Transitions:
To Add:
and, again, and then, besides, equally important, finally, further, furthermore,
too, next, lastly, what's more, moreover, in addition, first (second, etc.),
nor,
To Compare:
whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, however, nevertheless, on the other hand,
on the contrary, by comparison, where, compared to, up against, balanced against,
vis a vis, but, although, conversely, meanwhile, after all, in contrast, although this
may be true
To Prove:
because, for, since, for the same reason, obviously, evidently, furthermore,
moreover, besides, indeed, in fact, in addition, in any case, that is
To Show Exception:
yet, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of, despite, of course, once in
sometimes
a while,
To Show Time:
immediately, thereafter, soon, after a few hours, finally, then, later, previously,
formerly, first (second, etc.), next, and then
To Repeat:
in brief, as I have said, as I have noted, as has been noted,
To Emphasize:
definitely, extremely, obviously, in fact, indeed, in any case, absolutely, positively,
naturally, surprisingly, always, forever, perennially, eternally, never, emphatically,
unquestionably, without a doubt, certainly, undeniably, without reservation
To Show Sequence:
first, second, third, and so forth. A, B, C, and so forth. next, then, following this, at
this time, now, at this point, after, afterward, subsequently, finally, consequently,
previously, before this, simultaneously, concurrently, thus, therefore, hence, next,
and then, soon
To Give an Example:
for example, for instance, in this case, in another case, on this occasion, in this
situation, take the case of, to demonstrate, to illustrate, as an illustration, to
illustrate
To Summarize or Conclude:
in brief, on the whole, summing up, to conclude, in conclusion, hence, therefore,
accordingly, thus, as a result, consequently, on the whole,
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Finally: Concluding sentence
Well, you told them what you were going to tell them. You told them. Now you need
to tell them what you already told them. Wrap it up. Summarize. Remind your
reader again how this all relates to your over all thesis.
Argumentative paragraph checklist:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
do I have a topic sentence?
does my topic sentence introduce the main point of the paragraph?
does my topic sentence refer back to my thesis?
Do I have two to three sub-claims to support the main claim of my paragraph?
Do I support each one of these with direct and indirect references to the text?
Have I discussed each support statement, showing how it proves the claim?
Have I used transition words to tie it together?
Do I have a concluding sentence?
Does it relate the main argument of the paragraph back to the thesis?
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Putting it all together:
Read the following paragraph:
The flower, in The Little Prince is a very vain creature. Her first appearance in
the story is delayed because she puts so much time and effort into her physical
appearance (35). It is clear that she is overly concerned with how she looks. In fact,
when the Prince is about to leave her, she encourages him to go quickly, because
she does not want him to see her cry (41). For the flower, it’s not how you feel, but
how you look! Furthermore, the flower is far from humble. When the Prince
compliments her on her beauty, she replies, “Am I not?” (36) Even the Little Prince,
“had to admit that she was not excessively modest” (36). Thus, we must also
conclude that the flower, though charming, is vain, self-obsessed, and conceited.
Label the following parts of the paragraph:
argumentation (thinking & inquiry)
claim
C
support
S
discussion
D
relates
the main point of the paragraph
direct & indirect evidence from the text that supports the claim
explanations that : develop the claim, or show how the support
to the claim
direct references
indirect references
DR
IR
organization (communication)
topic sentence
concluding sentence
transition words
another
TS
CS
trans
words that help connect one sentence to
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And finally... The Conclusion
The conclusion does the very opposite of the introduction.
You start with a statement of the thesis, mention the claims in the REVERSE
order (3,2,1) in which they appear in the essay, and then expand to a more
general statement. You should, in your conclusion, give your reader a sense of
why they should care about the ideas in your essay. This is what I call the “so what”
factor. Be confident! Even if you don't think that what you're saying is important,
fake it! Say to yourself, the world MUST hear me!
Conclusion checklist:
1) does my conclusion restate my thesis?
2) does my conclusion state my claims in the reverse order in which they appear
in my essay?
3) does my conclusion expand to a more general statement?
4) have I considered the “so what” factor?
Just as an introduction can be viewed as a contract between you and your reader, a
conclusion reassures your reader that you have fulfilled your contract. Your closing
paragraph should leave your reader with a sense of completion-with the feeling that
you have done what you intended to do and have finished what you had to say.
from Harris, Jeanette and Ann Moseley. "Conclusion: Re-Emphasis of Thesis."
CONTEXTS: WRITING AND READING. 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1989. 169171.
Several different types of conclusions accomplish this purpose:
1. Restatement of main idea. The main idea may be re-emphasized or reinforced
If you choose this type of conclusion; however' be sure not to merely repeat your
thesis. You not only should vary the wording so that your conclusion is not too
similar to your introduction but should also try to get beyond your thesis
statement-to express an appropriate conclusion and to give your reader a sense of
closure.
2. General impression. If your essay is basically a description of an experience or
of some person, place, or thing, an effective conclusion might consist of a statement
of the dominant impression you have attempted to convey. For example, if your
essay about your high school is largely a description of what occurred to you when
you were there, you might conclude with what you remember most clearly about
the whole experience.
3. Evaluation. An essay may also conclude with a judgment based on the
information presented. For example, you might end an essay on your high school by
evaluating whether the experience was essentially negative or positive.
4. Recommendation. An essay can be concluded with a suggestion for some action
the writer feels should be taken. This type of conclusion is especially appropriate if
the main idea is a controversial statement or one that is persuasive in nature. For
example, you might conclude your essay about your high school's discipline
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problems by recommending that a new administration be hired or a new school
board be elected.
5. Prediction. Even though a conclusion is the final part of an essay, it can be used
to make a prediction on the basis of the major points made in the essay. This
prediction should be closely related to the content of the essay, giving a reasonable
explanation of what may happen. For example, you might predict in the conclusion
to your essay about your high school's problems that the school will be closed down
in the near future.
Regardless of the type of conclusion you choose for your essay, the conclusion
should re-emphasize your thesis. It should also be a clear signal to your reader that
you have completed what you had to say. Following are some suggestions that will
be helpful to you in writing conclusions.
SUGGESTIONS FOR WRITING EFFECTIVE CONCLUSIONS
1. Do not contradict the point you have made.
2. Do not introduce a new topic or new information.
3. Do not conclude with a cliché ("You can't teach an old dog new tricks" ).
4. Do not apologize for lack of knowledge, ability, or resources.
5. Do not use obvious transition words or phrases such as in conclusion, in
summary, and as I have attempted to show. You may, however, use less obvious
transition words, such as therefore, finally, and consequently.
6. Do make your conclusion brief and to the point.
7. Do make the tone (serious, humorous, clever, straightforward, etc.) consistent
with the overall tone of your essay.
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The Literary Essay- Format
The Title Page
A title page for a formal essay should be simple and unadorned. That means no cute
pictures downloaded from the computer. No fancy fonts. No larger-than life fonts.
Keep it plain and simple. You will not impress anybody by making your title page all
pretty and decorated. You will give the impression that you don't know what you're
doing, and your instructor will think you are somewhat of a dweeb. It would be like
showing up at a hip hop show wearing a formal dress from the 80's with big poofy
sleeves. Yes, you would get attention, but not the kind you want.
But Miss! Aren't you always encouraging us to be creative?
Yes! And I want your essays to be creative. But put your creative energies towards
interesting uses of language and original ideas. That is, after all, the point here.
So, now that I've told you what NOT to do, here's what you should do:
In 12 or 14 pt. font, about half-way down the page, write the title of your essay.
This should be centered.
Go down to about 5/8's of the way down the page, and in the RIGHT-Hand corner,
write:
your name
the name of the course
your instructor's name
the date (the date on which you submit the essay)

Whether you type or hand-write your essay, you must double space your
essay.

Use 12 or 14 point font. Use a plain font such as Times New Roman, or Arial
or Verdana. Remember, you want the instructor to notice your words, not
your fancy fonts. If you use fancy fonts, your instructor might get suspicious
that you are trying to hide the fact that you do not have anything to say.

ALL paragraphs MUST be indented. I know some of you have been told you
do not need to do this. This is a convention from business writing. For English
essays, you MUST indent.

Titles of novels, full-length books, and full length plays must be
UNDERLINED! Titles of short stories, essays, and poems must be put in
quotation marks.
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Stick to your Vision:
a study of the role of gaze in
One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest
Snidely Whiplash
Ms. Parrish
ENG T42
February 31, 1789
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Works Cited
Last name of Author, First name of Author.
Publisher, Year of Publication.
Title of Book.
Place of Publication:
Last name of Author, First name of Author. “Title of Short Story.” Title of Collection.
Ed. First name, Last Name of Editors. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of
Publication.
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Tone: it’s all about attitude.
The formal literary essay is, as you might guess from its name, a piece of
formal writing. That means you need to use formal language when you are writing.
Some pitfalls to avoid:
Contractions:
In formal writing, one doesn’t use contractions. INCORRECT
In formal writing, one does not use contractions. CORRECT
Slang, colloquial expressions
Remember your purpose and your audience. You are writing to your teacher, not
chillaxin’ with yer homies. ‘nuff said.
Personal Pronouns:
Some teachers and some professors absolutely forbid the use of the personal
pronoun “I” in formal writing. The reason for this restriction is that although an essay
is acknowledged to be an assertion of a personal opinion, an essay writer, as she
presents her argument, should also assert its basis in objectivity- that is, the essay
is meant to be an argument based on facts and reason, and as such, more than an
unsubstantiated bias or viewpoint, but as close to objective truth as one gets when
one is making interpretive claims. So one does not write, “I believe that paper clips
are superior.” One writes, “Paperclips are superior.” Amen!
Recently, however, we have come to realize that even the most objective truth
is somewhat subjective. We have begun to talk about truth(s), and have begun to
value the personal, subjective experience and its relationship to these truth(s). For
this reason, the use of “I” and “you” has increasingly been allowed in formal writing.
What should you do? Check with your teacher. I, personally, welcome the use
of the personal pronoun, so long as you avoid the phrase “In my opinion,” which is
just redundant and silly, because I know it’s your opinion. Other teachers differ.
Incidentally, if you do come across a teacher or prof who forbids the use of “I,” don’t
try to get into a debate with them over the non-existence of objective truth. If
they’re still clinging to that old notion, they will be doing so on the basis that their
truth IS THE truth, and you won’t get very far. It’s like trying to debate with a wall.
Tone
It might not seem like it, but there still is room for emotion in a literary essay. You convey this
through your word choice, and not through excessive use of exclamation marks!!!! The tone you
adopt should be a delicate negotiation between your attitude towards your subject and your
audience (me). After all, you are still trying to persuade me of the validity of your position.
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Non-Sexist Language
(from the Purdue University Online Writing Lab
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_nonsex.html)
The National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) suggests the following guidelines:
Generic Use
Although MAN in its original sense carried the dual meaning of adult human and
adult male, its meaning has come to be so closely identified with adult male that the
generic use of MAN and other words with masculine markers should be avoided.
Examples
Alternatives
mankind
humanity, people, human beings
man's achievements
human achievements
man-made
synthetic, manufactured, machine-made
the common man
the average person, ordinary people
man the stockroom
staff the stockroom
nine man-hours
nine staff-hours
Pronouns
Because English has no generic singular--or common-sex--pronoun, we have used
HE, HIS, and HIM in such expressions as "the student needs HIS pencil." When we
constantly personify "the judge," "the critic," "the executive," "the author," and so
forth, as male by using the pronoun HE, we are subtly conditioning ourselves
against the idea of a female judge, critic, executive, or author. There are several
alternative approaches for ending the exclusion of women that results from the
pervasive use of masculine pronouns.
a. Recast into the plural .
Example
Give each student his paper as soon as he is finished.
Alternative
Give students their papers as soon as they are finished.
b. Reword to eliminate gender problems.
Example
The average student is worried about his grade.
Alternative
The average student is worried about grades.
c. Replace the masculine pronoun with
appropriate.
ONE, YOU, or (sparingly) HE OR SHE, as
Example
If the student was satisfied with his performance on the pretest, he took the posttest.
Alternative
A student who was satisfied with her or his performance on the pretest took the
post-test.
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d. Alternate male and female examples and expressions. (Be careful not to confuse the
reader.)
Example
Let each student participate. Has he had a chance to talk? Could he feel left out?
Alternative
Let each student participate. Has she had a chance to talk? Could he feel left out?
Indefinite Pronouns
Using the masculine pronouns to refer to an indefinite pronoun (everybody,
everyone, anybody, anyone) also has the effect of excluding women. In all but
strictly formal uses, plural pronouns have become acceptable substitutes for the
masculine singular.
Example
Anyone who wants to go to the game should bring his money tomorrow.
Alternative
Anyone who wants to go to the game should bring their money tomorrow.
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Citing Non-Print Sources (movies, television shows, websites, video
games, e-mail, etc)
The MLA in-text citation style is designed for 2 things: clarity and simplicity. You
want to give your reader a clear sense of what your source is without creating a lot
of gobbledy gook in the text of your essay. You save the gobbledy-gook for your
Works Cited page at the end of the essay.
The procedure for in-text citation of non-electronic sources follows the same basic
pattern: list the creator of the material (if this information has been made available)
followed by the place in the work you’re referencing, (if it can be identified.) But with
non-print sources, this information is complex and not always easy to figure out. This
table should help you.
In-text Citation
Creator
Location
Web Site
web site author (if
available)
N/A
if not available, use the
first main word of the
title, and put quotation
marks around it
(“Television”)
Movie
the director of the film
** unless you are working
with a published
screenplay, in which case,
treat it as a print source
(author, page number)
time code (the hours and
minutes into the film when
the even in question
occurred)
** unless you are working
with a published
screenplay, in which case,
treat it as a print source
(author, page number)
(Wachkowski, 00:53)
Television Show
(Series)
the creator of the series,
or the director or writer of
the episode are all
acceptable. I’d like you to
use the series creator.
the season number,
episode number, and
chapter title or time code
author or corporate author
if available
if not available, use the
title, underlined
N/A
(Whedon, 1.5, 0:15)
Video Games
(Insomniac Games)
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Works Cited
Advertisement
List the company, business, or organization; the publication, broadcast network, or
Web address where the advertisement appeared:
Lufthansa. Advertisement. Time 20 Nov. 2000: 151.
Staples. Advertisement. CBS. 3 Dec. 2000.
Television Shows
Put the name of the episode in quotation marks, and the name of the series or single
program underlined or in italics. Include the network, follwed by the station, city,
and date of broadcast.
"The Blessing Way." The X-Files. Fox. WXIA, Atlanta. 19 Jul. 1998.
Recorded Television Shows
Include information about original broadcast, plus medium of recording. When the
title of the collection of recordings is different than the original series (e.g., the show
Friends is in DVD release under the title Friends: The Complete Sixth Season), list
the title that would be help researchers located the recording.
"The One Where Chandler Can't Cry." Friends: The Complete Sixth Season. Writ.
Andrew Reich and Ted Cohen. Dir. Kevin Bright. NBC. 10 Feb. 2000. DVD. Warner
Brothers, 2004.
Entire Albums
List by name of group or artist (individual artists are listed last name first). Label
underlined or in italics, followed by label and year.
Foo Fighters. In Your Honor. RCA, 2005.
Waits, Tom. Blue Valentines. 1978. Elektra/Wea, 1990.
Individual Songs
Place the names of individual songs in quotation marks.
Nirvana. "Smells Like Teen Spirit." Nevermind. Geffen, 1991.
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Films and Movies
List films by their title, and include the name of the director, the film studio or
distributor and its release year. If other information, like names of performers, is
relevant to how the film is referred to in your paper, include that as well.
Movies in Theaters
The Usual Suspects. Dir. Bryan Singer. Perf. Kevin Spacey, Gabriel Byrne, Chazz
Palminteri, Stephen Baldwin, and Benecio del Toro. Polygram, 1995.
If you refer to the film in terms of the role or contribution of a director, writer, or
performer, begin the entry with that person's name, last name first, followed by role.
Lucas, George, dir. Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope. 1977. Twentieth Century
Fox, 1997.
Recorded Movies
Include format names; "Videocassette" for VHS or Betamax, DVD for Digital Video
Disc. Also list original release year after director, performers, etc.
Ed Wood. Dir. Tim Burton. Perf. Johnny Depp, Martin Landau, Sarah Jessica Parker,
Patricia Arquette. 1994. DVD. Touchstone, 2004.
Video Games
Cite the name of the author or corporate author (if available); the title of the
software program, in italics; the version number (if applicable and if not included in
the software title); and the publication information, including the date of publication
(if known).
ID Software. The Ultimate Doom.
New York: GT Interactive Software, 1995.
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