Charting, Project, Argument, Claims, Evidence &
Strategies - With Examples from Rifkin
Melissa Watson & DRWS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Charting a Text
2
Example of Charting: Rifkin’s “A Change of Heart about Animals”
3
Describing Author’s Project & Argument + examples from Rifkin
7
Identifying Claims
10
Supporting Claims with Evidence
11
Rhetorical Strategies
13
Charting a Text
Charting1 involves annotating a text in order to show the “work” each paragraph,
group of paragraphs, or section is doing. Charting helps identify what each part
of the text is doing as well as what it is saying—helping us move away from
summary to analysis. There are two strategies for charting that we’ll look at:
macro-charting and micro-charting.
MACRO-CHARTING
How do we do macro-charting?
• Break text down into sections--identify “chunks” or parts of the text
that seem to work together to DO something for the overall
argument.
• Draw lines between sections and label each one, annotating them
with “doing” verbs: providing context, making a claim,
supporting a claim, rebutting counter argument, illustrating with
personal anecdote, describing the issue, etc.
Why do we do macro-charting?
• Macro-charting helps with understanding structure of argument, as
well as locating claims, supporting evidence, and main argument.
• Macro-charting guides students toward identifying relationships
between ideas.
• Macro-charting brings awareness that behind every sentence there
is an author with intent who makes rhetorical choices to achieve
his/her aims.
MICRO-CHARTING
How do we do micro-charting?
• Break down sections of text by paragraph to analyze what each
paragraph is doing for the overall argument.
• Detail the smaller “moves” and strategies made within paragraphs:
note when, where, and how and author makes a claim, cites
evidence, and/or supports his/argument using a rhetorical strategy.
Why do we do micro-charting?
• Micro-charting can serve as a way to thoroughly understand in a
detailed way how a text is put together.
• Micro-charting encourages readers to look more carefully and
closely at a text and helps us to focus our reading on tasks asked for
in prompts.
• Micro-charting brings awareness of the specific rhetorical choices
made throughout a text (addressing particular audiences by making
deliberate moves).
1
Adapted from work by Micah Jendian and Katie Hughes
Example of Charting: Rifkin’s “A Change of Heart about
Animals”
Micr
Macro-Charting
Paragraphs 1-3
introduce the
background
and scope of
the topic, state
the main claim,
and present the
main source of
evidence that
will be used to
support the
claim.
Paragraphs 414 work to
support the
author’s claim
with evidence.
Paragraphs 4-5
deliver the first
set of evidence:
research and
policies based
on findings that
pigs need
social attention
(from humans
or other pigs)
to maintain
mental and
physical health.
1
Though much of big science has centered on breakthroughs in
biotechnology, nanotechnology and more esoteric questions
like the age of our universe, a quieter story has been unfolding
behind the scenes in laboratories around the world – one whose
effect on human perception and our understanding of life is
likely to be profound.
2
What these researchers are finding is that many of our fellow
creatures are more like us than we had ever imagined….and
these findings are changing how we view animals.
3
Strangely enough, some of the research sponsors are fast food
purveyors, such as McDonald’s, Burger King and KFC.
Pressured by animal rights activists and by growing public
support for the humane treatment of animals, these companies
have financed research into, among other things, the emotional,
mental and behavioral states of our fellow creatures.
4
Studies on pigs’ social behavior funded by McDonald’s at
Purdue University, for example, have found that they crave
affection and are easily depressed if isolated or denied playtime
with each other. The lack of mental and physical stimuli can
result in deterioration of health.
5
The European Union has taken such studies to heart and
outlawed the use of isolating pig stalls by 2012. In Germany,
the government is encouraging pig farmers to give each pig 20
seconds of human contact each day and to provide them with
toys to prevent them from fighting.
6-8 enhance
examples in
par. 4-5 (on
social
behavior) by
providing
additional
evidence
focusing on
linguistic and
cognitive
abilities in
animals.
In 9-14 Rifkin
acknowledges and
rebuts common
objections to the
idea that there are
key similarities
between humans
and animals.
Rifkin rejects the
idea that language,
self-awareness,
emotion, play, and
the ability to pass
on knowledge via
teaching are the
sole possession of
humans, and
provides further
support for his
main claims.
6
Other funding sources have fueled the growing field of study
into animal emotions and cognitive abilities.
7
Researchers were stunned recently by findings (published in
the journal Science) on the conceptual abilities of New
Caledonian crows. In controlled experiments, scientists at
Oxford University reported that two birds named Betty and
Abel were given a choice between using two tools, one a
straight wire, the other a hooked wire, to snag a piece of meat
from inside a tube. Both chose the hooked wire. Abel, the
more dominant male, then stole Betty’s hook, leaving her with
only a straight wire. Betty then used her beak to wedge the
straight wire nine of out of 10 times.
8
Equally impressive is Koko, the 300-pound gorilla at the
Gorilla Foundation in Northern California, who was taught
sign language and has mastered more than 1,000 signs and
understands several thousand English words. On human IQ
tests, she scores between 70 and 95.
9
Tool-making and the development of sophisticated language
skills are just two of the many attributes we thought were
exclusive to our species. Self-awareness is another.
10 Some philosophers and animal behaviorists have long argued
that other animals are not capable of self-awareness because
they lack a sense of individualism. Not so, according to new
studies. At the Washington National Zoo, orangutans given
mirrors explore parts of their bodies they can’t otherwise see,
showing a sense of self. An orangutan named Chantek who
lives at the Atlanta Zoo used a mirror to groom his teeth and
adjust his sunglasses.
11 Of course, when it comes to the ultimate test of what
distinguishes humans from the other creatures, scientists have
long believed that mourning for the dead represents the real
divide. It’s commonly believed that other animals have no
sense of mortality and are unable to comprehend the concept of
their own death. Not necessarily so. Animals, it appears,
experience grief. Elephants will often stand next to their dead
kin for days, occasionally touching their bodies with their
trunks.
12 We also know that animals play, especially when young.
Recent studies in the brain chemistry of rats show that when
they play, their brains release large amounts of dopamine, a
neurochemical associated with pleasure and excitement in
human beings.
13 Noting the striking similarities in brain anatomy and chemistry
of humans and other animals, Stephen M. Siviy, a behavioral
scientist at Gettysburg College in Pennsylvania, asks a question
increasingly on the minds of other researchers. “If you believe
in evolution by natural selection, how can you believe that
feelings suddenly appeared, out of the blue, with human
beings?”
14 Until very recently, scientists were still advancing the idea that
most creatures behaved by sheer instinct and that what
appeared to be learned behavior was merely genetically wired
activity. Now we know that geese have to teach their goslings
their migration routes. In fact, we are finding that learning is
passed on from parent to offspring far more often than not and
that most animals engage in all kinds of learned experience
brought on by continued experimentation.
In par. 15-17 the
author presents an
implicit critique of
current treatment
of animals and
concludes by
questioning what
should be done in
light of recent
findings. He
suggests a possible
future that links
better treatment of
animals with past
moments of human
progress and
political/ethical
reforms.
15 So what does all of this portend for the way we treat our fellow
creatures? And for the thousands of animals subjected each
year to painful laboratory experiments? Or the millions of
domestic animals raised under the most inhumane conditions
and destined for slaughter and human consumption? Should
we discourage the sale and purchase of fur coats? What about
fox hunting in the English countryside, bull fighting in Spain?
Should wild lions be caged in zoos?
16 Such questions are being raised. Harvard and 25 other U.S.
law schools have introduced law courses on animal rights, and
an increasing number of animal rights lawsuits are being filed.
Germany recently became the first nation to guarantee animal
rights in its constitution.
17 The human journey is, at its core, about the extension of
empathy to broader and more inclusive domains. At first, the
empathy extended only to kin and tribe. Eventually it was
extended to people of like-minded values. In the 19th century,
the first animal humane societies were established. The current
studies open up a new phase, allowing us to expand and deepen
our empathy to include the broader community of creatures
with whom we share the Earth.
Describing an Author’s Project & Argument + examples from
Rifkin
PROJECT: As previously explained an author’s “project” is the main goal of the author in
writing the text as well as the overall activity that the writer is engaged in as s/he works to
construct the argument. Therefore, we want to know what’s an author’s larger motivation for
writing, why is s/he motivated to write, and how does s/he accomplish his/her goal in writing
the text. Because this term is so challenging, let’s look at the term “project” as having a double
purpose: 1.) explaining the main motivation and reason of the author in writing the text; and 2.)
describing the main method the author goes about to achieve that goal. Often times, you can
write one or more sentences explaining the author’s project using the following construction:
[Author A] [VERB] [WHAT & WHY] by [HOW].
Example:
Peterson investigates the causes of smoking to illustrate the effects advertising has on this
phenomenon by providing interviews and anecdotes of smokers diagnosed with lung cancer.
Explaining the main motivation and purpose in writing the text:
The first mistake many students make when considering the purpose of an author is to assume
the author’s main goal is to persuade or convince. While authors might write a text to help
persuade readers of a certain idea, think beyond this first purpose. Consider what the author
hopes to achieve in society/academia if readers are in fact persuaded. This kind of “greater”
purpose is rarely mentioned explicitly and readers must infer this information.
Let’s take Rifkin’s article into consideration. You could easily say Rifkin’s goal is to persuade
readers of his argument. What’s harder is to imagine why Rifkin wants to convince us this in
the first place. Why would Rifkin want us to have “a change of heart about animals”? What’s
his larger motivation and why? To explain this, we’ll need at least one strong verb, like one
from the “I know what it says, but what does it do?” sheet. Consider the following possibilities
as being Rifkin’s motivation and purpose in writing. Notice that various verbs would work.
a) Rifkin challenges/questions/rebuts/examines/investigates previously held beliefs about
animals in order to call attention to the way humans perceive and treat these creatures.
b) Rifkin illustrates/demonstrates/reveals/exemplifies how animals appear more similar
to humans socially, cognitively, and emotionally than previously believed in hopes of
inspiring social advancement in respect to human/animal interactions.
Both of the above descriptions of Rifkin’s project work, and countless others would likely be
acceptable as well. While accuracy in analysis is important, the description of an author’s
project can vary significantly depending on the student’s reading of the text.
Describing the main method for going about achieving the author’s goal:
Describing how the author achieves his/goal goal is usually less challenging. Consider what
kind of work the author is doing in order to construct and support his ambitions. Is s/he
investigating something? Contradicting something? Comparing something? Does the author
use a major strategy to appeal (logos, pathos, ethos) to the audience? Does the author base his
claims on a particular kind of evidence? Is there any other pattern to his/her approach?
Let’s look again at Rifkin’s article. Does he have a main strategy for obtaining his goal?
Consider the following possibilities as being a general description of Rifkin’s overall approach
to constructing and supporting his argument.
a) Rifkin accomplishes this goal by citing numerous examples of research conducted on
the social and cognitive behaviors of animals showing that animals share similarities
with humans.
b) Rifkin appeals to his readers emotionally through powerful examples of research
suggesting that animals can acquire language, use tools, exhibit self-awareness,
anticipate death, and pass on knowledge from one generation to the next.
Combined, we have the author’s project:
Rifkin challenges previously held beliefs about animals in order to call attention to the
way humans perceive and treat these creatures. He appeals to his readers emotionally
through powerful examples of research suggesting that animals can acquire language, use
tools, exhibit self-awareness, anticipate death, and pass on knowledge from one
generation to the next.
ARGUMENT: In contrast to the “project” (showing the purpose and overall strategy of an
author), the “argument” in an argumentative text is the main point, assertion and/or conclusion
advanced by an author. Arguments are designed to persuade an audience or bring about some
change in view/attitude/action. Through their arguments, authors often take a position (arguing
for readers to take a stand and/or choose the author’s side) or propose something (arguing that
change is need, that there is a problem/solution, and/or that action should take place). This an
identifiable main claim usually occurs near the start or end of the text, but can occur anywhere or
not explicitly anywhere at all. Therefore, an argument is either explicit (obvious or clearly
stated) or implicit (less obvious or must be inferred by the reader).
Describing the main argument is NOT the same as describing what a text is “about.” Instead, this
usually consists of explaining an author’s main claim and the reasons s/he has for this claim. If
the argument is not explicitly stated (and even if it is), sometimes it is easier to try and state the
author’s main claim in your own words. Try using the following construction:
According to [AUTHOR], [PERSON, GROUP, THING, ETC.] should [WHAT].
S/he reasons that [WHAT].
Example:
According to Peterson, government officials and society in general should be aware of media
influences when smokers are coping with addiction and when officials are creating censorship
laws. He reasons that critical awareness of such influences is crucial to successful regulation of
tobacco companies according to his numerous interviews with addicts.
Thus, it is beneficial to view an argument as being supported by reasons when attempting to
describe an author’s argument in a written analysis. More on supporting an argument will be
discussed in the sections of this handout covering claims and evidence.
For now, let’s look at Rifkin’s text and the argument he presents. Does he take a position or
propose something? Is the argument explicit or implicit? According to Rifkin, who should do
what? Why should they do it? What reasons does he have? Consider the following possibilities
as being descriptions of Rifkin’s argument.
a) Rifkin implicitly proposes that humans should reconsider their treatment of animals. He
reasons that because research suggests animals are more like us than we assumed, we
should treat them better.
b) Rifkin argues that new research calls into question many of the boundaries commonly
thought to exist between humans and other animals, and as a consequence, Rifkin
rationalizes that humans should expand their empathy, implying that the U.S. is heading
towards treating animals differently.
c) Rifkin addresses the topic of Animal Rights and behavior and contends that animals
should be treated and viewed with more respect since research suggests each individual
animal is so closely related to us humans.
Notice the verbs used to describe the author’s argument: proposes, argues, contends, reasons,
rationalizes, suggests. Notice the subtle ways to signal the author’s reasons using because, ‘as a
consequence,’ since.
So here’s the project and argument put together. Although the project and argument can often be
stated in one or two sentence, often times multiple sentences are required to express these
complex terms for analysis. This lengthy description explains in depth the author’s motivation
behind writing the argument, the main strategy for constructing the argument, the main claim
(argument) made, and an overview of the main reason behind that claim.
Rifkin challenges previously held beliefs about animals in order to call attention to the
way humans perceive and treat these creatures. He appeals to his readers emotionally
through powerful examples of research suggesting that animals can acquire language,
use tools, exhibit self-awareness, anticipate death, and pass on knowledge from one
generation to the next. Rifkin argues that this research calls into question many of the
boundaries commonly thought to exist between humans and other animals, and as a
consequence, Rifkin rationalizes that humans should expand their empathy, implying that
the U.S. is heading towards treating animals differently.
Identifying Claims
CLAIMS: Claims are statements the author wants the audience to believe. They usually consist
of an assertion, the staking out of a position, the solution to a problem, or the resolution of some
shortcoming, weakness or gap in existing research. Claims are often accompanied by
metacommentary signaling various things: self-identification (“my point here is that…”),
emphasis (“It must be stressed that…”), approval (“Olson makes an important contribution to the
field”) or a problem/solution framework. As already explained, describing an author’s argument
means either identifying or inferring the single main claim found within an argumentative text.
However, authors often present numerous claims in their texts, which are sometimes called subclaims. Claims, like an author’s argument, can be explicit or implicit. Before examining some
claims found in Rifkin’s text, let’s look at some of the different ways claims can be categorized.
Types of Claims
a) Claims of fact or cause are statements made by an author that assert something is true,
false, likely or not likely according to science, logic, probability, or causation.
i.
Research shows that second hand smoke is detrimental to your health.
ii.
Smokers with cancer likely regret ever starting to smoke.
iii.
Chances are the new taxes on smoking will inspire more people to quit.
b) Claims of value are statements made by an author that assert something is wrong or right,
good or bad according to moral beliefs, ethics, or opinion.
i.
Buying cigarettes for underage teens is absolutely wrong.
ii.
It is good manners to smoke outside and away from children.
iii.
Smoking is a worse habit than lying.
c) Claims of policy are statements made by an author that assert something should or should
not be done according to future/current law or the well-being of a person.
i.
Nevada should adopt a law making it illegal to smoke indoors.
ii.
Smokers should find a way to get their addiction to subside.
Practice: In regards to Rifkin’s text, answer the following questions about the statements listed
below: Is this a claim? If so, what type of claim is it? Is it a main claim or a sub-claim? Is it
explicitly or implicitly expressed in the text? The answers to these questions are debatable.
a) The research suggesting animals share certain traits with humans will have a
“profound” effect on the way humans perceive and treat these animals.
b) Germany is encouraging farmers to give pigs some minimal social attention.
c) Orangutans have self-awareness and elephants mourn for their dead.
d) It is wrong to keep animals under inhumane conditions.
e) Bullfighting and foxhunting are cruel practices.
f) Humans should “expand and deepen [their] empathy” towards animals.
Supporting Claims with Evidence
EVIDENCE: Evidence is used as support for claims. Evidence can come in the form of a reason
or as information/data given to support a claim. To identify evidence in an argument, ask why
the claim can be made. On what grounds does the author make his/her claims? What proof is
provided to support the argument?
Principles for Using Evidence:
Authors will usually attempt to use evidence in a way that would be considered persuasive by
their audience. Authors want readers to trust their sources, but sometimes evidence can fail to
meet the expectations of readers. Once evidence is identified, it’s important to evaluate the
kinds of evidence provided by an author by asking important questions like the following:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Does the evidence come from a reliable source?
Is there a sufficient amount of evidence?
Is the evidence accurate and up-to-date?
Is the evidence relevant to the claim?
Would the intended audience likely find the evidence persuasive?
Types of Evidence:
Reasons and Reasoning:
Often times, authors support claims with a reasoned sequence of ideas rather than using hard
data. Reasoning is a logical approach to argumentation, one that works to guide readers to a
particular conclusion without necessarily naming examples. Usually reasoning is further
supported by additional, more concrete evidence; however, this isn’t always the case.
Reasons can commonly be seen as claims or facts just as it is common for some claims to be
reasons explaining other claims. Reasons are often signaled with words like since or
because. Consider this construction of a claim including the reason. Notice that the reason
must support the claim.
Smoking in public should be banned because it is harmful to everyone’s health.
Claim
Reason
As we can see from the above example, although the clause, “Smoking is harmful to
everyone’s health,” can be considered a claim or even a fact, we can also view it as a reason
because it directly supports the preceding claim.
Primary Evidence:
Primary evidence comes from field research which the author has conducted him- or herself.
These include research experiments, observations, interviews, surveys, and
questionnaires. Primary evidence also consists of anecdotes about the author’s personal
experience or firsthand accounts about the experience of someone the author is acquainted
with (as told by the author).
Secondary Evidence:
Secondary evidence comes from other sources, such as printed texts (like books or
newspapers), online resources, published research (from academic journals), published
interviews, public documents, or the media. Secondary evidence also consists of analogies
or hypothetical situations that the author creates (examples that are not necessarily cited
from any existing source). The following can be considered secondary evidence.
a) Facts & Statistics: Information and data generally accepted as being true. Facts can
come about from historical truths (The Civil Rights Movement instigated much social
change in the U.S.), common knowledge (California is highly susceptible to
earthquakes), policies (California law requires that there be no smoking inside
restaurants and bars) as well as data from published academic research (According
to the Census Bureau, there is a significant economic gap between the rich and the
poor). Statistics come in the form of percentages, tables, charts, and/or graphs and
are usually cited from research or organizations (42% of voters agree that smoking
should be made illegal).
b) Examples: Examples come in many forms. Some of these include historical
examples (This country saw similar acts of oppression during the Civil Rights
Movement…), comparisons (President Obama is similar to President Kennedy in the
following ways…), analogies (Smoking is like sitting in a car with a blocked exhaust
system…), and hypothetical scenarios (Imagine a child grows up seeing his parents
smoke everyday…).
c) Authorities: Authorities are organizations with credentials or experts whose work or
testimony support a claim. Expertise is usually based on the source’s knowledge,
skill, experience, training, professional standing, official position, or educational
background.
d) Anecdotes: Besides personal experiences of the author, evidence in the form of
anecdotes (stories) can also stem from other types of secondary sources. This can be
published testimony based on individuals’ personal experiences, research interviews,
or witness testimony.
Practice: In light of this explanation of evidence and in regards to Rifkin’s text, answer the
following questions about the evidence listed below: What type of evidence is being used?
Which claim does the evidence support? Finally, consider the “principles for using evidence.”
a) “Researchers were stunned recently by findings (published in the journal Science) on
the conceptual abilities of New Caledonian crows” (par. 7).
b) “Elephants will often stand next to their dead kin for days, occasionally
touching their bodies with their trunks” (par. 11).
c) “Stephen M. Siviy, a behavior scientist at Gettysburg College in Pennsylvania, asks a
question increasingly on the minds of other researchers” (par. 13).
d) “Harvard and 25 other U.S. law schools have introduced law courses on animal rights,
and an increasing number of animal rights lawsuits are being filed” (par. 16).
e) “At first, the empathy extended only to kin and tribe. Eventually it was
extended to people of like-minded values. In the 19th century, the first animal
humane societies were established” (par. 17).
Rhetorical Strategies
STRATEGIES: Writers often employ strategies (both consciously and subconsciously) in order
to help make their arguments more persuasive to their reader. When analyzing arguments, it’s
crucial to not only name what strategy is being employed, but to also adequately illustrate how
the strategy is used, and comment on why the author likely chose to use the strategy (usually
commenting on the desired effect on the intended audience). Strategies are often used to appeal
to readers logically (using logic, reasoning, numbers, explanations, and facts), ethically (making
“moves” to appear moral, likeable, trustworthy, and fair), and emotionally (using emotionallyloaded tones, terms, phrases, or examples). When reading some of the strategies authors use
below, consider what effect they have on readers. Do they have a logical appeal, an ethical
appeal, or an emotional appeal on readers? Then, see the following page to further understand
how the appeals work on an audience.
Some strategies authors employ when presenting claims:
a) Presenting claims as informed conclusions rather than personal opinion (presenting
claims authoritatively, often making claims through other authorities or research).
b) Using qualifiers (aka hedging: language or phrases that limit a claim) so that the claim
doesn’t appear general or absolute. If an author claims, “The Chargers will win the Super
Bowl,” he or she could appear too sure about the claim and unrealistic about other
possibilities. Adding a qualifier helps claims appear more reasonable: “The Charges will
likely win the Super Bowl.” Qualifying words: limiting time (often, usually, frequently,
sometimes, etc.), limiting conditions (may, might, could, should, probably, possibly,
virtually, etc.), limiting quality/quantity (more, less, harder, easier, seems, appears, etc.).
Some strategies authors employ when presenting evidence:
a) Providing a greater amount of evidence in support of the claim versus contrary evidence.
b) Providing commentary on preferred reader-interpretation of presented data.
c) Providing context to field research (who conducted the research, where, when, and how).
d) Providing imagery (vivid descriptions) that illustrates a particular point or example.
Some strategies authors employ when organizing the text:
a) Using subtitles, transitions, metacommentary, and/or summary to help guide readers.
b) Using repetition to enhance or highlight a concept or claim.
c) Developing content in a linear, fragmented, chronological, and/or theme-based fashion.
d) Putting contrary claims after claims that readers will find easier to accept.
e) Strategically placing the main claim in the beginning, middle, or end of an argument.
f) Putting contrary evidence after evidence that readers will find easier to accept.
g) Beginning or ending the argument in a non-traditional way (e.g. with an anecdote).
Other Strategies often employed by authors:
a) Acknowledging the strengths of the opposition’s argument.
b) Anticipating and addressing possible exceptions or objections to a claim.
c) Conceding (acknowledging) some of the claims made by the opposition and then
rebutting (counter arguing) those claims.
d) Using a tone or writing style to appeal to audiences by seeming trustworthy and unbiased.