The Illiad
*NOTE: An epic is a long story, often told in verse, involving the heroes and the
gods. One of the oldest and greatest of all epic poems is the Iliad. This poem tells
the story of the Greek, or Achaean, hero Achilles and his role in the Trojan War.
Achilles is a great example of an epic hero and can be viewed as an early
example of the tragic hero. A tragic hero is a character of high status who possesses
noble qualities but who also has a tragic flaw, or personal weakness, that brings
about a fall from grace or a loss of life. Achilles’ tragic flaw is his destructive anger
and pride. An epithet applied to Achilles is “godlike Achilles”; indeed, he is of semidivine origin. His mother was the sea goddess, Thetis, and his father was a mortal
king named Peleus. However, unlike the gods, Achilles is not invulnerable. At his
birth, his mother, Thetis, held him by his heel and dipped his body in the river Styx
in an attempt to make him invulnerable, as she herself was. However, when it came
time for Achilles’ fated death, the hero was wounded in his heel. Thus today we use
the phrase “Achilles heel” to represent someone’s main weakness. Example: Long
shots were the athletes Achilles heel, for he made almost every close shot that he
took. Achilles is also vulnerable in non-physical ways. He experiences human
emotions—grief, fear, and above all, anger.
The epic portrays the relationships between gods and mortals as well as the
roles both play in destiny. In classical mythology, the Trojan War was a devastating
struggle between the Greeks, or Achaeans, and the Trojans.
At the root and the resolution of the war stands Paris, a Trojan prince.
Although his role in the Illiad is relatively minor, he is a figure of central
importance. Paris was the son of King Priam and Queen Hecuba of Troy. Just
before his birth, Hecuba had a terrible nightmare that she gave birth to a flaming
torch. This dream was interpreted to mean that Paris, if he lived, would cause the
destruction of Troy. Soon after his birth, Paris’ parents ordered that he be left to
die on a mountain, but he was rescued and raised by a shepherd. Meanwhile, the
Greek gods were experiencing troubles of their own. Eris, goddess of discord, was
not invited to the wedding of the sea goddess Thetis and the hero Peleus. Angry,
Eris appeared at the festival and threw a golden apple at the feet of the gods,
announcing that it was “for the fairest.” Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite all desired
the apple, but Zeus refused to choose the fairest and put an end to the arguments.
Instead, he ordered Hermes, the messenger god, to bring the apple to Paris on
Mount Ida and to let him award the apple as he wished. Hera promised to give
Pairs wealth and power in return for the apple. Athena promised wisdom and
might in war. Aphrodite promised him Helen, the most beautiful woman in the
world. Paris accepted Aphrodite’s bribe, making Hera and Athena bitter enemies
of the Trojans. Paris later took Helen away from her husband, Menelaus, bringing
her to Troy, thus setting in motion both the Trojan War and the eventual
destruction of Troy. The kidnapping of Helen, the daughter of Zeus, caused the
Greeks to sail to Troy to recover her, and fighting between the Greeks and the
Trojans endured for ten years. The Greeks finally achieved victory through the
ruse of the Trojan horse.
Book One:
“The Rage of Achilles”
1. Of whose rage will the narrator sing?
Note: An epithet applied to Achilles is “godlike Achilles”; indeed, he is of semidivine origin. His mother was the sea goddess, Thetis, and his father was a mortal
king named Peleus. However, unlike the gods, Achilles is not invulnerable. At his
birth, his mother, Thetis, held him by his heel and dipped his body in the river Styx
in an attempt to make him invulnerable, as she herself was. However, when it
came time for Achilles’ fated death, the hero was wounded in his heel. Thus today
we use the phrase “Achilles heel” to represent someone’s main weakness.
Example: Long shots were the athletes Achilles heel, for he made almost every
close shot that he took. Achilles is also vulnerable in non-physical ways. He
experiences human emotions—grief, fear, and above all, anger.
2. Of whose argument will the narrator tell?
3. How does Agamemnon “spurn” Apollo’s priest?
4. What does Chryses ask Apollo to do? How does Apollo respond?
Note: The shafts aimed at animals and then men actually represent a plague being
thrown upon the Greeks by Apollo. Apollo was also known as “Smintheus” or
”god of the plague.” (p.365)
5. In reference to line 68, page 366, what “long campaign” will be lost due to the
deaths caused by the plague?
6. Identify two things that the Greeks believed could be used to foretell the
future or give insight about problems facing their lives. (p. 366-367)
7. Identify Calchas. Why does Calchas fear to speak his knowledge of who or
what angered Apollo? What does he ask Achilles to promise?
8. What two things must be done to appease Apollo?
Note: On page 368, lines 124-126, Agamemnon interpets Calchas’ prophecies as
always bringing hardship. In these lines, Agamemnon refers to an earlier event at
Aulius, where the fleet was kept from sailing to Troy because Artemis was angered
and had stopped the winds. On that occasion, Calchas explained that to propitiate
the goddess, Agamemnon had to sacrifice his daughter Iphigeneia. Homer thus
hints that there has been a longstanding quarrel between the king and the prophet.
9. What does Agamemnon want Achilles or another leading captain of the
Greeks to do for him? How does Achilles respond? Why?
10. What does Agamemnon say that he will take from Achilles?
Note: Customarily, the foremost fighter, by virtue of how hard and how well he
fights, is formally recognized by the booty distributed to him. Stripping Achilles of
his prize is like stripping him of a medal of honor and, in turn, threatens his stature
as the greatest warrior. Achilles’ complaint that his rewards should equal, if not
surpass, Agamemnon’s prizes reveals his desire for power. The fact that
Agamemnon has the authority to revoke the prize angers and frustrates Achilles.
12. Explain the inner conflicts and feelings that spur on this “battle of egos”
between Achilles and Agamemnon. Why does each act so irrational and what
insults are being assumed or inferred by each character?
13.What does the goddess Athena, spurred on by Hera, beg of Achilles?
14. Based on page 372, lines 255-256, what is needed by mortal man to have a
successful relationship with the gods?
15.What promise or prediction does Achilles make to Agamemnon? What is his
part (or lack thereof) in making all this happen?
16. Who tries to intercede on behalf of Achilles?
Book Six: “Hector Returns to Troy”
1.What is the result of Thetis’ requests to Zeus?
2. Identify: Hector, Priam, Hecuba, Paris, Andromache
Note (page 374, lines 10-13): The gods and goddesses were very prone to “pick
favorites” among mortals (as you will see throughout this epic ) and intervene or
intercede in the lives of these mortals at their own whims and desires. For
example, Athena and Hera despised the Trojans because of Paris, who chose
Aphrodite over both Hera and Athena as “the fairest one” at the wedding of Peleus
and Thetis. Thus, the two goddesses favor the Greeks and at times affect positive
changes in their lives.
3.Where was Andromache when Hector goes looking for her? Why is she there?
4.What is Andromache’s greatest fear?
5.What does Hector understand concerning the future of Troy? What is his greatest
fear?
6. How does Hector’s infant son react to him at first? Why?
7. What is Hector’s prayer for his son? What cultural values are displayed
through this father’s wishes for his child?
8. Lines 144-146 on page 378 exemplify what Greek belief?
9. Paris, Hector and the other Trojans successfully manage to drive the Greeks
back to their ships. What do the Greeks see as the only real way to achieve a
victory at his point over the Trojans?
10. Explain the different strategies Odysseus uses in his attempts to get Achilles to
rejoin the Greek forces. How does Achilles respond to these strategies?
11. Cite the different viewpoints in the characters of Hector and Achilles concerning
(a) war (b) honor and (c) heroism.
Book Nine: A Visit of Emissaries
1. Three of the bravest Greeks—Diomedes, Odysseus, and Ajaz—along with the old
counselor Nestor—believe that friendly ______________ and _____________ words
may convince Achilles to rejoin the Greek war efforts and ensure victory over the
Trojans.
2. List all the gifts that Agamemnon is prepared to give Achilles if he will return to
the fighting.
3. Define “emissary.” Who are chosen as emissaries in this selection? Why are they
chosen over others?
4. Which god does Odysseus say is most responsible for the Greeks’ recent losses?
Which Trojan mortal is?
5. What two things does Odysseus ask Achilles to “control”?
6. Explain Achilles’ argument against Agamemnon’s plea to rejoin the Greek army
in their fight against the Trojans. What character flaws does he claim in
Agamemnon?
7. What two possible destinies does Thetis see for her son Achilles’ future? Why is
neither destiny a joyous one? How does this prophecy add to Achilles’
characterization as a tragic hero?
Book Fourteen:
1.Why does Poseidon favor the Greek armies?
2. What virtue does Poseidon say that Achilles lacks?
3. What does Poseidon motivate the Greek armies to do? What is the end result for
the Greeks? How is Zeus also involved?
Book Sixteen:
1.Why is Patroclus weeping? What is his plan to help the Greek soldiers?
2. What does Achilles tell Patroclus to do along with the Myrmidon fighters? What
warning does Achilles give to Patroclus about the end to this mission?
3. Why does Patroclus use his own spears and not Achilles?
4. How does Patroclus disobey Achilles? What common flaw that they both possess
is seen in this event? Explain.
5. Whose death spurs on the battle between Patroclus and Hector? Why?
6. How does Apollo intervene and hasten Patroclus’ demise?
7. As he lies dying, what does Patroclus’ prophecy about Hector?
Book Seventeen:
1.What does Hector plan to do with Patroclus’ body? Who stops him?
2. What does Hector do with Achilles’ battle gear?
3. Explain Zeus’ words to Hector. How does he say Hector disrespects Patroclus?
What events are foreshadowed in his statement?
Book Eighteen: The Arming of Achilleus
1.What does Achilleus say is the only way his grief over Patroklos’ death and his
lack of desire to live can be overcome?
2.What event does Thetis tell Achilleus is fated to happen soon after Hektor dies?
3.What does Achilleus say must happen before he will bury Patroklos?
4. What does Thetis ask Hephaistos to do for her son?
5. Hephaistos says that he wishes he could forge a shield that would protect
Achilleus from his “hard fate.” Based on your reading of this epic so far, is it ever
possible for humans to escape their fate? Explain why or why not. Also, discuss
what personal characteristics of Achilleus may play a part in bringing about his
fate.
6. Describe the scenes and images forged on Achilles shield. What insights into life
may one receive from these scenes? Why might Hephaistos have chosen these
scenes to put on the shield?
Book 22: “The Death of Hector”
1. Identify Patroclus. Who is he? How does he indirectly get Achilles to re-engage
in battle against the Trojans?
2. What do Priam and Hecuba want Hector to do? How does Hector respond?
3. Why does Hector feel responsible for the recent casualties of the Trojan army?
4. What brief and fantastic idea does Hector consider as he ponders the approach
of Achilles? Why does he decide not to try this strategy?
5. What does Hector do as he sees Achilles approaching? How does this reveal a
different side to the great warrior Hector?
6. What does Zeus consider concerning Hector’s fate? How does his daughter
Athena respond?
7. Why will Achilles not let his armies shoot their spears at Hector?
8. What does Zeus do with his golden scales? What does this action symbolize or
foreshadow in the story?
9. How does Athena sway the course of events concerning Hector and Achilles?
What does she convince each to do?
10. What honorable promise does Hector make to Achilles? Does Achilles promise
the same to Hector? Why or why not?
11. Where does Achilles wound Hector?
12. What will the fate be for Hector’s corpse?
13. What future does Andromache see for herself and for Hector’s son Astyanax?
Why is even this grim future a bit on the optimistic side?
Note: When Troy is sacked, the Greeks dash Hector’s son to his death from the top
of the walls of Troy.
Book 24: “Achilles and Priam”
1. Why can Achilles not sleep after the games in honor of Patroclus?
2. What does Achilles do to try to appease his anger?
3. How does Apollo pity Hector? What do most of the gods want Hermes to
do? Why?
4. Who does not want Hermes to do the action in question number three? List
the three immortals and then then tell why they do not want this. (Hint: A
background note (in italics) from previous books may make this answer
easier to understand
5. Who is the man Apollo says has no “shred of decency”? Why does Apollo
believe this to be true, and what does Apollo foresee the gods may do to such
a person due to their indecency?
Can you find an example to refute or disprove this statement on page 375? If
you put it here, I will give you three extra credit points!!!
6. According to Apollo, how is Achilles different from most mortals?
7. Zeus tell s the gods and goddesses that they cannot steal Hector’s body but
that, ultimately, Achilles must return Hector’s body to Priam. What
“reward” will Achilles receive for this service?
8. Who guides Priam safely through the Greeks ships to pay the ransom?
9. How many sons has Priam lost in war to the Greeks?
10. What has Priam endured that most men have not?
11. What are the two jars that stand on the floor of Zeus’ halls?
12. Why does Achilles feel a sense of guilt as it concerns his own father?
13. What does Achilles threaten to do to Priam if he continues to anger him?
14. What does Achilles order done to Hector’s body? Why does he order this
done?
15. What does Achilles ask of his dead friend Patroclus?
16. Achilles states to Priam that even the grief stricken eat. As they eat, they
marvel at each other. What does marvel mean, and how does each do so?
17. What is a truce? Why is the truce called for on page 405?
18. What does Andromache see in the future for Troy, for herself, and for her
son?
19. Why does Helen grieve the loss of Hector? Why does Helen hint that she will
be friendless now that he is dead? What prior actions would cause such a
sad future for her in Troy?
20. What do they do with Hector’s bones after the body has been burned?
Note: After the point where Homer ends the Illiad, legend holds that Paris shot an
arrow into Achilles’ weak spot, his heel, and the greatest of the Achaeans fell and
died. The Greek hero Ajax rescued Achilles’ body, but the Greeks decided to award
Achilles’ armor to Odysseus, a Greek leader and friend of Achilles. Enraged and
ashamed that he does not get the armor, Ajax went mad. Paris was eventually killed
by the archer Philoctetes, who carried the bow of Hercules.