A2: Virtue Ethics
G582: A2 Religious Ethics
Ethical Topics and Theories: Virtue
Ethics
Candidates should
understanding of:
be
able
to
demonstrate
knowledge
and
 the principles of Virtue Ethics from Aristotle;
 the ‘agent-centred’ nature of Virtue Ethics;
 the concepts of eudaimonia and the Golden Mean;
 the importance of practising the virtues and the example of
virtuous people;
 more modern approaches to Virtue Ethics.
Candidates should be able to discuss these areas critically and their
strengths and weaknesses.
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A2: Virtue Ethics
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A2: Virtue Ethics
Candidates should be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
‘agent-centred’ nature of Virtue Ethics
Agent-centred approach
• Moral theories (Utilitarianism, Kantian Ethics) focus on the questions ‘What
ought I do?’ ‘What is the right action?’ [act-centred approaches].
• Aristotle’s question: ‘What kind of a person ought I be?’ [agent-centred
approach].
• Aristotle’s answer: ‘a good one.’
• Question – what is a good person?
Aristotle’s Function Argument
• Aristotle has a teleological metaphysics – natural things are categorised in terms
of their unique function/purpose (telos).
• In order to describe x as good, we need to:
1) know what sort of thing x is; and
2) know what the purpose of that kind of thing is. e.g. The
unique purpose of an acorn is to grow into an oak tree.
• An acorn is a potential oak tree, so …
o A good acorn is one that does grow into an oak tree (its potential is
realised by becoming an actual oak tree).
o A bad acorn is one that fails to do so.
• So in order to be able to say what a good person is, we need to know what the
unique human purpose is.
• Aristotle thought that all living things possess a nutritive soul, all animals
possess a perceptive soul, and only humans possess a rational soul.
• Since humans are the only creatures to be able to use reason (from the rational
soul), our unique purpose/function is to reason well.
• Humans that reason well are good humans.
• "The function of man is activity of soul in accordance with reason.”
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A2: Virtue Ethics
Candidates should be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
concepts of eudaimonia and the Golden Mean
Eudaimonia and human flourishing
• When we reason well, we flourish. (just as the acorn flourishes as it grows into
an oak)
• This state of being (sometimes thought of as a kind of happiness or well-being)
is called eudaimonia.
• Eudaimonia is:
o the highest human good
o desired for its own sake (it is intrinsically good)
o not a kind of bodily pleasure
• But how do we reach eudaimonia?
• Aristotle: By being virtuous.
The virtues
• A virtue = ‘a disposition to act reliably to certain features of situations’.
- A disposition is a tendency to act in a certain way (eg glass is fragile)
- A virtue is a quality of character that a person needs to live the good life,
and flourish (just as a rose needs sharp thorns and a sweet smell).
• Aristotle divided the virtues into two kinds:
o Intellectual virtues (knowledge etc) - these can be learned from a
teacher.
o Moral virtues - these are practical virtues (they help you become a good
person) - these are acquired through practice.
• Aristotle posited 12 moral virtues (in your table, the 12 become 10 - Aristotle
had two kinds of Generosity and two kinds of Pride).
• In any area of human character, there will be two extremes – these are vices to
be avoided. e.g., Fighting in a war.
• Aristotle says the virtue (courage
in this case) is somewhere in
between these two vices.
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A2: Virtue Ethics
• When we behave virtuously, we can be said to have reached the Golden Mean
• This principle is called the Doctrine of the Mean.
Aristotle’s Vices and Virtues (simplified table)
DOMAIN
EXCESS
MEAN
DEFICIENCY
Fear and
Confidence
Rashness/Foolhardiness
Courage
Cowardice
Pleasure and
Pain
Self-indulgence
Temperance
Insensibility
Getting and
Spending
Prodigality/Extravagence
Generosity
Stinginess/Meanness
Honour and
Dishonour
Vanity
Pride
Undue humility
Anger
Irascibility
Patience/Good
temper
Lack of spirit/Apathy
Self-expression
Boastfulness
Truthfulness
Understatement/mock
modesty/Selfdeprecation
Conversation
Buffoonery
Wittiness
Boorishness
Friendliness
Unpleasantness
Social Conduct Obsequiousness/Flattery
Shame
Shyness/Bashfulness
Modesty
Shamelessness
Indignation
Envy
Righteous
indignation
Malicious
enjoyment/Spitefulness
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A2: Virtue Ethics
Candidates should be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
importance of practising the virtues and the example of virtuous people;
Being virtuous
• Being a good person = being a virtuous person.
• A virtuous person = someone for whom behaving virtuously is part of their
second nature.
• Our first nature is passive and unreflective.
• Possessing a virtue is having a disposition to do certain things.
Practising the virtues
• We are not born virtuous - but we all do have the potential to become so.
o This is supported by Rosalind Hursthouse points out that although we
hear about young mathematical prodigies, we do not hear of young
virtuous prodigies.
• We have to practise/train to become virtuous - so that being virtuous is second
nature. This takes time (Aristotle gives the example of a lyre player).
• When we are virtuous, we behave virtuously out of habit - this is not a passive
unthinking behaviour, but an active and rational way of being.
The example of virtuous people
• We can also become virtuous by aspiring to become like other virtuous people
(archetypes) - e.g., Gandhi, Jesus etc.
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A2: Virtue Ethics
Candidates should be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of more
modern approaches to Virtue Ethics
G.E.M. Anscombe
• Wrote ‘Modern Moral Philosophy’ (1958)
• Moral theories that involve ‘you ought to …’ require God to give laws and
enforce them.
o Kantian Ethics & Utilitarianism lack the requisite foundation (because
they do not posit God as the source/enforcer of the rules).
• Virtue Ethics avoids this difficulty, therefore is a more plausible theory
Rosalind Hursthouse
• Although we hear about young mathematical prodigies, we do not hear of
young virtuous prodigies.
• Being virtuous helps us in our moral deliberations – virtuous people more often
make the ‘right’ decision.
Philippa Foot
• Goodness is relative to the kind of thing in question.
• Humans are social animals, so good people live together well with others.
• As Aristotle wrote: ‘Good is the same for the individual and the state.’
Keenan
• Keenan thinks there are three important questions in Ethics:
o Who am I?
o Who ought I to become?
o How do I get there?
• He thinks Virtue Ethics has the tools to answer these questions.
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A2: Virtue Ethics
Alasdair MacIntyre
• Wrote After Virtue (1981)
• MacIntyre describes Moral Philosophy as being stuck in the Dark Ages since
Virtue Ethics had been forgotten during the Enlightenment.
• Promotes an agent-centred approach
• Uses Ancient Greek ‘Heroic Society’ as an exemplar of how people work for the
good of society. (Virtues of courage and fidelity to the fore).
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A2: Virtue Ethics
Candidates should be able to discuss these areas critically and their strengths and
weaknesses
Strengths
1. No need for a God to create moral laws.
2. Compatible with religious ethics
3. Ethics should be about becoming a good person.
4. Avoids the problem of morality simply being a case of ‘follow the rules!’.
5. Society will benefit if we are all good people.
Weaknesses
1. Modern Science rejects the teleological classification of Nature.
2. The virtues are hard to pin down – ‘between two vices’ isn’t enough.
3. Are there not some virtues for which there cannot be a ‘too much’?
4. Schaller thinks moral rules come first, and virtues second: ‘Are virtues no more
than dispositions to obey moral rules?’ So virtue ethics cannot be the whole
story.
5. If we want Ethics to be action-guiding, virtue ethics doesn’t help as it is not actcentered. E.g., a moral dilemma, or an applied/practical ethics topic.
6. Robert Louden: we are correct to describe some acts as wrong – e.g., torturing
innocents.
7. William Frankena: ‘Virtues without principles are blind.’
8. Susan Wolf: Moral saints are boring – they lack the ability to enjoy life. Role
models should be exciting!
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