Challenging Students to Think Critically
THE CHALLENGE: CHALLENGING STUDENTS TO THINK CRITICALLY
Except where reference is made to the works of others, the work described in this thesis
is my own or was done in collaboration with my Thesis Chair. This thesis does not
include proprietary or classified information
Shomari Zachary
Certificate of Approval:
_______________________________
_______________________________
Donald R. Livingston, Ed. D.
Sharon M. Livingston, Ph. D.
Associate Professor & Thesis Co-Chair
Assistant Professor & Thesis Co-Chair
Education Department
Education Department
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Challenging Students to Think Critically
THE CHALLENGE: CHALLENGING STUDENTS TO THINK CRITICALLY
A thesis submitted
by
Shomari Naeem Zachary
to
LaGrange College
in partial fulfillment of
the requirement for the
degree of
MASTER OF EDUCATION
in
Curriculum and Instruction
LaGrange, Georgia
July 25, 2011
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Challenging Students to Think Critically
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Abstract
The topic of critical thinking has received much attention lately and many
colleges and professional jobs are now calling for students who possess critical thinking
skills. However, many teachers have failed to incorporate critical thinking into their
instructional goals. The purpose of this action research study was to determine if the
implementation of critical thinking would improve academic achievement. Qualitative
and quantitative data were collected. Pre-test and post-test scores of a control group and
treatment group were used along with an instructional plan, reflective journal, and a
student survey. Although, assessment data showed that critical thinking did not improve
students’ academic achievement in a statistical manner, qualitative data recorded through
the reflective journal showed that students increased their use of critical thinking skills,
and increased their ability to make connections, solve problems, and identify key
concepts and their relationship to the content and the real world.
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Table of Contents
Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………….iii
Table of Contents …………………………………………………………......................iv
List of Tables ……………………………………………………………….…………….v
Chapter 1: Introduction ………………………………………………………………….1
Statement of the Problem ………………………………………………………..1
Significance of the Problem ……………………………………………………..2
Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks ……………………………………….4
Focus Questions …………………………………………………………………7
Overview of Methodology ………………………………………………………8
Human as Researcher …………………………………………….......................8
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature……………………………………….......................9
Instructional Strategies that Promote Critical Thinking ………………………….9
The Effects and Benefits of Teaching Critical Thinking ………….....................14
Teacher and Student Perceptions about Critical Thinking ……………………...16
Chapter 3: Methodology ………………………………………………………………...21
Research Design …………………………………………………………………21
Setting …………………………………………………………….......................22
Subjects ………………………………………………………………………….22
Procedures and Data Collection Methods ……………………………………….22
Validity, Reliability, Dependability, and Bias………………………………...…26
Analysis of Data ………………………………………………….......................29
Chapter 4: Results ……………………………………………………………………….32
Chapter 5: Analysis and Discussion of Results
Analysis of Results………………………………………………………............40
Discussion …………………………………………………………....................47
Implications……………………………………………………………………...49
Impact on Student Learning ……………………………………………………..50
Recommendations for Future Research …………………………………………51
References ………………………………………………………………….....................53
Appendixes …………………………………………………………………….……......60
Challenging Students to Think Critically
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List of Tables
Tables
Table 3.1
Data Shell………………………………………………………………...22
Table 4.1
Independent t-test: Pre Test scores Treatment and Control……………...33
Table 4.2
Independent t-test: Post Test scores Treatment and Control…………….34
Table 4.3
Dependent t-test Pre/Post Test Treatment………………………………..34
Table 4.4
Dependent t-test Pre/Post Test Control…………………………………..35
Table 4.5
Survey Data………………………………………………………………39
Challenging Students to Think Critically
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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Statement of the Problem
There has been much public outcry that curricula and standards across the
nation should be more rigorous and that all students should be held to higher standards
to ensure academic achievement. Rigor requires that teachers make content and
lessons more challenging and meaningful to the learner. The path by which teachers
should subscribe is often debated, challenged, or criticized, which leads many teachers
to stick with the conventional approach of teaching to the test. The challenge lies in the
fact that rigor requires the use of thinking skills, such as evaluating, analyzing, and
synthesizing to solve problems (Paul, 1990). Teachers’ opinions vary on whether to use
critical thinking skills or how to incorporate them into the curriculum. As a result,
students lack critical thinking skills and high quality instruction that promotes higher
level thinking. Students mostly receive a great deal of “drill and kill” instruction that
leads to minimum thinking skills and, at best, the ability to recall facts (Janesick, 2004).
Instead of challenging students to think, explore, create, and analyze, teachers train
students to memorize and regurgitate information. Learning in this way is neither fun nor
rewarding for students. Due to the high stakes testing environment, teachers focus on
teaching content and rely on rote memorization and recall instead of making learning
meaningful and useful to students (Skaggs, 2004).
How can educators expect students to think critically when students have not
been taught how to synthesize, evaluate, analyze information, or given the
opportunity to demonstrate their ability to think? There are many issues that confront
teachers and students as it relates to teaching critical thinking skills. For teachers, the
Challenging Students to Think Critically
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challenge is how to incorporate critical thinking skills into the curriculum; for students,
the challenge is overcoming issues such as socioeconomic status, gender, and race in
order to succeed in school. According to Newmann (1998), teachers must be willing to
make curriculum and instructional decisions that foster students’ abilities to engage in
thinking and interpretation. William-Boyd (2004) stated that “John Dewey contended
that the most crucial need in American society was for students to be taught to reflect
upon what they learned in school” (p. 95).
This study explored and implemented strategies that promoted critical thinking
skills to determine whether critical thinking skills increased academic achievement.
The research question for this study focused on what strategies teachers could implement
in order to teach critical thinking and improve students’ academics and desire to learn.
Significance of the Problem
Over the last three decades much research has been done concerning the issue
of critical thinking and its relevance to education and society. Reformers and
researchers have agreed that students who possess critical thinking skills are the key to
America’s continued economic success and dominance (National Commission on
Excellence in Education, 1983). Paul (1990) suggested “we can no longer afford the kind
of schooling that at best transforms students into narrow specialists and at worst leaves
them without job skills, functional literacy, or self-confidence” (p. xix). Swanson,
Spencer, and Petersen (1998) echoed reformers and researchers by stating that the
nation’s young people will need a higher level of academic and occupational knowledge
and skills in order to be competitive in the twenty-first century. While research and
reformers are calling for critical thinking skills schools have failed to embrace
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and incorporate the ideas of critical thinking into the curriculum.
There is a huge impact when students are not taught how to think critically.
Students are affected both academically and socially. Many students who lack
critical thinking skills struggle academically because they feel that education is irrelevant
or has little value to their personal lives. This causes students to become disengaged and
can lead to a myriad of problems ranging from misbehavior, dropping out, and countless
activities that undermine the fabric of society. Swanson et al. (1998) reported
that many high school graduates from at-risk backgrounds are illiterate and those who
decide to enter college are less likely to graduate. This can be attributed to students not
being prepared for college and lacking the skills to process and analyze information.
Students with low thinking skills also find it difficult to complete tasks that require them
to think independently outside of rote memorization and recall. One final note
is that U.S. students are falling behind other developing countries academically (Paul,
1990).
Students who fail to receive a high school diploma or matriculate into college
face many challenges in their daily life. Jobs now call on individuals to evaluate
problems, analyze and detect trends, and interpret data. Individuals who lack these
skills are often presented with fewer options in life and many times have to accept low
wage jobs. Furthermore, students who have not been taught how to think critically lack
the ability to make rational decisions in their adult life because they fail to examine the
consequences, assumptions, and prejudices of issues that surround them (Paul, 1990). In
order to address these concerns so that all members of society can prepare for the future,
teachers must offer students opportunities to attain content goals through critical thinking.
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Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks
Recent education reforms and national panels have called on American schools
to teach reasoning, problem solving, and critical thinking (Newmann, 1992).
However, classrooms across America, especially those filled with at-risk students, fail to
embrace the ideas of constructivism through the use of critical thinking skills.
Constructivism is the idea of constructing knowledge based on experiences and
coming to know one’s world in relation to nature and society ( Brooks, 1999). The idea
of teaching critical thinking skills aligns closely with the components of constructivism.
The use of critical thinking skills allows individuals to detect biases, interpret, analyze
and manipulate information, anticipate and respond to arguments in opposition to
one’s own, and evaluate one’s views clearly and persuasively. Application of these
functions supports the constructivist idea that learners must draw new knowledge from
their experiences. Furthermore, the constructivist idea of active learning is
enhanced by critical thinking skills because students become engaged in cognition skills
rather than performing rituals, routines, and procedures that lack substantive
understanding (Newmann, Wehlage, & Lamborn, 1992).
The basis of social constructivism is to acknowledge the background and
uniqueness of each learner. Students come from various backgrounds that reflect
differences in income, race, gender and culture (Gordon, 1999). Research has proven
that socioeconomic status, peer culture, and the quality of individual teachers has a
profound impact on student achievement (Newmann, 1998). Within the confines of
constructivism, teachers must take into account the background and culture of each
learner. Through the use of thinking skills, teachers can promote social interaction that
enables students to become aware of their background and culture, and foster an
environment that embraces the views and experiences of one’s self and others.
The goal of the Education Department of LaGrange College is to develop teachers
who embrace caring and supportive classrooms, foster enthusiastic engagement in
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learning and utilize the best teaching practices (LaGrange College Education Department,
2008). This study specifically relates to Tenets 1 and 3 of LaGrange College
Education Department’s Conceptual Framework. Tenet 1 is also closely aligned with
Domain 3 of the Georgia Framework for Teaching.
Tenet One of LaGrange College Education Department’s Conceptual Framework
focuses on the teacher as a professional. Teachers are encouraged to provide learning
environments that foster enjoyment and rigor, and enables students to be actively
involved in the teaching and learning process (Lagrange College Education Department,
2008). Additionally, as stated by LaGrange College Education Department (2008),
teachers should build on the abilities, interests, and needs of students in order to create
meaningful curriculum. Domain 3 of the Georgia Framework for teaching focuses on
teachers creating environments that encourage social interaction, active engagement in
learning, and self-motivation (LaGrange College Education Department, 2008). Critical
thinking skills are advantageous for teachers because critical thinking skills provide
teachers and students an opportunity to draw from each individual’s experience and to
explore learning beyond content and subject matter. In order to be successful, teachers
must draw on their experience and knowledge and make connections to the wide array of
students that make up their community of learners. Teachers must also engage students in
critical thinking so that students can interpret the experiences and achievements of their
peers, and analyze how they relate to their own perspectives. Gordon (1999) concluded:
Findings from modern cognitive science suggest that effective learning and the
achievement of understanding result from active engagement with and operation
on the relevant knowledge processes and structures in the interest of constructing
meanings that make sense to the learner. Such engagement and operations are the
vehicles of cognitive development. Because the knowledge processes and
structures are derived from the culture, in properly conceived teaching and
learning transactions, their transmission is a natural concomitant of intellective
Challenging Students to Think Critically
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development. (p. 73)
Tenet 3 of the Conceptual Framework focuses on teachers providing caring
and supportive classrooms that builds learning communities (LaGrange College
Education Department, 2008). Many teachers have negative dispositions concerning
students and strongly feel that students are incapable of thinking critically. As
a result, teachers continue to take a conventional approach to teaching and students
continue to perform poorly. Teachers must go beyond the conventional approach to
teaching and create lessons that have meaning to students' personal lives. According to
McLaren, teachers should set high expectations for students and “view the world through
anti-racist, multicultural, non-gender biased lenses and advocate for social justice and
equality”(as cited in Lagrange College Education Department, 2008, p. 8).
In order to provide a caring and supportive classroom, teachers have to examine
and reflect on their own experiences and dispositions. In other words, teachers must
become critical thinkers before they can teach students to think critically. In doing so,
teachers become models for their students and guide students to apply the principle of
cultural democracy: the right of every American to relate to his own ethnic, racial, or
social group while exploring mainstream America (Castaneda, James, & Robbins, 1974).
It is through learning to think critically that we can best deal with problems that face us
individually, as a nation, and as a global community (Hytten, 2004).
This thesis has associative value to core Propositions 1 and 4 of the
National Board for Professional Teachers Standards [NBPTS]. Proposition One of the
NBPTS encourages teachers to commit to students and their learning and to recognize
individual differences in order to embrace cultural differences and enhance peer
relationships. The use of critical thinking skills in the classroom will allow students to
make connections between students of different cultural backgrounds and help students
embrace their role and contribution to society. To capture the fulfillment of Proposition 1
teachers must believe and challenge all students regardless of race and gender to learn at
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high levels to ensure academic achievement.
Proposition 4 of NBPTS calls on teachers to be accountable and to examine and
reflect on their use of practices, theories, and knowledge. Teaching critical thinking skills
can be challenging for teachers because it forces teachers to focus beyond the realm of
content and incorporate skills that require time, reflection, and the use of several
instructional strategies. Teachers must be willing to promote the development of critical
thinking skills, design instruction that meets the needs of all learners, model the attitudes
and skills they wish to teach their students, and seek out strategies and professional
development that fosters students’ ability to learn and process information.
Focus Questions
Focus questions are questions that guide the researcher through the process of
collecting and analyzing data, examining related content that provides insight for the
study being conducted, and interpreting the results of a study (Hendricks, 2009). Focus
questions force researchers to construct their own answers and meanings to the problem
at hand (Hendricks, 2009). This study focused on the problem of teachers not teaching
critical thinking skills to students, although a preponderance of research suggest that
critical thinking skills are necessary for student success and survival. There were three
focus questions that guided the research of this study. The first question was what
instructional strategies could teachers use to implement the use of critical thinking skills?
This focus question related to the pedagogical component of research. The second
question this study addressed was how did critical thinking affect student achievement
and behavior? This focus question centered around student learning outcomes. The last
question this study attempted to answer was what attitudes and dispositions did students
and teachers exhibit through the use of critical thinking skills? This question connected to
the idea of reflective practice.
Overview of Methodology
The research design of this study was action research. Action research
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promotes the use of prior skills and experiences and encourages professionals to reflect
on their practice and improve it. Qualitative and quantitative data were collected to
determine the effectiveness of incorporating critical thinking skills into the curriculum.
Qualitative methods that were used by the researcher included an instructional plan
and a reflective journal. Quantitative methods that were used included a survey and a
teacher made test. The setting of this study took place at a suburban high school located
in Decatur, Georgia and consisted of thirty eight 10th grade world history students. The
duration for this study will be three to four weeks to determine whether the teaching of
critical thinking skills improved the actual use of critical thinking skills and academic
success. One class served as the treatment group while the other class served as the
control group. To ensure that this study focused on validity, reliability, dependability,
and bias both qualitative and quantitative methods were used along with scholarly
research. To determine whether critical thinking skills improved academic achievement,
data was analyzed to determine if there were significant differences between the two
groups and what categorical themes were present.
Human as Researcher
I am a history teacher at Columbia High School and have taught there for five
years. I hold a Bachelor of Education degree from Georgia Southern University and I am
currently pursuing a Master’s degree in Curriculum and Instruction at LaGrange College.
Although I consider myself to be knowledgeable about content and the wide
array of instructional strategies common to teachers, I have struggled to incorporate
rigor in the classroom. The first three years of teaching I taught to the test because that is
what the school environment demanded. As a result, I felt that students were incapable of
performing tasks that required higher order thinking skills. However, the last two years I
have slowly incorporated rigor into the curriculum. This study has provided insight
and prepared me to challenge the conventional arena of education.
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CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERTAURE
Instructional Strategies that Promote Critical Thinking
Twenty first century advocates of teaching and learning indicate that critical
thinking is vital and must be apart of the 21st century curriculum. Today educators are
charged with preparing students to live and work in a complex and interactive society,
therefore a major emphasis has been placed on the development of students’ minds
(Erickson, 2007). Although many schools claim to teach critical thinking, researchers
have found very little evidence to support such claims. Beyer (1987) stated that schools
have failed to implement critical thinking because they fail to provide explicit instruction
on the skills needed to teach critical thinking, and assume that one exposure to critical
thinking skills is sufficient. Ross (2004) claimed that critical thinking in schools have
failed because the patterns of classroom instruction are characterized by text-oriented,
whole-group, and teacher centered instruction with an emphasis on memorization of
factual information. Research is prevalent on the topic of critical thinking, however,
much debate still exists concerning how to implement critical thinking into the
curriculum, and what strategies enhance critical thinking skills.
Determining whether critical thinking should be taught independently or
integrated into the curriculum is a major debate surrounding this essential issue. Lipman
(1988) contends that critical thinking should be taught as a separate course. Lipman
(1988) bases his argument on the premise that an independent course would prevent
students from confining critical thinking skills to a specific subject matter, avoid
repetition of introductory principles, and encourage application of cognitive skills to
other disciplines. Advocates of infusion argue that certain cognitive skills are specific to
particular disciplines or subjects (Aston, 1988). Infusion is the process of integrating
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skills and content (Wilen & Phillips, 1995). In this manner content is acquired as students
plan, evaluate, solve problems, and make decisions (Wilen & Phillips, 1995). Cotton
(1991) pointed out that research supports the use of both methods, but the infusion
method seems to be the mort popular. Although there is no consensus on which method is
the best, research does support the fact that both methods have shown gains in student’s
ability to think.
Strategies
Beyer (1987) wrote that thinking does not just happen but must be taught and
practiced. Before teachers can select strategies to promote critical thinking, teachers must
determine what skills they prefer students to learn and practice. Beyer (1987) stated that
teaching a skill consists of purposeful instruction carried out over a period of time.
Critical thinking skills help students explain their thinking and assist in analyzing their
thoughts and opinions. Mulholland,Pellegrino, and Glasser (1980) indicated that thinking
consists of a set of developed thinking and learning skills used in academic and everyday
problem solving activities. Vinson (2004) described thinking skills as confirming
conclusions, identifying bias and stereotyping, being open-minded and skeptical, and
receiving judgment. Without the use of thinking skills and the opportunity to develop and
practice thinking skills, the teaching of critical thinking becomes obsolete.
There are numerous strategies that teachers can employ in order to teach critical
thinking, however research is inconclusive about the best way to teach thinking skills
(Beyer, 1987). One model that can be used to implement critical thinking is problembased learning. Krulink and Rudnick (1984) defined problem solving as the means by
which an individual uses previously acquired knowledge, skills, and understanding to
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satisfy the demands of an unfamiliar situation. Problem-based learning is focused
experiential learning organized around the investigation and resolution of messy, real
world problems (Torp & Sage, 1998). Problem-based learning requires students to
identify what they know and need to know, define problems, generate solutions, and test
and evaluate their solutions (Bransford & Stein, 1984). There are numerous benefits
associated with this method of learning. Problem-based learning increases motivation,
makes learning relevant to the real world, promotes higher order thinking and requires
authenticity (Torp & Sage, 1998). According to Meyers (1986), critical thinking in any
discipline takes the form of problem solving. The only major concern surrounding
problem-based learning is changing students’ attitudes about their abilities so that their
feelings from past experiences do not interfere with solving problems (Bransford & Stein,
1984). Using problem-based learning will encourage students to make better decisions
and challenge their intuitive minds to process and evaluate their decisions and thinking.
A second strategy that promotes or enhances critical thinking is the use of
Socratic questioning. The idea or practice of questioning dates back to Socrates. The
technique of low level questioning is commonly used by teachers to elicit or recall
information. Weil (2004) defined Socratic questioning as a process whereby reasoning
and thinking are elicited. Groisser (1964) stated that the purpose of questioning is to
arouse interest, test students’ progress, promote understanding, develop new insights, and
stimulate logic and critical thinking. According to Weil (2004), Socratic questioning is at
the heart of critical thinking because it is a thinking disposition that fuels students’
thoughts, elicits and probes their thinking, and allows them to develop and evaluate their
thinking and the thinking of others. Paul (1987) stated that Socratic questioning is based
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on the idea that all thinking has logic and that the key component is listening to others to
examine what they think, how they form their beliefs, and how their beliefs can be tested.
Some criticize the use of Socratic questioning because they believe it to be chaotic and a
free for all discussion (Paul, 1987). The use of questions helps teachers evaluate students’
knowledge, and sparks students’ inquiry and understanding of their thoughts and others.
A third instructional strategy that has been recommended by research is the use of
concepts. Beyer (1971) defined a concept as a mental image of something. Fancett (1971)
described a concept as an individual’s way of making meaning of things one has
experienced or learned. Fancett (1971) further explained that concepts are abstractions
which refer to a class or group of objects which have characteristics in common, and that
concepts are built as the learner develops a general idea of their own experiences. As
relating to critical thinking, concept teaching involves the process of brainstorming,
grouping, identifying interrelationships, and synthesizing (Thralls, 1971). Furthermore,
concepts help students build information in an attempt to clarify and explain what they
have learned and experienced (Fancett, 1971). Erickson (2007 stated that the conceptual
mind uses facts as a tool to discern patterns, make connections, and obtain deeper
transferable understandings. When using concepts, students must process facts in terms
of their relationship to ideas. The basis of concept learning is summed up by Erickson
(2007, “thinking at the conceptual level involves seeing patterns and connections between
facts, ideas, and relationships, and transferring knowledge and skills to new situations”
(p. 19)
Additional Practices and Strategies
Although research is inconclusive about the best strategies to promote critical
Challenging Students to Think Critically
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thinking, research does suggest basic principles that teachers can use to implement
critical thinking. One of the most important practices of teaching critical thinking is
providing a supportive environment (Beyer, 1983). According to Meyers (1986),
“creating a classroom environment that encourages discussion, questions, probing, and
pondering, will go a long way toward fostering critical thinking” (p. 116). Fogarty (1997)
encourages the use of graphic organizers, mind maps, graphs, and diagrams to help
students visualize and organize their thinking. Other practices that teachers can
implement include, cooperative learning, discussion projects, graphic organizers, and
authentic assessments (Vinson, 2004). In order for critical thinking to be successful in the
classroom teachers must dedicate their time to finding strategies that best benefit their
students and experiment to find what practices and strategies help promote critical
thinking skills.
The role of the teacher is to find the best strategies that promote critical thinking,
model the skills they expect students to learn, and provide students with opportunities to
practice thinking skills. The role teacher’s play, is summed up by Meyers (1986):
Critical thinking abilities do not develop unaided during a course of study, nor
will they arise solely from students’ listening to lectures, reading texts, and taking
exams. Teachers must know explicitly what they mean by critical thinking in the
context of their disciplines and must provide opportunities for students to practice
critical thinking skills and attitudes. Attempting to visualize analytical
frameworks, sharing their own methods of problem solving with students talking
with colleagues, engaging in faculty seminars-by these means or any others,
teachers in all disciplines need to assume responsibility for teaching the skills and
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attitudes of critical inquiry (p. 115).
The Effects and Benefits of Teaching Critical Thinking
It is no secret that in our society, tests (assessments) are the most efficient and
popular way to determine students’ academic achievement or performance. However, a
dilemma exists in the teaching and evaluation of critical thinking because most tests fail
to accurately measure thinking skills. King (1995) stated that real assessments and
evaluation should reflect more accurately the outcome of classroom instruction and
provide evidence of the success or failure of that instruction. Synder and Synder (2008)
wrote that the best assessments to use to help students apply knowledge and skills are
debates, case studies, portfolios, and essays. Nickel (1993) summed it up this way,
Fixed-response test types rarely tell us whether students are able to sort through
and interpret information from important purposes, and simply cannot gage
whether students are able to generate appropriately constructed responses, express
in writing their evaluation of actions and situation, and justify opinions (p. 19).
Although, the push to create more authentic and performance assessments that accurately
evaluate students’ achievement in particular areas is underway, data and research has
given us some implications on the effects of teaching critical thinking.
Student Outcomes
The Southwest Educational Development Lab (1988) stated that increasing
students’ achievement in school is one of the major goals and efforts aimed at improving
schools and making them more effective. The major debate that seems to be the
overarching theme surrounding critical thinking and student outcomes, is whether critical
thinking skills benefit students and adds significant value to academic achievement as
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opposed to teaching basic content skills that emphasize recall and rote memorization.
Lizzarraga, Baquedano, and Oliver (2010) stated that it is currently accepted, that courses
and programs aimed at stimulating cognitive skills have positive effects and that these
effects are transferable to other subjects and experiences. To support these claims many
studies have been done to determine the effects and benefits of critical thinking. Cotton
(1991) cited several studies which claimed that critical thinking skills enhance student
study skills. Another study by Kagan was done to show that the teaching of critical
thinking skills increased the use of applying thinking skills to appropriate tasks (as cited
in Cotton, 1991). Freseman’s (1990) study concluded that students’ metacognition was
improved and influenced by the use of thinking skills. Skills such as decision making,
problem solving, drawing conclusions, and judging arguments have been noted as
important in learning various subjects and participating as effective citizens in a
democratic society by notable researchers (Beyer, 1997). Researchers have also found
that repeated systematic instruction directly in the thinking operations or skills by which
people apply their thinking can sharply enhance their thinking skills (Cotton, 1991).
These findings support the idea that individual’s thinking improves over time due to
practice and experience. When thinking skills are taught within the subject matter,
students score higher on assessment of their thinking and end of course assessments of
subject matter as compared to those who were not direct instructed in the use of thinking
skills (Beyer, 1997). Beyer (1997) stated that critical thinking gives students a wider
knowledge base and a better grasp of skills and concepts. Based on research, the teaching
of thinking skills in content improves content learning and the quality of thinking.
Teacher and Student Perceptions of Critical Thinking
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Improving professional practice is a major concern of all professional groups. One
way to achieve professional practice is through reflective practice. The idea behind
reflective practice is to think about and critically analyze one’s action in an effort to
improve. In regards to education, teachers must reflect on their own practice, thoughts,
and behaviors (Conley, 2004). In order for teachers to effectively reflect on the teaching
of critical thinking, teachers must personally be aware of barriers, assumptions, and
perceptions that exist.
Teachers
Many argue that the perceptions of teachers, influences their behaviors in the
classroom (Choy & Cheah, 2009). There are many perceptions and assumptions that are
prevalent among educators concerning critical thinking. Many educators assume that
thinking is a matter of innate intelligence; therefore teachers do not have to help highly
intelligent individuals learn how to think, leaving little hope for those of less intelligence
(Moore & Stanley, 2010). Snyder and Snyder (2008) mentioned that students are not born
with the ability to think critically, and that their prior learning experiences do not expose
them to higher level thinking. Additionally, teachers assume that students will
automatically perform thinking skills correctly when given opportunities to think
critically (Choy & Cheah, 2009). In other words, teachers expect students to master
critical thinking skills after one to two exposures. Another perception that teachers foster
is the idea that students must be taught before they can learn (Choy & Cheah, 2009). One
final note on perceptions and assumptions deals with the idea that teachers feel compelled
to teach the basics because so many students are behind and lack background knowledge
(Southwest Educational Development Laboratory, 1988).
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Besides perceptions and assumptions, there are barriers that make critical thinking
difficult to implement. Choy and Cheah (2009) stated that teaching critical thinking is
challenging because teachers have difficulty incorporating aspects of critical thinking into
their lessons. Snyder and Snyder (2008) argued that the current educational trend to
standardize curricular and focus on test scores limits instructors ability to address critical
thinking in the classroom because of the emphasis on content. Paul (1987 pointed out
another barrier by stating that many teachers lack a clear concept of critical thinking.
Furthermore, Southwest Educational Development Laboratory (1988) stated that little
training especially in teacher training programs, is devoted specifically on how to teach
thinking skills, and that instructional material often lacks critical thinking resources.
These various barriers to critical thinking explain why lectures and instructional
strategies that emphasize information dissemination are still the dominant style of
teaching in today’s classroom (Choy & Cheah), 2009; Snyder & Snyder, 2008; Southwest
Educational Development Laboratory, 1988). One of the biggest barriers to teaching
critical thinking is time constraints. Pogrow (1988) stated “It takes an extensive amount
of time to produce results… at least 35minutes a day, four days a week, for several
months, for true thinking skills development to occur”(p. 26). Although research studies
have found that critical thinking is lacking in the classroom, Skaggs (2004) stated that
research is now clear that critical thinking skills can be developed and taught.
Despite the numerous perceptions, barriers, and assumptions of critical thinking,
there are recommendations to promote critical thinking in the classroom. Black (as cited
in Choy & Cheah, 2009) suggested that teachers foster a climate of high expectations and
teacher warmth to encourage students to express their thoughts and ensure the success of
Challenging Students to Think Critically
18
critical thinking. The Southwest Educational Development Lab (1988) recommends a
common thinking vocabulary for all teachers across all grade levels, and an intensive
teacher program to acquaint teachers to thinking models. Although these suggestions are
beneficial and helpful, critical thinking cannot be successful if teachers fail to reflect on
their own thinking, beliefs, lessons, instructional methods and ways to engage students in
the learning process.
Students
The reason why critical thinking is so important to students is because it requires
students to analyze their own thinking and actively participate in the learning process
(Choy & Cheah 2009). Research by Black indicated that students are able to improve
their thinking skills if they are taught how to think (as cited in Choy & Cheah, 2009).
However, for students to think critically and learn actively, many perceptions and barriers
to student learning must be addressed. Beyer (1983) stated that most students regard
subject matter learning as the main goal of instruction. Therefore, students are not
concerned with how one subject relates to another and using thinking skills to build
knowledge for solving problems. Paul (1990) revealed that most students are accustomed
to sitting back in class passively, and listening to lectures. Therefore students’ perception
of learning is that teachers are the sole disseminators of information, thereby limiting the
ability of students to question and give input and feedback. Basically, students expect
teacher lectures to provide all the pertinent information that students need to achieve
success (Choy & Cheah, 2009). Paul (1990) also added that students are used to passing
classes and tests without critically thinking. Because of these perceptions, many students
resist learning new things and in new ways and remain passive about learning.
Challenging Students to Think Critically
19
Weil (2004) stated that for many students, the process of critical thinking can be
disturbing and unnerving because it forces students to examine their thinking and that of
others. There are other factors that inhibit students from learning critical thinking skills.
Norris (1985) noted that one must have the disposition to think productively and critically
about issues, or else no amount of skill in doing so will be helpful. Steinberg (2004)
stated that thinking skills must be used appropriately and that depends on students’
dispositions. Disposition can be defined as the tendencies and predilections that guide a
person’s attitude and behavior (Leader & Middleton, 2004). Leader and Middleton
(2004) pointed out that students’ emotions and past experiences can greatly influence
students’ attitudes toward a task. In other words, the level of engagement will greatly
depend on past experiences both within and outside the school setting. Another hindrance
to students applying critical thinking relates to students sense of competence. Slater
(2004) stated that repeated failure influences a student’s sense of competence. Slater
(2004) also noted that when there is a low sense of competence, conflict arises between
behaviors, beliefs and capabilities. These barriers to learning explain why many students
resist the teaching of critical thinking. However, students should be encouraged to reflect
on their own thinking, the thinking of others, and how thinking shapes their views and the
world around them.
Cotton (2004) acknowledged that the purpose of teaching critical thinking is to improve
the thinking skills of students and thus better prepare them to succeed in the world. Freseman
(1990) stated, “In both school settings and in the world outside of school it is crucial for people to
have skills in questioning, analyzing, comparing, and contrasting so that they will not become
addicted to being told what to think and do” (p. 26). In order for students to develop the
dispositions of critical thinking, be successful in the real world, and meet the challenges of the
Challenging Students to Think Critically
20
21st century, students must be challenged to think and become active participants in applying and
assessing knowledge. Teachers must model the attitudes, dispositions, and skills they want
students to apply, and challenge traditional standards, attitudes, and beliefs. Creating classroom
environments where students can relate real-life issues to content enhances student motivation
and learning because learning has meaning (Paul, 1990). In order for critical thinking to become
an integral part of education and society as a whole, both students and teacher must realize the
importance and impact of critical thinking.
Challenging Students to Think Critically
21
CHAPTER THREE: METHDOLOGY
Research Design
The research design model used in this study was action research. The purpose
and function of action research in education is to determine whether actions by
educational researchers result in desired outcomes (Hendricks, 2009). Furthermore, Lin
(2009) pointed out that action research is the process of investigating one’s own action
and practice in an effort to improve their practice. Action research was used as the
research design because the goal of this study focused on implementing instructional
strategies to determine its affects on students’ learning.
Data collection is an important component of action research and helps to inform
the researcher about the effectiveness of practices (Hendricks, 2009). Both qualitative
and quantitative data collection and analysis were utilized. To increase the validity of
this study, three data collection methods were used. A survey was administered to
students to determine the impact of critical thinking skills and students attitudes about the
use of critical thinking skills. Secondly, a pre/post-test was administered to determine
whether implementation of critical thinking skills improved student use of critical
thinking skills and academic success. Finally, a reflective journal was kept to record the
successes and challenges of implementing critical thinking.
Setting
The research study was conducted at a suburban high school located in Decatur,
Georgia. The school was home to approximately 1180 students, many of whom came
from impoverished homes. The community was made up of lower and middle class
residents. The school was also a Title I school, where 90% of its students received free
Challenging Students to Think Critically
22
and reduced lunch. The student population was 99.5% African American, while 0.5% of
the population was multi-racial. Prior to this study, the school was on Needs
Improvement Level 3, because they failed to meet AYP. I had access to this setting
because it was the school where I taught. Access to conduct this study was granted by the
principal of the school and all measures followed were approved by the Institutional
Review Board at LaGrange College.
Subjects
The subjects of this study were 10th grade world history students. For the purposes
of this study, two world history classes were chosen to participate in this study. One class
served as the treatment group, while the other class served as the control group. Class A,
the treatment group, was chosen because of the proportionate ratio of male and female
students. Class A consisted of 24 students, 12 males and 12 females. Class B, the control
group, consisted of 21 students, 15 males and 6 females. All students in the study were
African American, with the exception of one White student.
Procedures and Data Collection Methods
This study was conducted over a four-week period to determine whether the
teaching of critical thinking skills improved the actual use of critical thinking skills and
improved student academic success. Table 3.1 explains how the procedures of this action
research study and the data collected helped to explain the study’s focus questions.
Challenging Students to Think Critically
23
Table 3.1. Data Shell
Focus Question
Literature
sources
Type: Method, Data,
Validity
How effective is the
implementation of
critical thinking
1)Socratic
Questioning
2) Concept Learning
3) Problem Solving
Beyer (1997)
Method:
Instructional Plan
rubric and interview
Erickson
(2007)
Weil (2004)
Type of Data:
Qualitative
How are data
analyzed
Qualitative:
Coded for
themes
Recurring
Dominant
Emerging
Rationale
Looking for
categorical and
repeating data
Type of Validity:
Content
Focus Question
Literature Sources
How does critical
thinking affect
student
achievement and
behavior?
Freseman (1990)
Type: Method,
Data, Validity
Method:
Pre/Post
Cotton (1991)
The Southwest
Educational Lab
(1988)
Focus Question
Literature Sources
What perceptions
and dispositions do
teachers and
students exhibit
through the use of
critical thinking
skills?
Choy and Cheah
Snyder &Snyder
(2008)
Conley (2004)
Data:
Interval
How are data
analyzed
Quantitative:
Dependent-T
Independent-T
Effect Size
Rationale
How are Data
Analyzed
Qualitative
Coded for themes
Recurring
Dominant
Emerging
Rationale
Determine if there
are significant
differences.
Type of Validity:
Content
Type: Method,
Validity
Type of Method:
Reflective Journal
Survey
Type of Data
Ordinal
Qualitative
Type of Validity:
Construct
Content
Looking for
categorical and
repeating data that
form patterns of
behaviors
Quantitative
Chi Square
Cronbach’s Alpha
In order to determine the effectiveness of the use of critical thinking skills, two
classes, one representing the treatment group and the other representing the control group
were used. During the four-week period, the method of infusion and three instructional
strategies was used to implement critical thinking. Infusion is the process of teaching
both content and skills together. Class A which was the treatment group received
instruction using the infusion method and three instructional strategies, while Class B
Challenging Students to Think Critically
24
received traditional style instruction.
Prior to treatment, a pre-test was administered to both groups to determine
student’s prior knowledge of content and application of critical thinking skills. To begin
the treatment, students in Class A were direct instructed on the purpose of critical
thinking and the terms associated with critical thinking. Students received handouts of
definitions and were asked to reflect and share times when thinking skills were used.
Students were also instructed over the eight critical thinking skills they would be using
throughout the study, and were given opportunities to practice those skills.
The three strategies that were implemented were Socratic questioning, concept
learning, and problem solving. Socratic questioning was used to connect students to
themes, create an inquisitive classroom environment through discussion, and assess
students understanding of content. Students were encouraged to ask questions and jot
down their own questions throughout the course of the study. Concept learning was used
to help students connect content, knowledge, and experiences. As a result, students
created concept maps that illustrated a depiction of ideas and thoughts, and how they
related to content and the world today. Problem solving was used to help students
research, analyze, and evaluate information and create solutions to real world problems
and dilemmas. Students were given an opportunity to research a problem from the
societies being studied, and come up with a solution to the problem based off today’s
society. Each instructional strategy was implemented at different times and used
throughout the course of the study. The only week that all strategies were used
simultaneously and in conjunction was week 3. This was done to give students more
practice at using critical thinking skills and to help students make connections and
Challenging Students to Think Critically
25
comparisons between Rome and Greece. For each strategy, students were introduced to
each strategy by direct instruction, were informed or questioned about the thinking skills
associated with each strategy, given an opportunity to practice each strategy using
thinking skills, and finally given assignments to further practice and enhance skills and
content. During week four, students of both groups were given the post-test to determine
if there was significance between the treatment and control group scores.
In order to determine the effectiveness of this action research study, three data
collecting methods were used. Data collecting methods used in this study included a
survey, pre/post-test, and a reflective journal. The instruments that were used to collect
data for this research study included, a survey, journal prompts, instructional plan, and a
pre/post-test.
Focus question 1 dealt with the implementation of strategies to improve
pedagogy. An instructional plan (see Appendix A) was created to outline the strategies
and process for improving instructional practice. An instructional plan is a blueprint or
guideline that an instructor follows in order to meet specific goals. To determine the
strength and validity of the instructional plan a rubric was created and the plan was
evaluated by a peer teacher. Furthermore, a follow-up interview was done to ensure the
strength and the validity of the instructional plan. The purpose of the instructional plan
was to create a coherent outline that would ensure the success of the study and produce
student outcomes that could be measured and analyzed.
No study about student performance would be complete without measuring for
student success and outcomes. Assessment is a crucial part to any learning experience
because it gives students and teachers a barometer of how well they are doing and
Challenging Students to Think Critically
26
whether a task has been met or completed. To measure the effectiveness of the use and
implementation of critical thinking skills, a pre/post-test was given to both the treatment
and control group. The purpose of the pre-test was to determine students’ prior
knowledge and application of critical thinking skills. The pretest was administered to
students the first day and prior to the teaching of content and critical thinking skills. The
purpose of the post-test data was to determine if any gains were made by the treatment
group and if the teaching of critical thinking had an impact on student learning. The posttest was administered after three weeks of treatment.
Reflection allows a teacher to grow, adapt, and measure their successes and
failures. A teacher who fails to reflect on their practice and the affect their practice has on
students, will never master the art of teaching and learning. The teaching of critical
thinking requires teachers to reflect on their own thinking and how information is
processed and sorted (Paul, 1990). Students can also reflect on their thinking and learning
through the use of self-reflection. In regards to teacher reflection, a reflective journal was
kept by the teacher and used to record challenges, successes, and failures. Journal
prompts (see Appendix B) were used to guide the teacher and answer key questions about
the outcomes and results of the study. A survey was used to document student reflection
(see Appendix C). The purpose of the survey was to have students provide feedback on
the implementation of critical thinking, and whether they felt the use of critical thinking
was beneficial to their academic success.
Validity, Reliability, Dependability and Bias
The integrity of this action research depended on validity, reliability,
dependability, and absence of bias. There are three types of validity. Content validity
Challenging Students to Think Critically
27
measures subject matter, construct validity measures feelings, and criterion validity
measures related variables. Dependability refers to whether the results would be
consistent and the same over time and with others (Hendricks, 2009). Bias can be defined
as any preconceived ideas about participants, setting, intervention, or the research process
itself (Hendricks, 2009).
This study focused on three components which included pedagogy, student
outcomes, and reflective practice. Data collection was important to each focus question
and ensured that the study was consistent and reliable. For focus question one which dealt
with pedagogy, an instructional plan rubric and interview were used to gather data.
Qualitative data was collected and content validity was used to measure how well the
instructional plan focused on content and the implementation of critical thinking skills.
To ensure dependability and check for bias two teachers were asked to review the
instructional plan and give extensive feedback using a rubric. The two teachers were also
interviewed and asked to check the transcripts for accuracy. Additionally, research was
done on the best instructional strategies to use in the implementation of critical thinking.
Student outcomes can be measured in many different ways. To ensure the
validity, reliability, dependability, and absence of bias for the second focus question
many measures and actions were taken. In this study, to measure student outcomes and
the impact of teaching critical thinking skills, a teacher made test was created and used as
the data gathering method. The type of data used to determine how well students
performed using critical thinking skills was interval because students were given scores
ranging from zero to one hundred. Since focus question two refers to student outcomes
and how the implementation of critical thinking skills enhances subject matter, content
Challenging Students to Think Critically
28
validity was used. The test was examined by the researcher and three other colleagues to
ensure that the test measured what was being taught and the use of critical thinking skills.
To ensure the reliability of data the test was administered to the same students at the same
time, a test-retest correlation was used for the pre-post test data collected from the
treatment group. To control for bias, the questions on the test were reviewed to confirm
that they were fair and inoffensive. This study does not affect individuals belonging a
particular group therefore there is no disparate impact.
The two data gathering methods that were used for focus question three was a
reflective journal and a survey. The reflective journal was used to record challenges,
failures, successes, and students’ attitudes and actions, while the survey was used to
determine how students felt about the use of critical thinking skills. Both content and
construct validity were used since the survey measured students feelings about the use of
critical thinking skills and the reflective journal was used to record the failures and
successes of implementing critical thinking skills. To ensure the dependability of the
reflective journal, reflections were recorded during the duration of the study and dated for
each entry. Reflections were persistent and prolonged and were guided by a list of
prompts that aligned to each focus question. To avoid being unfair or offensive, extra
care was taken to record accurate statements and observations. To ensure dependability
and fairness, the survey was administered at the same time to all students and the survey
was kept anonymous. Furthermore, the survey was field tested prior to the study and
aligned with each research question. The type of data used for focus question three was
nominal and qualitative. The reflective journal represented qualitative data since the
journal dealt with words and the survey represented nominal data since a Likert scale was
Challenging Students to Think Critically
29
used to determine students’ feelings about the use of critical thinking. To account for
reliability and correlation between student responses on the survey, Cronbach’s Alpha
was used.
Analysis of Data
To determine the strength of this study and whether critical thinking skills
improved academic achievement, four forms of data were collected: an instructional plan,
a reflective journal, a survey, and a pre/post-test. For focus question one the instructional
plan was qualitatively analyzed. Two colleagues reviewed the instructional plan and
evaluated the plan for recurring, dominant, and emerging themes. The two colleagues
were also interviewed. The researcher analyzed the transcripts of the interview to
determine if there were any recurring, dominant, or emerging themes. The purpose of this
analysis was to ensure that the instructional plan was coherent and aligned to standards
and content.
The second focus question was analyzed through the use of quantitative data. The
purpose of quantitative data is to analyze numbers and determine if there are connections
between the action being performed and the results from the action being performed. In
this study, a pre/post-test was used to determine if there were differences that existed
between the treatment group and the control group. To analyze the data and determine if
there were significant differences among the two groups a number of quantitative
methods were used. The scores from the pre and post-test were examined to determine
whether the use of critical thinking skills improved students’ academic success. In order
to analyze the data both a dependent and independent t-test was ran in excel. A dependent
t-test was used to examine students within the same group after being tested twice. The
Challenging Students to Think Critically
30
decision to reject the null hypothesis was set at p< .05. An independent t-test was used to
examine data between two independent groups. The null hypothesis stated that there was
no significant difference between the two groups and the decision to reject the null
hypothesis was set at p<.05. Furthermore, to measure the magnitude of treatment, an
effect size was used. For the independent-t tests Cohen’s D was used and for the
dependent test an effect size r was used. The purpose of this analysis was to determine if
there were significant differences between the treatment group and the control group.
For focus question three, two data sources were used to add validity and reliability
to the study. Qualitative data was gathered using a reflective journal. In order to identify
and classify recurring and dominant themes, the reflective journal was examined and
coded for themes aligned with each focus question. Quantitative data were gathered using
a survey. A chi square was used in order to measure students’ responses about the use of
critical thinking and determine which questions were significant and which questions
were not.
In order to analyze this study holistically, there must be four variables present:
validation, credibility, transferability, and transformability. Each variable ensures that the
study is indeed reliable, credible, dependable, valid, consistent and worthy of scholarly
recognition. There are two forms of validation. This study meets both forms of validation
because the study has been approved by the faculty of Lagrange College (consensual
validation). Credibility deals with collecting multiple forms of data to answer research
questions (Hendricks, 2009). One way to ensure credibility is to use structural
corroboration which is defined by Eisner (1991) as the process of compiling evidence
together to form a whole. Structural corroboration was undertaken by using an
Challenging Students to Think Critically
31
instructional plan, survey, reflective journal, and a teacher made test. To ensure fairness,
opposing viewpoints about the use and effects of critical thinking skills were mentioned
throughout the review of the literature found in chapter two. Extra care was taken to
ensure rightness of fit by conducting extensive research and making sure that all data
collection was accurate and precise. Data provides information and helps to make future
decisions, therefore proper methods and procedures were followed to create a coherent
case and allow for judgments to be made based on the data collected.
As stated in chapter two, many education reform models are promoting the
teaching of critical thinking skills. This study is important and transferable because it can
be duplicated by others and helpful to further research about the use of critical thinking
skills. Eisner (1991) believes that by using ‘referential adequacy’ the process of others
replicating a study for future research, a person’s perception and insight can be increased.
There are many benefits from using critical thinking skills. Due to the benefits of critical
thinking and the possible transformation it can have on students, this study is considered
to have catalytic validity. Catalytic validity is the degree to which a study can affect and
impact those involved (Lather as cited by Kinchole &Mcclaren, 1998).
No study can be effective or coherent without relying on dependability,
credibility, and transferability. From a holistic standpoint this study is built around the
accurate and precise collection of data, research and literature based on scholarly experts,
and a thorough and complete analysis of data.
Challenging Students to Think Critically
32
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
The results of this study are organized and presented by focus question. All data
collecting methods and how data was analyzed can be found in greater detail in Chapter
Three.
To ensure the implementation of critical thinking, an instructional plan was
designed for focus question one. Focus question one centered on the idea of how
effective the implementation of critical thinking would be using Socratic questioning,
problem solving, and concept maps. To determine the strength of the instructional plan
two educators were interviewed and asked to evaluate the instructional plan. Both
educators were asked four questions and given the same rubric in order to evaluate the
instructional plan. Qualitative data from the interview and evaluation was used to check
for recurring, dominant, and emerging themes. A recurring theme that resonated between
both educators was the fact that the instructional plan could include more specific
elements in the standards section. The dominant theme expressed by fellow educators
was the structure and layout of the instructional plan and how easy the plan can be
implemented by other teachers. The emerging theme centered on the idea that a variety of
assessments should be used to monitor students’ progress and use of critical thinking
skills. One educator suggested having students create their own assessments. The
feedback from my peers gave me an opportunity to make changes to the instructional
plan in an effort to effectively implement the use of critical thinking.
How critical thinking affects student achievement is the basis of focus question
two. Quantitative data were analyzed to determine if there were significant differences
between the treatment and control group. A pre/post test was administered to determine if
the use of critical thinking skills improved student achievement and academic success.
Challenging Students to Think Critically
33
An independent t-test was used to compare the pre-test results of the treatment and
control group to determine if there was a significant difference between the groups (see
Table 4.1). The null hypothesis suggested that there was no significant difference
between the scores of the control and treatment group.
Table 4.1 Independent t-test: Pre-test Scores Treatment vs. Control
t-Test: Two-Sample Assuming Equal Variances
Mean
Variance
Observations
Pooled Variance
Hypothesized Mean Difference
Df
t Stat
P(T<=t) one-tail
t Critical one-tail
P(T<=t) two-tail
t Critical two-tail
Pre Test
Pre Test
Treatment Control
37.6875
37.125
110.2292
189.45
16
16
149.8396
0
30
0.129973
0.448728
1.697261
0.897455
2.042272
t(16)=.12, p>.05
Since the obtained value, .12 was less than the critical value 1.74 the null hypothesis was
accepted. In order to determine the magnitude of treatment effect an effect size was used.
Since an independent t-test was ran Cohen’s d was used. The output generated from
Cohen’s d was .04, indicating a small effect between the two groups.
To test for the effect of the treatment, students were given a post-test. The scores
on the post-test were compared using an independent t-test to determine if there was a
significant difference between the groups (see Table 4.2). The null hypothesis indicated
that there was no significant difference between the two groups.
Challenging Students to Think Critically
Table 4.2 Independent t-test: Post-test Scores Treatment and Control Groups
t-Test: Two-Sample Assuming Equal Variances
Mean
Variance
Observations
Pooled Variance
Hypothesized Mean
Difference
Df
t Stat
P(T<=t) one-tail
t Critical one-tail
P(T<=t) two-tail
t Critical two-tail
Post Test
Post Test
Treatment
Control
56
51.5625
142.6667 253.1958333
16
16
197.9313
0
30
0.892126
0.189713
1.697261
0.379426
2.042272
t(16)=.89,p>.05
Since the obtained value, .89 was less than the critical value, 1.69, the null hypothesis
was accepted. To determine the magnitude of the treatment Cohen’s d was used. The
magnitude of range for the post-test between the treatment and control group was a
medium effect size since Cohen’s d was computed at .32.
To determine the significance between the pre-test and post-test scores of the
treatment group a one tailed dependent t-test was used (see Table 4.3).
34
Challenging Students to Think Critically
35
Table 4.3 Dependent t-test: Pre-test/Post-test Treatment Group
t-Test: Paired Two Sample for Means
Mean
Variance
Observations
Pearson Correlation
Hypothesized Mean
Difference
Df
t Stat
P(T<=t) one-tail
t Critical one-tail
P(T<=t) two-tail
t Critical two-tail
Pre-Test Post-Test
37.88235 55.47059
103.9853 138.5147
17
17
0.105165
0
16
-4.91994
7.69E-05
1.745884
0.000154
2.119905
t(17)=4.9,p<.05
Since the obtained value, 4.9 was greater than the critical value, 1.74, the null hypothesis
was rejected. To account for the magnitude of the treatment an effect size r was used. The
statistical notation of r=.62 suggested that there was a large effect between the scores of
the pre-test and post-test.
To measure the significance between the pre-test and post-test scores of the
control group, a dependent t-test was used (see Table 4.4).
Challenging Students to Think Critically
36
Table 4.4 Dependent t-test: Pre-test/Post-test Control Group
t-Test: Paired Two Sample for Means
Mean
Variance
Observations
Pearson Correlation
Hypothesized Mean
Difference
df
t Stat
P(T<=t) one-tail
t Critical one-tail
P(T<=t) two-tail
t Critical two-tail
Pre-Test Post-Test
36.94118 50.82353
178.1838 246.6544
17
17
0.651951
0
16
-4.65053
0.000133
1.745884
0.000267
2.119905
t(17)=4.65, p<.05
Since the obtained value 4.65 was greater that the critical value 1.74, the null hypothesis
was rejected. To account for the magnitude of the treatment an effect size r was used. The
statistical notation of r=.43 suggest that there was a large effect between the scores of the
pre-test and post-test.
Focus question three examined the attitudes of students and me. A reflection
journal was kept by me to record day to day occurrences and attitudes of both the
researcher and students. Writing prompts were used to ensure consistency throughout the
study. The data from the journal were coded for themes; emergent, dominant, and
recurring. A survey was also used as a data collecting method to determine how well
students felt about the use of critical thinking. Data from the survey were analyzed using
Chi Square and Cronbach’s Alpha.
Challenging Students to Think Critically
37
From observation and notes there was one recurring theme throughout the study.
The recurring theme revolved around student frustration. Frustration was observed more
than twenty times on different occasions. Frustration was only examined when students
had to apply critical thinking skills to the content matter. In other words students became
frustrated when they were assessed. In reaction to being frustrated most students
verbalized how they felt. Students would make comments like can we use the book, this
test or quiz is too hard, I’m tired of thinking, can we take a break for a day and chill. One
student commented “I’m frustrated because it’s too early in the morning to be thinking
like this. Another student remarked, “this stuff is overwhelming”. As a result of this
frustration I continued to encourage students to develop their thinking and use the skills
they were being taught.
The two dominant themes observed throughout this study were modeling and
opportunities. Modeling played a key role in helping students understand the skills
associated with critical thinking and how to apply those skills. Prior to each major project
and application of critical thinking skills, I modeled what I expected from students by
using examples, power points, and illustrations. The second part of the process was given
students several opportunities to practice and apply critical thinking skills to the content.
This allowed students an opportunity to become aware of the skills they were using and
knowledge of when to use certain skills. Students also gained confidence in using critical
thinking skills. One student shared, “Mr. Zack I used one of the skills in my Science class
on the other day. Over the course of four weeks it was evident that modeling and giving
students opportunities to practice and apply critical thinking skills was effective, because
students mostly remained on task, stayed focused, communicated with their group
Challenging Students to Think Critically
38
members, and were engaged in the lesson or task. There were very few occurrences of
cell phone use, excessive talking, and off task behaviors.
Two emerging themes were noted in the journal. The first emerging theme was
time and progress. As stated above giving students several opportunities increases their
chances of producing better work. This study focused on repetition and given students
opportunities to apply critical thinking skills. The results were higher quality work. This
was evidenced by higher grades the second or third go round and student confidence in
their product. For instance the first problem solving project was a fluke. I could have
decided to scratch it from the study but I wanted students to develop their skills and learn
from their mistakes. Not only did students score almost 30% higher they felt confident
and were excited about the product they presented to the class. The other emerging theme
was assessments. I learned that giving short quick assessments that tested for skills and
content was more beneficial than giving twenty multiple choice questions. It really
helped me discover my students’ weaknesses and what skills they needed more practice
with. For instance one quiz showed that students thought that Rome existed before
Greece.
Although the data analysis of the test showed no significance between the control
and treatment group, students ability to communicate what skills they were using and
when to use them greatly increased. Students did find the work challenging and complex.
One student remarked, “if college is this hard I’m not going. To my surprise I witnessed
very little occurrence of students being off task and no occurrences of students being
disruptive to the learning environment.
Challenging Students to Think Critically
39
A survey was given after the post-test to the treatment group. A Chi Square was
used to determine which questions were significant and which ones were not (see Table
4.5) The significance level was reported at the p<.05, p<.01 and the p<.001 levels.
Questions 1, 2, 16, 18, and 19 were significant at the p<.001 level. Questions 3, 8, 14,
and 15, and 20 were significant at the .01 level. Questions 4, 5, 7, 11, and 17 were
significant at the .05 level. All other questions were not significant to how critical
thinking affected students. Cronbach’s Alpha was run for internal consistency reliability
Table 4.5 Survey Data
Questions Post Test
n=21
Q1 My ability to solve problems on my own increased.
Q2 My ability to summarize details and information increased.
Q3 I know how to effectively create a graphic organizer to visualize key themes and
concepts
Q4 Critical thinking improved my ability to formulate questions and seek out
answers.
Q5 I felt I was more engaged and motivated to complete tasks or assignments
Q6 My ability to rely on others opinions and viewpoints to solve problems improved
Q7 Critical thinking helped me make connections between things learned and the real
world.
Q8 My ability to clarify ideas or concepts improved
Q9 When given a problem I can brainstorm ideas to solve the problem.
Q10 My ability to draw conclusions and predict outcomes was influenced by the use
of critical thinking.
Q11 I am able to find solutions to questions or problems without the teacher given the
answer.
Q12 Thinking skills should be taught as a part of the course content.
Q13 Thinking skills should be taught in all courses.
Q14 If given a problem or question I am able to determine which critical thinking
skills to use.
Q15 My ability to use content-specific tools to support learning and research
increased.
Q16 My ability to apply knowledge to new situations and create new knowledge
improved.
Q17 My ability to design and develop products using technology increased.
Q18 I feel more comfortable collaborating with peers about discussing and analyzing
problems.
Q19 After being taught, I am able to identify major concepts and explain their
relationships to ideas being taught.
Q20 Critical thinking increased my ability to evaluate and analyze information.
The next chapter will focus on the analysis of these results.
χ2
25.6***
17.6***
11.5**
10.8*
11.19*
4.3
9.67*
14.23**
3.57
4.7
8.14*
6.23
1.66
15**
15**
21***
11.19*
16.52***
17.6***
12.3**
Challenging Students to Think Critically
40
CHAPTER FIVE: ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Analysis of Results
The goal of this study was to determine if the implementation of critical thinking
skills increased academic achievement. In order to determine the effect critical thinking
skills had on students’ academic achievement, many data gathering methods were used.
The study was broken into three focus questions that guided the study in an effort to
analyze data
Focus question one related to what instructional strategies could be implemented
to foster critical thinking skills. In order to measure the outcome of focus question one,
three data gathering methods were used. These included an instructional plan, a rubric,
and an interview of two colleagues. The purpose of the instructional plan was to create a
blueprint of how the researcher would implement the use of critical thinking skills. The
instructional plan was designed based on the curriculum of the Georgia Performance
Standards (GPS). The instructional plan also interwove three instructional strategies into
the content outlined by the GPS. The three instructional strategies that were used
included; Socratic questioning, problem solving, and concept mapping. To determine the
validity of the instructional plan, a rubric was created and an interview with two
professional colleagues was conducted. The rubric was designed in order to provide
feedback to ensure that the instructional plan was aligned to state standards and
curriculum. A former department chair with over 25 years of teaching experience was
chosen to analyze the plan and provide feedback. The results revealed that the
instructional plan did indeed align with the GPS and overall was sound and formatted
very well. An interview of two educators was used to further determine the strength of
Challenging Students to Think Critically
41
the instructional plan. Qualitative data from the interview was used to check for
recurring, dominant, and emerging themes. The recurring theme that registered between
both educators was that the instructional plan could have included more specific
elements. The dominant theme expressed by fellow educators was the structure and
layout of the instructional plan and how easy the plan could be implemented by other
teachers. This is especially important for future research and researchers and relates to the
ideas of referential adequacy, the ability to easily replicate a study. Therefore researchers
interested in studying critical thinking skills can use the instructional plan in this study as
a source and guide. The emerging theme centered on the idea that a variety of
assessments should be used to monitor students’ progress of critical thinking skills. The
feedback that was given by both colleagues was instrumental in helping to create a better
instructional plan. The most beneficial change was the varied use of assessments. As a
result more challenging and creative assessments were created as opposed to the
mundane style of assessments often used by educators.
Focus question two focused on how critical thinking affected student
achievement. Quantitative data were analyzed to determine if there were significant
differences between the treatment group and control group. To determine whether the
treatment group and control group were on the same playing field prior to treatment a pre
test was administered to both groups. An independent t-test was used to compare the pretest results. The obtained value was .12 and the critical value was 1.69. The results from
the test indicated there was no significant difference between the two groups since the
obtained value was less that the critical value, alleging that the two groups were indeed
Challenging Students to Think Critically
42
on the same playing field prior to treatment. Furthermore the effect size which measures
the magnitude of treatment indicated that there was a small effect between the groups.
To determine whether critical thinking skills improved student achievement a post
test was administered to both groups and the results were analyzed using an independent
t-test. The obtained value was .89 and the critical value was 1.69. The results indicated
that even after the teaching of critical thinking skills to the treatment group, there was no
significant difference between the two groups. However, the magnitude of treatment
measured by Cohen’s d was considered to be medium which indicated that there was
some level of growth with the treatment group but not enough to reject the null
hypothesis or suggest any real significance. The whole basis of the study relied on the
post test between the two groups. However the results are not shocking pending what
Pogrow (1988) stated “It takes an extensive amount of time to produce results… at least
35 minutes a day, four days a week, for several months, for true thinking skills
development to occur”(p. 26). Most studies that have been done on critical thinking have
lasted at least one year in length. When acquiring new skills it takes students time to
develop and apply those skills effectively.
Additional results were obtained to determine whether the two groups post-test
scores showed any significance between their pre-test scores. In order to determine the
significance between the groups pre-test and post-test scores a one tailed dependent t-test
was used. The obtained value for the treatment group was 4.9 while the critical value was
1.74. Based on the results of the treatment group, there was a significant difference
between the pre/post test scores therefore rejecting the null hypothesis. Furthermore, the
results from the effect size (r=.62) indicated a large effect between the scores of the
Challenging Students to Think Critically
43
pre/post test. This simply meant that the treatment group was large enough to determine
whether the results yielded validity. However, these results are not conclusive because
the norm or expectation between the pre-post tests is to have significant gains since
teaching and instruction have occurred. The results for the control group also indicated
that there was a significant difference between the pre/post test scores. The obtained
value for the control group was 4.65 and the critical value was 1.74. Therefore the null
hypothesis was rejected. The results from the effect size (.43) indicated a large effect
between the scores of the pre-post test. As noted above, the control group was large
enough to yield valid results. It can be stated that since the effect size of the treated
group was higher than the effect size of the control group that the implementation of
critical think skills did have a small impact on student learning. The impact will be
discussed in more detail in focus question three and impact on student learning.
Focus question three dealt with the attitudes of students and the teacher. A
reflection journal and survey was used to monitor and record the attitudes of both the
teacher and students. The data from the journal was coded for themes and the survey was
analyzed using Chi Square and Cronbach’s Alpha.
A survey was given to the treatment group after the post-test to determine how
students felt about the use of critical thinking skills. The survey was a likert scale survey
and consisted of twenty questions. The significance level was reported at the p<.05,
p<.01 and the p<.001 levels. Questions 1, 2, 16, 18, and 19 were significant at the
p<.001 level, therefore these questions were highly significant to how students felt about
the use of critical thinking. Question 1asked students if their ability to solve problems on
their own increased? The majority of students chose somewhat or to a great extent. This
Challenging Students to Think Critically
44
indicated that student use of critical thinking skills helped them solve problems without
the assistance of peers or a teacher. Meyers (1986) stated that critical thinking in any
discipline takes the form of problem solving. The use of critical thinking skills enhanced
student learning and required students to use skills and steps in order to solve problems.
According to Bransford & Stein (1984) problem-based learning requires students to
identify what they know and need to know, define problems, generate solutions, and test
and evaluate their solutions. Question 2 asked students if their ability to summarize
details and information increased. The use of critical thinking skills allowed students to
analyze and interpret information. As a result students gained more knowledge and could
share more information because they were challenged to discover information instead of
passively learning information. Students became familiar with how to analyze, interpret,
and break down information into smaller parts in order to understand the big idea or
concept. Choy and Cheah (2009) cite Black by indicating that students are able to
improve their thinking skills if they are taught how to think. Question 16 asked if
students’ ability to apply knowledge to new situations and create new knowledge
improved. Again mostly all students chose somewhat or to a great extent. Students
understood that in order to gain new knowledge and understanding one must build off
prior and existent knowledge. Students were able to make connections and draw
conclusions and generalizations using the critical thinking skills they had been taught. As
recorded in the reflective journal many students indicated that the use of concept maps
greatly improved their ability to make connections. Thralls (1971) indicated that concept
teaching involves the process of brainstorming, grouping, identifying interrelationships,
and synthesizing. This is very important because students need to make connections
Challenging Students to Think Critically
45
between the content being taught and the world outside the classroom. Creating
classrooms where students can relate real-life issues to content enhances students’
motivation and learning because learning has meaning (Paul, 1990). Question 18 asked
students if they felt more comfortable collaborating with peers about discussing and
analyzing problems. The instructional strategies of concept mapping and problem solving
gave students several opportunities to discuss and analyze problems. From observation
students realized that each group member brought a different perspective to the table and
that their input was necessary to solve problems. Question 19 asked students if they were
able to identify major concepts and explain their relationships to ideas being taught. The
use of concept maps helped students break down information. Instead of lumping
material together as so many teachers do, students were able to take the big idea or
concept and within groups break information down into categories which allowed them to
see the relationship between ideas and major concepts. Brooks (1999) noted that
constructivism is the idea of constructing knowledge based on experiences and coming to
know one’s world in relation to nature and society. A Cronbach’s Alpha test was also run
on the student survey data to analyze the reliability of the survey. This test determined if
each item of the survey measured what it was intended to measure. The Cronbach’s
Alpha for this survey was α = 1.02. This showed that the internal reliability for this
survey was strong.
The results from the survey indicated that critical thinking skills increased
students’ ability to solve problems, make connections, summarize information, and
identify key concepts and their relationship to the content and the real world.
Challenging Students to Think Critically
46
During implementation of critical thinking a reflective journal was kept. The
reflective journal was analyzed qualitatively and was coded for themes. The one
recurring theme throughout the study revolved around student frustration. This was
evidenced by students’ remarks and often times their demeanor. Students often
complained that the work was hard or asked if they could use their book to take tests and
quizzes. Student frustration in my opinion occurred because students were not use to
applying critical thinking skills. Weil (2004) stated that for many students, the process of
critical thinking can be disturbing and unnerving because it forces students to examine
their thinking and that of others. The application of critical thinking skills takes a lot of
practice and patience on both the student and teacher part. Steinberg (2004) noted that
thinking skills must be used appropriately and that depends on students’ dispositions.
Furthermore, many students rely on the teacher to provide them with the answers instead
of using their brain and resources to find the answer. Paul (1990) revealed that most
students are accustomed to sitting back in class passively, and listening to others. The two
dominant themes observed throughout the study were teacher modeling and student
opportunities. In a nutshell, without the use of modeling and the repeated opportunities
that students were given, the implementation of critical thinking would have failed
miserably. Choy and Cheah (2009) suggested that teachers should foster a climate of high
expectations and teacher warmth to encourage students to express their thoughts and
ensure the success of critical thinking. Teachers must model what their expectations are
for students even if that means creating your own product for illustrative purposes.
Without teacher modeling and opportunities to practice, students would have become
extremely frustrated and would have shut down completely. The two emerging themes
Challenging Students to Think Critically
47
were time and progress and assessments. If you want to see progress from the use of
critical thinking skills you must give students time to develop and practice the skills
associated with critical thinking. Beyer (1987) wrote that thinking does not just happen
but must be coupled with purposeful instruction and time and also practiced. Giving
students time to develop their use of critical thinking skills yielded higher quality work
and awareness of which skills to use and when to use them. Cotton (1991) noted that
researchers have found that repeated systematic instruction directly in the thinking
operations or skills by which people apply their thinking can sharply enhance their
thinking skills. This is evident because student work improved drastically over the
course of the four weeks. As noted in chapter four I was ready to eliminate the problem
solving component due to the poor products that were turned in the first time. However,
the products turned in the second and third time were quality works and the students
appreciated their work and contribution. As far as assessment, I am convinced that giving
short rigorous assessments is more beneficial than the standard way of testing. Not only
did it allow me to discover students’ weaknesses it also allowed students to reflect and
analyze what information they needed to brush up on. King (1995) stated that real
assessments and evaluation should reflect more accurately the outcome of classroom
instruction and provide evidence of the success or failure of that instruction. Effective
assessments allow teachers and students to create an atmosphere of growth and progress
because students and teachers are constantly evaluating themselves and others.
Discussion
The purpose of this research study was to determine if the implementation of
critical thinking skills would enhance or improve student achievement. The results from
Challenging Students to Think Critically
48
the post test between the control and treatment group indicated that there was no
significant difference between the two groups. The main explanation for why the study
produced the results can be contributed to the amount of time the study lasted. Although
students were given ample opportunities to practice skills and recommendations by
notable researchers in the field of critical thinking were followed, it is clear that critical
thinking takes time to implement in order to see positive results that lead to meaningful
conclusions and findings. Critical thinking requires training, practice, and patience. Also
it must be noted that students at first will resist learning especially when learning a new
skill. Critical thinking requires the learning of many new skills and students must also
know in which context to use these newly acquired skills. Most students have been taught
in the traditional manner and are expected to disseminate information whether than apply
information. The findings of this study support the barriers of critical thinking that were
outlined in Chapter Two’s literature review.
From the findings it is clear that teachers must create environments that foster
critical thinking skills and must model what they expect students to do. It is also clear
that assessments must reflect what students are being taught and that assessments should
be varied to promote feedback and reflection. The implementation of critical thinking can
be accomplished if teachers create supportive environments and allow for student growth
and progress, and if ample time is allotted to effectively implement critical thinking.
Meyers (1986) stated “creating a classroom environment that encourages discussion,
questions, probing, and pondering, will go a long way toward fostering critical thinking”
(p. 116). This study echoed the findings of Pogrow (1988) who stated, “it takes an
extensive amount of time to produce results… at least 35minutes a day, four days a week,
Challenging Students to Think Critically
49
for several months, for true thinking skills development to occur” (p. 26). This study is
relevant because it relied on the recommendations of notable researchers like Barry Beyer
and Richard Paul who have spent countless hours researching the use of critical thinking.
Furthermore, the call for rigor and use of critical thinking skills in the educational arena
has become a major push in the 21st century.
To account for credibility and structural corroboration, multiple data sources
were used including an instructional plan, a rubric, pre-test and post-test scores, a student
survey, and a reflective journal. During the review of literature on the implementation of
critical thinking opposing viewpoints were presented to achieve fairness in the research.
Although the results of the study did not support the research that critical thinking
increases student achievement as measured by higher test scores, the use of critical
thinking helped students make connections, solve problems, and identify key concepts
and their relationship to the content and the real world.
Implications
Unfortunately the results from the post test data between the treatment group and
the control group indicated that there was no significant difference between the two
groups. Due to the small sample size this study cannot be generalized to the larger
population. The five major themes discovered throughout the study were time and
progress, assessments, modeling, opportunities, and frustration. Pertaining to referential
adequacy, this study is transferable to other situations because all teachers regardless of
grade level will face these five major themes especially when introducing new skills.
Whenever teachers present students with a new strategy or skill students will always
resist, therefore teachers must give students time and opportunities, model for students
Challenging Students to Think Critically
50
what they expect, create meaningful assessments, and allow students to grow by
providing feedback and encouragement.
I think for my students they walked away realizing that the skills they had been
taught could be applied to any situation and any subject. In other words they understood
that critical thinking skills were skills that could be used in everyday life. Everyone in life
at some point has to clarify their thinking, make a judgment call, or predict what may
happen. These are all examples of using critical thinking skills in life. More importantly
jobs are now seeking individuals that posses these skills.
It definitely takes a lot of time and preparation to incorporate critical thinking
skills into a unit. Teaching critical thinking forces you to constantly reflect and make
changes based on student performance and results. However, I am dedicated to
incorporating critical thinking into every unit I teach and prepare. I feel that knowledge is
best suited when you apply it and critical thinking forces you to apply what you have
learned. The most important transformation I experienced from this study was realizing
that modeling and providing students with time and support helped them achieve success.
Lastly, I stepped out my comfort zone and created assessments that mirrored the skills
and content I taught to students. Not only were these assessments fun to create, they
actually challenged students to use their brain and the skills associated with critical
thinking. Although, these assessments are harder to grade they give you a better
indication of what students know and the areas they are weak in.
Impact on Student Learning
According to the research, there were many benefits associated with critical
thinking. It has been noted that critical thinking increases standardized test scores,
Challenging Students to Think Critically
51
improved academic achievement, and enhanced study habits. This thesis impacted
student learning because students were exposed and inaugurated on the use of critical
thinking skills. This is important especially since colleges and 21st century jobs are
calling for students who possess thinking skills and know how to apply knowledge and
information. However, according to the findings for this study critical thinking had the
following affects; (1) students were on task and engaged, (2) students were aware of the
critical thinking skills they were using and when to use particular skills, (3) increased
student interaction and the sharing of ideas, (4) increased ability to break down
information, (5) increased ability to make connections and, (6) increased ability to justify
answers.
Recommendations for Future Research
The teaching of critical thinking takes a lot of time, patience, reflection, and
practice. One area to be cautious of is making sure that students understand and follow
the steps involved with applying critical thinking skills. Many times students tried to skip
steps they felt were unnecessary. I would recommend putting thinking quotes around the
room or have students create their own quotes and display them around the room. This set
the tone and promoted a thinking environment. The one area I placed little emphasis on
was writing. I feel that I should have assigned more writing and allowed students an
opportunity to express themselves. I would certainly recommend that writing be heavily
included in the use of critical thinking skills, especially as an analytical approach.
Pertaining to strategies, students favored the use of concept mapping because they were
able to breakdown information and make connections to the big idea and the real world.
As outlined earlier make sure you model what you expect students to do, create an
Challenging Students to Think Critically
environment that supports student ideas and creativity, allow time for growth and
progress and create assessments that target content and skills.
52
Challenging Students to Think Critically
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Challenging Students to Think Critically
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Appendix A
Instructional Plan
Unit: Rome & Greece
Overview
Subject: World History
Duration: 3-4 weeks
Content: Content will focus on the origin and structure
Content: Content will focus on the origin and structure
Content: Content will focus on comparing and
Content: Review of unit
of government in Greece, the ideas and impact of
of government in Rome, the role of religion, the factors
contrasting the societies of Greece and Rome,
Action Plan: Teacher and students will reflect on the use of
individuals like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, the role
that led to the fall of the Roman empire, and the impact
the influence of Greek society on Roman
critical thinking skills. Students will take a survey on the use
of religion, the role of technology, and the contribution
of trade and technology in Rome.
culture and society, and the effects of Greece
of critical thinking skills and will reflect through discussion
and Rome on American society.
on
of Hellenistic culture
Action Plan: Teacher will teach the purpose of problem
Action Plan: The teacher will begin with defining
solving and outline the steps and skills associated with
Action Plan: Students will use all three
terms relating to critical thinking. Next the teacher will
problem solving. Students will be given an opportunity
instructional strategies to further examine the
provide students with examples and give students an
to practice problem solving before full implementation.
societies of Greece and Rome so that students
opportunity to practice thinking skills. Students will
In groups students will be given a problem related to
are able to make generalizations, analyze the
also be introduced to concepts and the steps behind
content to study and research. Students will follow
differences and similarities between the two
concept mapping so that students are able to connect
problem solving steps and present their solution and
societies, examine the impact of Greece and
content, knowledge, and experiences. From examples
analysis.. Teacher will also use Socratic questioning to
Rome on today’s society.
students will create their own concept map. Teacher
connect students to themes and assess students
will also use Socratic questioning to connect students
understanding of content.
to themes and assess students understanding of
content.
Methods
Standards
Direct Instruction, Infusion of content and thinking
Direct Instruction, Infusion of content and thinking
Direct Instruction, Infusion of content and
skills, cooperative groups, Socratic Questioning,
skills, cooperative groups, Socratic Questioning,
thinking skills, cooperative groups, Socratic
Concept Teaching/Mapping
Concept Teaching/Mapping
Questioning, Concept Teaching/Mapping
The students will examine the political, philosophical,
The students will examine the political, philosophical,
The students will examine the political,
The students will examine the political, philosophical, and
and cultural interaction of classical Mediterranean
and cultural interaction of classical Mediterranean
philosophical, and cultural interaction of
cultural interaction of classical Mediterranean societies from
societies from 700 BCE to 400 CE.
societies from 700 BCE to 400 CE.
classical Mediterranean societies from 700 BCE
700 BCE to 400 CE.
to 400 CE.
Post-Test, Review, Survey
Challenging Students to Think Critically
61
Enduring
Students will understand that when there is conflict
Students will understand that when there is conflict
Students will understand that when there is
Students will understand that when there is conflict between
Understandings
between or within societies change is the result.
between or within societies change is the result.
conflict between or within societies change is
or within societies change is the result.
Students will understand that the action of individuals,
Students will understand that the action of individuals,
the result.
Students will understand that the action of individuals,
groups, and or institutions affect society through
groups, and or institutions affect society through
Students will understand that the action of
groups, and or institutions affect society through intended
intended consequences.
intended consequences.
individuals, groups, and or institutions affect
consequences.
Students will understand that technological
Students will understand that technological innovations
society through intended consequences.
Students will understand that technological innovations have
innovations have consequences both intended and
have consequences both intended and unintended for
Students will understand that technological
consequences both intended and unintended for society.
unintended for society.
society.
innovations have consequences both intended
Students will be able to improve their thinking and thinking
Students will be able to improve their thinking through
Students will be able to improve their thinking and
and unintended for society.
skills through the use of problem solving and concept
the use and practice of thinking skills.
thinking skills through the use of problem solving and
Students will be able to improve their thinking
learning
Students will be able to identify major concepts and
concept learning
and thinking skills through the use of problem
explain the relationships between concepts and ideas
solving and concept learning
being taught
Assessment
Pre Test, Warm Ups, Quiz, Concept Mapping, Writing
Pre Test, Warm Ups, Quiz, Concept Mapping, Writing
Pre Test, Warm Ups, Quiz, Concept Mapping,
Responses. Socratic questioning, Debates &
Responses. Socratic questioning, Debates & Discussions
Writing Responses. Socratic questioning,
Discussions and Self-Assessment
and Self-Assessment
Debates & Discussions Essay and Self-
Post-Test
Assessment
Materials
Handouts on themes, handout on critical thinking skills
Handouts on problem solving, handouts on themes,
Handouts on problem solving, handouts on
and definitions, examples of concept mapping,
handout on critical thinking skills and definitions,
themes, handout on critical thinking skills and
handout on concepts, daily warm up, internet, and
examples of concept mapping, handout on concepts,
definitions, examples of concept mapping,
journal
warm ups, internet, and journal
handout on concepts, warm ups, internet, and
Post-Test, Survey, and Journal
journal
Themes
Location, Beliefs and Ideals, Conflict and Change,
Location, Beliefs and Ideals, Conflict and Change,
Location, Beliefs and Ideals, Conflict and
Location, Beliefs and Ideals, Conflict and Change, Human
Human Environment, Individuals//Groups /Institutions
Human Environment, Individuals//Groups /Institutions
Change, Human Environment,
Environment, Individuals//Groups /Institutions and
and Technological Innovation
and Technological Innovation
Individuals//Groups /Institutions and
Technological Innovation
Technological Innovation
Skills
Cause and Effect, Inferences, Formulating Questions,
Cause and Effect, Inferences, Formulating Questions,
Cause and Effect, Inferences, Formulating
Cause and Effect, Inferences, Formulating Questions,
Identifying Assumptions, Analyzing Information,
Identifying Assumptions, Analyzing Information,
Questions, Identifying Assumptions, Analyzing
Identifying Assumptions, Analyzing Information, Predicting
Predicting Consequences, Identifying Central Issues,
Predicting Consequences, Identifying Central Issues,
Information, Predicting Consequences,
Consequences, Identifying Central Issues, and Drawing
and Drawing Conclusions.
and Drawing Conclusions.
Identifying Central Issues, and Drawing
Conclusions.
Conclusions.
Challenging Students to Think Critically
62
Essential
Will the use of questioning, problem solving, and
Will the use of questioning, problem solving, and
Will the use of questioning, problem solving,
Will the use of questioning, problem solving, and concept
Questions
concept learning, increase student achievement and use
concept learning, increase student achievement and use
and concept learning, increase student
learning, increase student achievement and use of critical
of critical thinking skills?
of critical thinking skills?
achievement and use of critical thinking skills?
thinking skills?
Will students appropriately use critical thinking skills
Will students appropriately use critical thinking skills
Will students appropriately use critical thinking
Will students appropriately use critical thinking skills after
after the teaching and practice of critical thinking
after the teaching and practice of critical thinking skills?
skills after the teaching and practice of critical
the teaching and practice of critical thinking skills?
skills?
thinking skills?
How will students respond to the use of critical
How will students respond to the use of critical
thinking?
thinking?
How will students respond to the use of critical thinking?
How will students respond to the use of critical
thinking?
Are students more engaged and motivated to learn when
Are students more engaged and motivated to learn
using critical thinking?
when using critical thinking?
using critical thinking?
Are students more engaged and motivated to
learn when using critical thinking?
What role or influence does Rome and Greece have on
What role or influence does Rome and Greece have on
America today?
America today?
government?
America today?
have on America today?
government?
What role or influence does Rome and Greece have on
What role or influence does Rome and Greece
Would you prefer a society based on religion or
Would you prefer a society based on religion or
Are students more engaged and motivated to learn when
Would you prefer a society based on religion or
government?
Would you prefer a society based on religion or government?
Challenging Students to Think Critically
63
Appendix B
Reflective Journal Questions
1. What attitude or behaviors do students exhibit when using critical thinking skills?
Are students on task, off task, or gazing into space?
2. Can students identify the appropriate skills they are using and justify why they
chose a particular skills if asked?
3. Are students actively engaged when using critical thinking skills to complete
assignments?
4. When solving problems how well do students interact and share their ideas and
opinions as a group?
5. Are students able to provide examples of how information, ideas, and concepts
relate to the real world?
6. In what ways could I modify lessons or activities to make the implementation of
critical thinking more effective?
7. What would I change in order to improve student learning?
8. Were goals met for the purpose of this study? If not what goals were not met and
why?
9.
What are some interesting facts that I learned or witnessed?
10. What benefits are apparent from the use of critical thinking skills?
11. Do students show excitement about the use of critical thinking skills?
12. Do students produce better quality work and products?
13. What are three things I learned about critical thinking from this study?
14. What surprised me about the implementation of critical thinking?
15. Which strategy do I feel was the most effective for students and which strategy
did students tend to favor or respond better to?
Challenging Students to Think Critically
64
Appendix C
Student Survey
Please respond to each of the following statements by circling the response that most
accurately reflects your beliefs about the use of critical thinking.
Use the following scale to respond to each question
1=Not At All
2=Very Little
3=Somewhat
1. My ability to solve problems on my own increased.
1
2
4=To a Great Extent
3
4
2. My ability to summarize details and information increased
1
2
3
4
3. I know how to effectively create a graphic organizer to visualize key themes and
concepts.
1
2
3
4
4. Critical thinking improved my ability to formulate questions and seek out answers.
1
2
3
4
5. I felt I was more engaged and motivated to complete tasks or assignments.
1
2
3
4
6. My ability to rely on others opinions and viewpoints to solve problems improved.
1
2
3
4
7. Critical thinking helped me make connections between things learned and the real
world
1
2
3
4
8. My ability to clarify ideas or concepts improved.
1
2
3
9. When given a problem I can brainstorm ideas to solve the problem
1
2
3
4
4
10. My ability to draw conclusions and predict outcomes was influenced by the use of
critical thinking skills.
1
2
3
4
11. I am able to find solutions to questions or problems without the teacher given the
answer.
1
2
3
4
Challenging Students to Think Critically
12. Thinking skills should be taught as a part of the course content.
1
2
3
4
13. Thinking skills should be taught in all courses.
1
2
4
3
65
14. If given a problem or question I am able to determine which critical thinking skills to
use.
1
2
3
4
15. My ability to use content-specific tools to support learning and research increased.
1
2
3
4
16. My ability to apply knowledge to new situations and create new knowledge
improved.
1
2
3
4
17. My ability to design and develop products using technology increased.
1
2
3
4
18. I feel more comfortable collaborating with peers about discussing and analyzing
problems.
1
2
3
4
19. After being taught, I am able to identify major concepts and explain their
relationships to ideas being taught.
1
2
3
4
20. Critical thinking increased my ability to evaluate and analyze information
1
2
3
4