Chapter Two Study Guide
Research Methods
Instructions: Answer all Key Questions and define terms in your own words when possible.
Definitions in the readings are often better than the margin definitions
Key Question: How do psychologists develop new knowledge?
Core Concept:
Scientific Method:
Empirical Investigation:
Theory:
Hypothesis:
Operational Definitions:
Random Presentation:
Independent Variable:
Dependent Variable:
Data:
Replicate:
Clinical Research
1.
2.
Experimental
Correlational (e.g., observational, survey, clinical)
Types of Psychological Research
A. Experimental Method:
Confounding or Extraneous Variables:
Controls:
Random Assignment:
Ex-post Facto:
B. Correlational Study:
C. Survey Method:
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D. Naturalist Observation:
E. Case Study: (Not in book) A case study is one type of observational data collection technique in which one
individual is studied in-depth in order to identify behavioral, emotional, and/or cognitive qualities that are
universally true, on average, of others.
Case studies often include face-to-face interviews, paper and pencil tests, and more
F. Longitudinal Study:
G. Cross-sectional Study:
H. Cohort-sequential Study:
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Personal Bias:
Expectancy Bias:
Single-Blind Study:
Double -Blind Study:
Placebo:
Placebo Effect:
Random Sample:
Ethics In Research
Institutional Review Board: (IRB)
Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee: (IACUC):
Deception: Good and Bad?
Animal Studies
Questions Science Can Not Answer
p.39
The scientific methods in not appropriate for answering questions that cannot be put to an objective, empirical test.
Some examples….
Ethics: What are the ethical issues involved in animal research
Values: Which culture had the best attitude towards work/leisure?
Morality: When is it morally acceptable to go to war?
Preferences: Is rap music better than blues music?
Aesthetics: Was Picasso more creative than Van Gogh
Existential Issues: What is the meaning of life?
Religion: How do people of faith explain natural disasters?
Law: What should the speed limit be on a highway
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STATISTICS
Descriptive and Inferential
Key Question: How Do We Make Sense Of The Data?
Core Concept:
A. Descriptively …
B. Inferentially …
Frequency Distribution:
Histogram:
1. Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive Statistics:
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Measures of Central Tendency…or averages
The central point around which the scores seem to cluster
Mean:
Median:
Mode:
Range:
Mean, Median, Mode, Range
All are descriptive statistics and measures of central tendency
Standard Deviation:
Normal Distribution:
Statistical Significance:
Correlation:
Correlation Coefficient:
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2. Inferential Statistics
Inferential Statistics:
Random Sample:
Representative Sample:
Significant Difference:
Indicated by notation p < .05
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Notes
Five Steps of the Scientific Method
1. Develop a hypothesis
2. Perform a controlled test
3. Gather objective data
4. Analyze the results
5. Publish, criticize, and REPLICATE the results
The independent variable is the thing that someone actively controls/changes; while
the dependent variable is the thing that changes as a result.
For example………
--In a study of how different dosages of a drug are related to the severity of symptoms of a
disease, a measure of the severity of the symptoms of the disease is a dependent variable.
--The administration of the drug in specified doses is the independent variable.
--Researcher will compare the different values of the dependent variable (severity of the
symptoms) and attempt to draw a conclusion.
The Experimental Method
Basic Purpose: to explore cause and effect
How Conducted: manipulate one or more factors, use random assignment
What is Manipulated?: the independent variables
Weaknesses: Sometimes not feasible
Results may not generalize to other contexts
Not ethical to manipulate certain variables
Correlational Study
Basic Purpose: To detect naturally occurring relationships
To assess how well one variable predicts another
How Conducted: compute statistical association, sometimes among survey responses
What is Manipulated?: nothing
Weaknesses: does not specify cause and effect
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************************ Other Terms to Know ************************.
Pseudoscience: fake science…has not survived trial by the scientific method
Experimental group: Those in the study that get the special treatment, such as a new drug
Control group: Those in the study that get the placebo
Quantified: Concepts that are measured and expressed as numbers.
Often presented in graph form.
This type of data is generally obtained when you conduct experimental research.
False Consensus Effect: The tendency to overestimate others’ agreement with us.
Example: Vegetarians will think more people are vegetarians that will meat eaters.
Scatterplots: A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables.
--The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables.
--The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation
Correlation Coefficient: A number between –1 and +1 expressing a degree of relationship between two variables
1. If people have high scores on one variable also have high scores on another, the correlation is positive
The Correlation Coefficient is also positive ex: +.03
2. If people have high scores on one variable, but low on another, the correlation is negative
The Correlation Coefficient is also negative…(less than 0)
3. Zero means there is no relationship between scores
**Does NOT tell about cause and effect
Simply gives information on the direction and strength of the relationship
Significant Difference: Psychologists accept a difference between groups to be ‘real’ or significant
when the probability that in might be due to chance is less than 5 in 100 Indicated by notation p < .05
p<.05 = chance of very little influence
p<.01 = (less 1-100) more strict
p<.001 = (less 1-100) more strict
APA Psychological Academic Paper Outline
1. Abstract
2. Introduction
3. Method
4. Results
5. Discussion
6. References
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