ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОЕ ОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНОЕ УЧРЕЖДЕНИЕ
ВЫСШЕГО ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНОГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ
«КАРЕЛЬСКАЯ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННАЯ ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКАЯ АКАДЕМИЯ»
Science: Facts and Fun
Авторы-составители:
Орельская О.А.,
ст. преподаватель кафедры ИЯ;
Алексеева А.М.,
ассистент кафедры ИЯ
Рецензент:
Гусева С.Г. , к.п.н., доцент,
кафедра английского языка
как основной специальности
Петрозаводск
2010
Пояснительная записка
Данное учебно-методическое пособие по дисциплине «английский язык»
разработано для студентов физико-математического факультета с учетом специфики
факультета.
Пособие представляет собой сборник текстов для чтения по специальности с
заданиями к ним. Пособие состоит из трех частей: “Famous Physicists and
Mathematicians”, “Texts on Sciences” и “Supplementary reading”. Тексты носят научнопублицистический характер.
Основными целями данного сборника являются развитие у студентов неязыковых
факультетов умений чтения литературы по специальности, расширение лексического
запаса, совершенствование лексико-грамматических навыков, полученных на уроках
иностранного языка в школе. Вариативность заданий к текстам предусматривает
развитие у студентов умений, необходимых для разных видов чтения –
ознакомительного, изучающего, поискового.
Данное учебное пособие может быть использовано как для аудиторной работы, так и
для самостоятельной работы студентов.
2
Chapter I
Famous Mathematicians and Physicists
Famous Mathematicians
Part I
I. Read the text and find out about the mathematicians and their contributions in the
subject of mathematics.
Archimedes
Archimedes is remembered as the greatest
mathematician of the ancient era. He contributed significantly in
geometry regarding the areas of plane figures as well as the
volumes of curved surfaces. His works expected integral calculus
almost 2000 years before it was invented by Sir Isaac Newton
and Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz. He also proved that the
volume of a sphere is equal to two-thirds the volume of a
circumscribed cylinder. He regarded this as his most vital
accomplishment. So, he desired that a cylinder circumscribing a
sphere ought to be inscribed on his tomb. He found an
approximate value of pi by circumscribing and inscribing a circle
with regular polygons of 96 sides. His works have original ideas,
impressive demonstrations and excellent computational
techniques. Some of these which have survived are: on the
sphere and cylinder, measurement of a circle, on conoids and
spheroids, on spirals, on plane equilibriums; the sand reckoner,
quadrature of the parabola, on floating bodies, stomachion.
Euclid
Euclid is the most famous mathematician of all time. "Euclid's Elements" is divided
into 13 books. The initial six are related to plane geometry; seven, eight and nine concern
number theory; number ten is regarding Eudoxus's theory of irrational numbers; eleven to
thirteen comprise solid geometry; the last part throws light on the properties of five regular
polyhedrons and an evidence that there can be maximum five of these.
The Elements has an impressive clarity regarding the selection and order of the
theorems and problems. There are minimum assumptions, little extraneous material and an
excellent logic in the propositions. The Elements was first published in 1482. The other works of
Euclid which have survived are: optics, phenomena, on divisions of figures.
Sir Isaac Newton
Newton created the basis for elementary differential and integral calculus during the
plague years. This occurred several years prior to its independent discovery by the German
mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz. He called it the method of fluxions. He
proposed that the integration of a function is the opposite procedure of its differentiation. Using
differentiation as a basic operation, he developed simple analytical methods concerning issues
like finding areas, lengths of curves, maxima and minima. Newton is credited for development
of a potent problem solving and analysis tool in pure mathematics and physics.
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II. Find the English equivalents from the text and make up sentences with them.
1) выяснить/узнать;
5) приближенное значение;
2) вклад в математику;
6) измерение;
3) площадь;
7) стереометрия;
4) равный;
8) многогранник.
III. Complete and translate these mathematical terms into Russian.
1) p… figures;
6) qu… of the parabola;
2) c… surfaces;
7) nu… theory;
3) int… calculus;
8) irr… numbers;
4) re… polygons;
9) l… of curves.
5) pl… equilibriums;
IV. Read the sentences and say if they are true or false (according to the text).
1) The article focuses on the contributions in the subject of mathematics of some famous
mathematicians.
2) Archimedes contributed in algebra regarding the areas of plane figures and the volumes of
curved surfaces.
3) Archimedes wanted a regular polygon to be inscribed on his tomb.
4) “Euclid’s Elements” is devoted to such topics as plane geometry, number theory and integral
calculus.
5) W. Leibniz discovered elementary differential and integral calculus several years after Sir
Isaac Newton.
V. Answer the questions.
1. What did Archimedes think to be his most important contribution in mathematics?
2. Who is considered to be the inventor of integral calculus?
3. How many parts does “Euclid’s Elements” consist of?
4. Why is Euclid’s work appreciated so highly?
Famous Mathematicians
Part II
I. Read the text and name the mathematicians and
their contributions in the subject of mathematics.
Pythagoras
He was a Greek mathematician. His belief was
that all relations could be expressed as number relations,
i.e. all things are numbers. He deduced this conclusion
due to observations in mathematics, music and
astronomy. The Pythagorean theorem is thought to be
first proved by the Pythagoreans. However, it is thought
that this was known in Babylonia, where Pythagoras
traveled in his young days. The Pythagoreans also
observed that vibrating strings created harmonious tones if the ratios of the length of the strings
are whole numbers. These ratios could be extended to other devices also. The important
discovery was that the diagonal of a square was not an integral multiple of its side. This led to
the proof of existence of irrational numbers.
4
Blaise Pascal
The French mathematician was involved in imaginative and subtle work in geometry
and other branches of mathematics. In 1645, Pascal invented the first calculating machine and
sold it. His work in hydrostatics led to the invention of the syringe and hydraulic press. In 1647,
he published an essay on conic sections using the methods of Gerard Desargues and deserted the
field of mathematics. However, later he developed an interest in probability due to his
involvement in gambling.
Carl Friedrich Gauss
Gauss was a German mathematician. While he attended Caroline college from 1792 to
1795, he formulated the least-squared method and a surmise on the distribution of prime
numbers amongst all numbers. In 1795, he discovered the basic theorem of quadratic residues
relating to the concept of congruence in number theory. In 1796, he proved the possibility of
constructing a 17-sided regular polygon with the help of a ruler and compass only. In 1799, his
dissertation revealed the first evidence of the fundamental theorem of algebra. In 1801, his
treatise – Disquisitiones arithmeticae set a basis for future research and enabled Gauss to have a
major recognition amongst mathematicians. He became very popular when he correctly
predicted where the asteroid Ceres would reappear by calculating the orbit by an improved
theory.
II. Find the English equivalents of the following Russian phrases and make up sentences
with them.
1) отношение/пропорция;
2) целые числа;
3) простые числа;
4) линейка;
5) доказательство
III. Complete and translate the following phrases into Russian.
1) a c … machine;
4) an important dis…;
2) the Pythagorean th…;
5) the pr… of existence;
3) the basic theorem of qu… residues;
6) the inv… of the syringe and hydraulic press.
IV. Read the sentences and say if they are true or false (according to the text).
1) Pythagoras thought that it was possible to express all relations through numbers.
2) Pythagoras was first to formulate the Pythagorean Theorem.
3) Blaise Pascal, the German mathematician, invented the first calculating machine and sold it.
4) Pascal’s involvement in gambling contributed to his interest in probability.
5) Carl Gauss became well-known among mathematicians soon after graduating from college.
5
Sofya Kovalevsky
(1850-1891)
I. Read the text and say why S. Kovalevsky’s scientific career may be described as a ‘long,
hard road to success’.
Russian mathematician Sofya Kovalevsky was born in Moscow, Russia, the daughter of
a minor nobleman. She became interested in mathematics at a very young age, when an uncle
discussed mathematical concepts with her. Because of a wallpaper shortage, her nursery was
papered with her father's lecture notes from a course in calculus, and at age 11 she studied the
notes, recognizing principles her uncle had discussed. Under a tutor, she became so enamored
with mathematics that she neglected her other studies.
When her father stopped her mathematics lessons, Kovalevsky borrowed an algebra
book and read it while the family slept. At age 14 she read a physics textbook written by a
neighbor and taught herself trigonometry so that she could understand the optics section. The
neighbor recognized her ability and persuaded her father to send her to St. Petersburg, Russia, to
continue her education.
The story of Kovalevsky's adult life was one of doors closing in her face because she
was a woman. After finishing her secondary education, she arrived in Heidelberg, Germany, in
1869 to study mathematics and natural sciences, only to discover that the university did not
admit women. Instead, she attended classes unofficially for three semesters. In 1870 she decided
to try her fortunes at the University of Berlin. Again, the university did not admit women, but an
eminent professor agreed to tutor her privately. By 1874 she had written papers on Abelian
integrals and Saturn's rings. A third paper, on partial differential equations, was published in an
influential mathematics journal. On the recommendation of Kovalevsky's tutor, the German
University of Göttingen granted her a Ph.D. in 1874.
Unable to get a job teaching mathematics, Kovalevsky returned home, where shortly
after her arrival, her father died. In her grief she neglected mathematics for the next 6 years.
Instead, she wrote fiction, theater reviews, and science articles for a newspaper. Later in her life,
Kovalevsky would go on to write plays.
In 1880 Kovalevsky resumed her study of mathematics. In 1882 she began work on the
refraction of light and published three papers on the subject. Finally, in 1883 a door opened—
she was granted a temporary appointment at the University of Stockholm in Sweden, where she
taught courses in the latest mathematical topics. There she published a paper on crystals in 1885.
She was appointed editor of a new journal, Ada Mathematics and organized conferences with
leading mathematicians.
In 1888 Kovalevsky entered a paper titled "On the Rotation of a Solid Body about a
Fixed Point" in a competition sponsored by the French Academy of Science. The committee
thought so highly of the paper that it increased the prize money. In 1889 she won a prize from
the Swedish Academy of Sciences for further work on the same topic and was elected as a
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corresponding member to the Imperial Academy of Sciences in Russia. Later that year the
university granted her status as a professor.
Unfortunately, Kovalevsky's triumph did not last long. In 1891, at the summit of her
career, she died of pneumonia in Stockholm. She was just 41 years of age.
II. Find the English equivalents of the following Russian words and phrases.
1) научная карьера; 2) заметки; 3) наставник/репетитор; 4) продолжить обучение;
5) естественные науки; 6) посещать занятия; 7) принимать/допускать; 8) научные статьи;
9) увеличить что-либо; 10) состязание.
III. Complete the sentences.
1) Sofya Kovalevsky became … Maths when she was a child.
2) Sofya recognized the mathematical principles her uncle had discussed as the walls of her
nursery were papered with …
3) Sofya studied trigonometry in order to …
4) After studying in Saint Petersburg Sofya left for …
5) In 1874 she obtained a degree of a …
6) Apart from serious scientific papers Sofya also wrote …
7) She was first given a chance to work as a teacher …
8) She was granted the status of a professor in …
IV. Answer the questions:
1) What can you say about Sofya’s family and background?
2) Why was it so difficult for her to reach academic success?
3) What topics were among Sofya Kovalevsky’s scientific interests?
4) What prizes did she receive for her papers?
V. Write 5 TRUE or FALSE statements based on the text, read them to your groupmates,
and let them guess which sentences are true and which are false.
7
ISAAC NEWTON
(1642 – 1727)
Isaac Newton was an English physicist, mathematician and natural philosopher and, is considered
one of the most important scientists of all time. Newton formulated laws of universal gravitation and
motion – the laws that explain how objects move on the Earth as well as through the heavens. He
established the modern study of optics – or the behaviour of light – and built the first reflecting
telescope.
Newton stated his ideas in several published works, two of which, “Mathematical Principles of
Natural Philosophy” and “Optics” are considered among the greatest scientific works ever produced.
* * *
The great English scientist Isaac Newton was born in a little village, not far from the old
university town of Cambridge, in 1642. His father, a farmer, died before his son’s birth. He began his
schooling in the neighboring town, and at the age of ten was sent to the grammar school at nearby
Grantham. The young Newton seemed to be a quiet boy who was skilled with his hands. He made
sundials, model windmills, a water clock and many other things. However, he was very inattentive at
school.
In 1661 Newton became a student of Trinity College at Cambridge. His studies included
arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, and, later, astronomy and optics. More than once his tutors
remarked to each other about his progress. They soon found that the serious young student often
showed unusual knowledge of subjects that were to form the topics of future lectures. Isaac, on his
own had mastered them independently and purely because he was interested.
* * *
In 1667 Newton began his work at Cambridge. He devoted much of his time to practical work in
optics. Newton was the first scientist to build a reflecting telescope. This telescope magnified objects
about 40 times.
In 1669 Newton’s important manuscript “De Analysi” appeared. The work contained many of
Newton’s conclusions about calculus. This paper established Newton as one of the top
mathematicians of his day and the founder of modern calculus (along with Leibniz). In 1669 Newton
became the new professor of mathematics and chose optics as the subject of his first course of
lectures.
By 1679 Newton had returned to the problem of planetary orbits. The tract of the laws of motion
formed the basis of the first book of “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy”. Scientists and
scholars consider this work a milestone of scientific inquiry. This work used one principle to express
diverse phenomena such as the tides, the irregularities of the Moon’s motion, and the slight yearly
variations in the onset of spring and autumn.
*
*
*
8
Newton died in 1727, in London. He was buried in Westminster Abbey, the first scientist to be so
honoured.
Newton’s place in scientific history rests on his application of mathematics to the study of nature
and his explanation of a wide range of natural phenomena with one general principle – the law of
gravitation.
Newton’s work greatly influenced the development of physical sciences. During the two centuries
following publication of “Principles…” ,scientists and philosophers found many new areas in which
they applied Newton’s methods of inquiry and analysis. The reassessment of Newton’s ideas about
the universe led to the modern theory of relativity and quantum theory.
Exercises on the text
1. Read the following terms correctly and remember them:
laws of universal gravitation and motion; study of optics; behavior of light; reflecting telescope;
arithmetic /ə´rıөmətık/; geometry ; trigonometry /trıgə´nomıtrı/; astronomy; calculus /´kælkjuləs/;
planetary orbits; natural /´næt∫rəl/ phenomena; theory of relativity /´өıərı ov rələ´tıvıtı/ ; quantum
/´kwontəm/ theory
2. Form nouns from the following verbs. Translate both the verbs and the nouns:
to behave to explainto concludeto foundto inquireto develop3. Give the English equivalents of the following word combinations:
величайшие научные труды, когда-либо появлявшиеся; современное изучение оптики;
проявлял необычайные познания в предмете; самостоятельно овладел ими; послужил
основой его первой книги; «веха» научного исследования; широкий спектр природных
явлений; применение математики к изучению природы; сильно повлияла на развитие
физики.
4. Use the words to complete the sentences. There are two extra words:
diverse philosophy founder established nature optics universal mastered scientific
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
Newton’s … ideas led to the modern theory of relativity.
… was among Newton’s interests at Cambridge Trinity College.
Being a student Isaac … many of the subjects on his own.
Newton applied mathematics to the study of … .
Isaac Newton is considered the … of modern calculus.
The modern study of optics was … by Newton.
Newton’s main work used one principle to express … natural phenomena.
5. Answer the questions:
1. What did Newton show his interest in as a boy?
2. Was he an excellent pupil at school?
3. What did he study at Cambridge University? What did his tutors think of him?
4. What did his great interest in optics lead him to?
5. What paper established Newton as one of the top mathematicians of the day? Why?
6. Why is his book “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy” considered one of the
greatest works ever produced?
7. What branches of science did Newton’s work influence?
9
JAMES WATT
(1736 – 1819)
James Watt was born on January 19, 1736, at Greenock in Scotland, where his father was a
merchant. Jamie, as his parents called him, was not at all strong, he suffered from terrible headaches.
He could not go to school and his mother taught him to read, and his father taught him writing and
arithmetic. The boy had a very good memory and natural love of work.
He liked mathematics and was fond of designing and making things. Some time later James was
able to go to school, where he learnt a lot of subjects. He became good at languages as well as at
mathematics.
When James was fourteen he read the famous book by Isaac Newton “Elements of Natural
Philosophy”. He liked the book very much and read it many times. Soon after reading Newton’s
book he began to read books on other scientific subjects – chemistry, medicine and anatomy.
When James was eighteen he decided to become a professional instrument - maker. So he went to
London. There he learnt the trade of an instrument-maker and moved to Glasgow to work in that
town.
* * *
In 1757 James Watt became instrument maker for the University of Glasgow. There he soon
became interested in improving the steam engines, invented by the English engineers Thomas Savery
and Thomas Newcomen, which were used at the time to pump water from mines.
Watt determined the properties of steam, especially the relation of its density to its temperature
and pressure, and designed a separate condensing chamber for the steam engine that prevented
enormous losses of steam in the cylinder and enhanced the vacuum conditions. Watt's first patent, in
1769, covered this device and other improvements on Newcomen's engine, such as steam-jacketing,
oil lubrication, and insulation of the cylinder in order to maintain the high temperatures necessary for
maximum efficiency. Watt decided that his new steam engine could be used at a large factory in
Birmingham. At the factory Watt continued to improve his engine, he put new cylinders on it, and
with their help the engine at last became really efficient.
Watt continued his research and patented several other important inventions, including the rotary
engine for driving various types of machinery; the double-action engine, in which steam is admitted
alternately into both ends of the cylinder; and the steam indicator, which records the steam pressure
in the engine. He retired from the firm in 1800 and thereafter devoted himself entirely to research
work.
The misconception that Watt was the actual inventor of the steam engine arose from the
fundamental nature of his contributions to its development. The centrifugal or flyball governor,
which he invented in 1788, and which automatically regulated the speed of an engine, is of particular
10
interest today. It embodies the feedback principle of a servomechanism, linking output to input,
which is the basic concept of automation. The electrical unit, the watt, was named in his honour.
* * *
Watt made several other inventions. The most important of them was a copying machine. He
invented this machine in the first place to help him with his correspondence and other written work.
Watt’s copying machine was used all over the country for about 100 years. Then the typewriter took
its place.
In October 1781 James Watt made a still better engine that could do much more than merely pump
water out of mines. This was a rotary engine. It was a great invention of that time. The rotary engine
became the basis of industry, it could do many things.
* * *
James Watt lived to the age of 83. He received many honours in recognition of his valuable work.
On August 19, 1819 James Watt died at his home. A few years later a monument was erected in
his memory in Westminster Abbey.
Exercises on the text
1. Learn the pronunciation of the following words:
temperature /´temprıt∫ə/ chamber /´t∫eımbə/ cylinder /´sılındə/
insulation /¸ınsju´leı∫n/
efficiency /ı´fı∫ənsı/ servomechanism /´sə:vou´mekənızm/
enormous /ı´no:məs/
vacuum /´vækjuəm/ centrifugal / sen´trıfjugəl/
2. Translate the following word combinations into Russian:
to pump water from mines; the properties of steam; a separate condensing chamber; enormous
losses of steam; to maintain high temperatures; the double-action engine
3. Transform the sentences using the Passive Voice.
1) The steam engines pumped water from mines.
2) Watt designed a separate condensing chamber for the steam engine.
3) The steam indicator records the steam pressure in the engine.
4) The rotary engine could do many things.
5) James Watt invented a copying machine.
4. Answer the questions:
1) What sort of boy was James? What abilities did he show as a child?
2) What book influenced Watt's interest in science?
3) What did he decide to become? Where did he learn the trade?
4) What improvements did he make to Newcomen's engine?
5) Where did he begin to use his new steam engine?
6) What made the steam engine really effective?
7) What other important inventions did he make?
11
MICHAEL FARADAY
(1791-1867)
One of the great names in the history of man’s work in electricity is that of Michael Faraday. He
was born in a small village near London on September 22, 1791.
As a boy Michael didn’t have much schooling. He had to work and he had to learn a trade. So in
1804, when he was thirteen, he went to work in a bookbinder’s shop. He lived among books. Some
of the scientific works which passed through his hands aroused his interest in science and he started
to read. Once he ran across an article on electricity. When Faraday began to read it he knew nothing
of the subject, but it struck his imagination. Soon his chief interest was in science, and especially in
electricity and chemistry. He read as much as he could on these subjects. He made careful notes from
the books that interested him most.
Like all true scientists, Faraday wanted to make experiments. He had very little money, he saved
his few pennies and bought a cheap and simple apparatus and some materials. The more he studied,
the more interested he became.
* * *
Michael’s brother helped him pay for the lectures on scientific subjects that were being given in
London. He was also able to attend lectures by an outstanding scientist and the most popular lecturer
in London at that time, Sir Humphry Davy.
Faraday wanted to devote his life to science, but he couldn’t see how he could do this. At last, in
his poor room, he wrote a letter to Humphry Davy. He told him of his great interest in science and
his desire to do scientific work and asked for his help. Davy wrote Faraday a kind reply. He asked
Faraday to come to see him, and offered to give him an opportunity to do scientific research. Faraday
was delighted. But his work at first was to wash apparatus and prepare what Davy and other
scientists used in their experiments. But Michael could watch them at work. Davy sometimes took
trips to Europe, where he met great scientists of other countries, and one day he asked Faraday if he
wanted to go with him. Faraday, of course, was glad. He had never been more than a few miles from
London in his life, and now he could meet some of the great men of science.
Faraday learnt much during the trip and he met, among other people, Volta and Ampere, who had
already made a name for themselves in the history of electricity.
When Faraday returned to London he resumed his work and experiments. He helped Davy in his
research and started to write articles for a scientific magazine. For five more years he studied
electricity and various sciences, and then he himself began to teach.
*
*
*
12
Faraday’s scientific interests were varied. He made a new kind of steel and a new kind of glass. He
studied flying. He did many kinds of work and he did it alone. He was of those people who liked to
do everything themselves.
During his lifetime, Faraday made more than two thousand difficult experiments and made
countless valuable discoveries in chemistry and physics.
His experiments yielded some of the most significant principles and inventions in scientific
history. He developed the first dynamo (in the form of a copper disk rotated between the poles of a
permanent magnet), the precursor of modern dynamos and generators. From his discovery of
electromagnetic induction (1831) stemmed a vast development of electrical machinery for industry.
In 1825, Faraday discovered the compound benzene. In addition to other contributions he did
research on electrolysis, formulating Faraday's law. He laid the foundations of the classical field
theory, later fully developed by J. C. Maxwell. Some of his works were collected as Experimental
Researches in Electricity and Experimental Researches in Chemistry and Physics (1859).
Exercises on the text
1. Learn the following words:
dynamo /´daınəmou/;
copper; induction;
machinery /mə´∫i:nərı/
compound benzene / ´benzi:n/ ; electrolysis /ılek´trolısıs/
2. Translate into Russian:
aroused his interest in science; struck his imagination; to devote his life to science; valuable
discoveries; in addition to other contributions; classical field theory
3. Find the following phrases in the text:
Выдающийся ученый; возможность выполнять научные исследования; возобновил свою
работу и эксперименты; наиболее значимые принципы и изобретения; предшественник
современных генераторов; заложил основы.
4. Say if the statement is true or false:
1) Michael Faraday started to work at 13 because he had to learn a trade.
2) Scientific books were among his chief interests.
3) When a young man, he was especially interested in physiology and mathematics.
4) He tried to save money in order to make experiments.
5) Work for Sir Humphry Davy gave Michael valuable experience.
6) Michael had travelled all over Britain before Davy took him on a trip to Europe.
7) After the European trip Faraday began to teach students.
5. Answer the questions:
1) At what age did Michael begin to work?
2) What subjects did he take most interest in?
3) Who helped him start his scientific work?
4) How did his trip to Europe influence his future work?
5) What did he do on his return to London?
6) What are the chief discoveries made by Michael Faraday?
13
SAMUEL F. B. MORSE
(1791 - 1872)
Samuel F.B. Morse, the inventor of the telegraph, was born at Charlestown, Massachusetts, USA,
on April 27, 1791.
In Yale University Morse studied chemistry. But his great interest was painting. In 1813, his first
and only sculpture, a figure of the dying Hercules, won critical acclaim and a gold medal in the
Adelphi Society of Arts competition. Then he studied art in London. Back in the United States he
opened a studio in Boston as a portrait painter. He began painting portraits of members of
fashionable society and became very successful.
In 1829 Morse sailed for Europe to study classic art in Italy. He was an artist and knew little about
science. And then, at the age of 41, far out in the Atlantic Ocean, his entire life changed. Among the
passengers of the ship, sailing from France to New-York, was Dr Jackson, American chemist, who
told Morse that electricity would pass through any length of wire. Morse said that if electricity could
be found in any part of a long wire, he firmly believed it could be used to send messages.
*
*
*
Now Morse’s unbounded energy and enthusiasm were concentrated on one and only one thing – to
make an instrument that could send messages instantly to any part of the world.
Between 1832 and 1837, he had the idea of what is called a relay. This was an electric battery on
the line adding more power to send the message further. By introducing a number of such relays, the
weak current from the original batteries can be sent a long distance. By means of relays and batteries
the first real telegraph was born.
A workable telegraph was finally completed in January 1838, and introduced to the public. But
nobody was interested. It was just an impractical toy. And then, on February 3, 1843, Morse got
$30,000 to start the construction work on the Washington-Baltimore telegraph line. The line was
successfully installed, and in May, 1844, Morse sent the first message.
Morse worked out his famous alphabet or code of dots and dashes (a short buzz is called a dot, and
a long buzz is called a dash). This alphabet is still used in telegraph system today.
Morse lived to be over 80 years old and did a good deal of work on the submarine cable so that
messages could be telegraphed across the ocean.
14
* * *
And so Samuel Finley Breese Morse, the well-known painter, was not only the first to produce a
practical telegraph, but he was the pioneer of the most widely used electrical communication in the
world today, and the first man to make practical use of electric current.
Exercises on the text
1. Learn the pronunciation of the words:
chemistry /´kemistri/ ; dying /´daıiŋ/ ; society /sə´saıəti/
successful /sək´sesfəl/ ; enthusiasm / ın´өјu:zıæzm/
finally /´faınælı/ ; install / in´sto:l/
2. Translate the following word combinations into Russian:
critical acclaim; fashionable society; his entire life; unbounded energy; to send messages
instantly; by means of; an impractical toy; the pioneer of electrical communication
3. Find the following word combinations in the text:
1) добился большого успеха; 2) твердо верил; 3) вводя несколько подобных реле; 4)
можно отправлять на дальние расстояния; 5) был представлен публике; 6) проделал
большую работу; 7) первый человек, который практически применил электрический ток.
4. Answer the questions:
1) What was Morse’s major subject at university?
2) Where did he study art?
3) Was he successful as a portrait painter?
4) What were his energy and enthusiasm concentrated on?
5) How did a relay help in inventing telegraph?
6) When was the first message sent by telegraph?
7) What does Morse’s code represent?
15
ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL
(1847 – 1922)
Alexander Graham Bell was born in Edinburgh, in the family of Alexander Melville Bell, a wellknown teacher of elocution and speech production. His grandfather, for whom he was named, was
professor of elocution in the University of London. Alec’s mother was a musician as well as a
portrait painter, and her son was born with such a talent for music that he could play by ear and
improvise at the piano.
Alexander was 21, when the family doctor advised him a complete change of climate as his health
began to fail. So the Bells decided to emigrate to Canada.
* * *
Two years later Bell was in Boston, where he set up a school for training teachers of the deaf and
he also gave instruction in the mechanics of speech. In 1873 he became professor of vocal
physiology at Boston University. It gave him access to experimental apparatus at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, and he began the electrical experiments which would result in his invention
of the telephone.
On March 10, 1876, Alexander Bell and his assistant Watson fitted up a transmitter in the attic of
his house and a receiver in a room downstairs. Watson stood by the receiver while Bell spoke into
the transmitter. The words that he spoke have become world famous .They were: “Mr.Watson,
please, come here, I want you.” His assistant raced from the laboratory to Bell’s bedroom, shouting
that he had heard every word clearly.
That year Bell exhibited his telephone at the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia.
* * *
Although few people at that time foresaw the great future of the telephone, Bell continued to make
refinements on it, and in April, 1877, the first true telephone line was established between
Somerville, Massachusetts, and Boston – a distance of about 3 miles.
That same year Bell went to England, where he was awarded the James Watt silver medal for his
invention of the telephone.
By the turn of the century more than 1,5 million telephones were in use across the USA. Its impact
on business and industry was explosive.
* * *
Bell became a wealthy man, but money had never been his goal. He took little further interest in
telephone. He settled down in a country home at Baddeck, Nova Scotia, Canada and devoted himself
to invention. He interested himself in dynamic flight, sheep breeding and a universal language based
on the phonetics of the English language.
16
Exercises on the text
1. Give the initial forms of the following words and translate them:
production –
experimental instruction emigrant assistant transmitter receiver refinement breeding –
2. Give English equivalents for the following phrases from the text:
учитель красноречия; играть на слух; здоровье пошатнулось; основал школу для
подготовки учителей для глухих; обучал механике речи; продолжал свои
усовершенствования; был награжден; обосновался в деревенском доме; посвятил себя;
динамический полет; универсальный язык.
3. Answer the questions:
1) Who did Alexander Graham Bell inherit his genius from?
2) When did he leave his native country and why?
3) What did he do in Boston?
4) Who received the first words over the telephone, and when?
5) Where and when was the telephone first exhibited?
6) What was Alexander Bell awarded for his invention?
4. Read the text and complete it with the words given below:
data video amazing speech ability special
Bell imagined great uses for his telephone, but would he ever have imagined telephone lines
being used to transmit … images? Since his death in 1922, the telecommunication industry has
undergone an … revolution. Today, non-hearing people are able to use a … display telephone to
communicate. Fiber optics is improving the quality and speed of … transmission. Actually, your …
to access this information relies upon telecommunication technology. Bell’s “electrical … machine”
paved the way for the Information Superhighway.
17
THOMAS ALVA EDISON
(1847 - 1931)
When Thomas Edison was born in the small town of Milan, Ohio, in 1847, America was just
beginning its great industrial development. The time in which he lived was an age of invention, filled
with human and scientific adventures, and Edison became the hero of that age.
As a boy, Edison was not a good student. His parents took him out of school and his mother
taught him at home, where his great curiosity and desire to experiment often got him into trouble.
When he was ten, Edison built his own chemistry laboratory. He sold sandwiches and newspapers on
the local trains in order to earn money to buy supplies for his laboratory. His parents became
accustomed, more or less, to his experiments and the explosions which sometimes shook the house.
Edison’s work as a salesboy with the railroad introduced him to the telegraph and with a friend he
built his own telegraph set. He taught himself the Morse Code and hoped for the chance to become a
professional telegraph operator.
In 1863 he became an expert telegraph operator and left home to work in various cities.
In 1869, when he was only 22 years old, Edison invented an improved stock market ticker-tape
machine which could better report prices on the New-York Stock market. The ticker-tape machine
was successful, and Edison decided to give up telegraphy and concentrate wholly on inventing.
* * *
Edison formed his own “invention factory” in Newark, New Jersey. Over the next few years he
invented and produced many new items and improvements of the telegraph.
In 1877 Edison decided he could no longer continue both manufacturing and inventing. He sold
his factory interests and built a new laboratory on an estate in Menlo Park, New Jersey, which was
the first laboratory of its kind devoted to organized industrial research. He equipped his laboratory
with good scientific instruments and hired a select team of 20 clockmakers and mechanics and one
university-trained mathematician.
One of the first inventions to come from this new laboratory was an improvement on Alexander
Bell’s telephone.
In this laboratory Edison invented the phonograph – a talking machine. While he was perfecting
his phonograph, Edison was also working on another invention. He called it “An Electric Lamp for
Giving Light by Incandescence”, we call it the light bulb.
Edison was now so famous as an inventor that people thought there was nothing he could not do.
They began to call him the “Wizard” as if he could produce an invention like magic. Few people
realized how hard Edison worked – often 20 hours a day – and that most of his inventions were the
results of hundreds of experiments.
He not only developed an improved dynamo to provide the power for electric lighting, but he
also perfected other electric power equipment such as the generator, conductors and underground
power cables.
18
As a result of this revolution, masses of people throughout the world were released from their
dependence on oil and gas lamps for light. The enormous steam engines, long used for power in
factories, now could be replaced by a more practical power turned on with a switch.
* * *
For more than 50 years Thomas Alva Edison was the world’s leading inventor. He patented over
1,000 inventions which changed our way of living. He designed the central power station which
became the model for the first public electric plant in New York City, providing electric power for
thousands of homes and businesses. Edison was one of the earliest inventors of the motion-picture
machines. His invention of the phonograph was joined with photography to produce talking pictures.
He also perfected the electric motor which made streetcars and electric trains possible.
Edison was an experimenter and a practical man more than a theoretician. His motto was: “I find
what the world needs; then I go ahead and try to invent it”. He never considered himself a brilliant
man and once remarked that genius was “two percent inspiration and ninety-eight percent
perspiration”.
As “one of the last great heroes of invention”, Thomas Alva Edison rightfully belongs to
America’s and the world’s great contributors to industrial development and progress of man.
Exercises on the text
1. Form nouns from the following verbs and translate them:
to invent; to develop; to explode; to operate; to manufacture; to equip; to conduct; to depend;
to experiment; to contribute
2. Give English equivalents for the following words and word combinations:
Большая любознательность; привыкли к его экспериментам; познакомила его с; всецело
заняться изобретениями; продал акции своей фабрики; нанял квалифицированную
команду; подобно волшебству; усовершенствовал другое электрооборудование; могли
быть заменены; изменили наш образ жизни; обеспечивая электроэнергией; его девиз;
выдающийся человек
3. Match the words with the definitions:
telegraph
a record player
inventor
someone who has an unusually high level of intelligence
phonograph
something that allows electricity to travel through it
conductor
a method of sending messages using electric signals
genius
a machine that produces electricity
generator
someone who creates new things
4. Answer the questions:
1. What education did Thomas Edison get?
2. What did he want to become as a child? Did his dream come true?
3. When did Edison start his own business? What kind of business was it? How old was he?
4. Why did people call Edison the “wizard?”
5. Which of his inventions, mentioned in the text, was, in your opinion, the most important for
human progress?
6. What did he say about the genius?
19
Chapter II
Texts on Sciences
The History of Physics
I. Read the text and find passages about:
a) medieval scholastics and their scientific ideas;
b) physical concepts introduced by Galileo;
c) Newton’s accomplishments in the field of Physics.
The most advanced science at present and the one which seems to give the most light
on the structure of the world is physics. It is useful to have some idea of not only what the up-todate development of physics is but also how we came to think in that way and how the whole of
modern physics is connected with its history. In fact, the history of this science begins with
Galileo, but in order to understand his work one should see what was thought before his time.
The scholastics, whose ideas were in the main derived from Aristotle, thought that there
were different laws for celestial and terrestrial bodies, and also for living and dead matter. There
were four elements- earth, water, air and fire - , of which earth and water were heavy, while air
and fire were light. Earth and water had a natural downward motion, air and fire upward motion.
There was no idea of one set of laws for all kinds of matter; there was no science of changes in
the movements of bodies.
Galileo — and in a lesser degree Descartes — introduced the fundamental concepts and
principles which were enough for physics until the present century. They showed that the laws
of motion are the same for all kinds of dead matter and probably for living matter also.
Galileo introduced the two principles that made mathematical physics possible: the law
of inertia and the parallelogram law. The law of inertia, now familiar as Newton's first law of
motion made it possible to calculate the motions of matter by means of the laws of dynamics
alone.
Technically the principle of inertia meant that causal laws of physics should be stated in
terms of acceleration, i.e. a change of velocity in amount or direction or both which was found in
Newton's law of gravitation. From the law of inertia it followed that the causal laws of dynamics
must be differential equations of the second order, though this form of statement could not be
made until Newton and Leibniz had developed the infinitesimal calculus. Most of what students
do on the mathematical side of physics may be found in Newton's Principia. The basic idea of
dynamics, the equations of motion, the ideas of momentum, of inertia, of mass and of
acceleration were applied by Newton to large bodies like the Earth and the Moon to explain the
structure and the motion of the universe. From Newton to the end of the nineteenth century, the
progress of physics involved no basically new principles. The first revolutionary novelty was
Planck's introduction of the quantum constant h to explain the structure and behavior of atoms in
the year 1900. Another departure from Newtonian principles followed in 1905 when Einstein
published his special theory of relativity. Ten years later he published his general theory of
relativity which was primarily a geometrical theory of gravitation showing that the universe is
expanding.
In fact, when modern science was growing up from the time of Galileo to the time of
Newton, all the sciences were very much joined together. A single man could do absolutely firstclass research in pure mathematics, in physics, in chemistry and even in biology. Towards the
end of that time the sciences were beginning to separate and after that they continued to separate
more and more.
Just at this moment we can see a great convergence of all sciences. Physics is
increasingly penetrating all other parts of science and this is evident in the names of the new
hybrid subjects. We have long had physical chemistry; now we have chemical physics, which is
different not so much in the proportion of physics and chemistry, but in its central interest of
extending the range of physics. A biologist cannot do without knowledge of modern physics
20
while a physicist must know something of biology, as he may find a great deal of his work will
be concerned with biophysics. The mathematical aspect of physics is also becoming much more
evident especially now that we are having a growing symbiosis [simbi'ousis] between physics
and mathematics in computational physics.
Our job in physics is to see things simply, to understand a great many complicated
phenomena in a unified way, in terms of a few simple principles. You cannot predict what will
happen in future, but you have to be ready to meet it.
II. Find English equivalents to the
following Russian phrases.
1. современное развитие;
2. для того чтобы понять;
3. небесные и земные тела;
4. живая и неживая материя;
5. движение вниз/ вверх;
6. ряд (множество) законов;
7. причинные законы физики;
8. уравнения движения;
9. постоянная квантования;
10. первоклассное исследование;
11. расширить диапазон;
12. не может обойтись без;
13. будет связана с;
14. в терминах нескольких простых законов;
15. физик;
16. биолог.
III. Write the opposites.
dead, downward, known, old (2x), useless, heavy, different
IV. Find derivatives of the following words (with the help of the text and a dictionary: for
example, base - basic).
1. mathematics – прил.
8. equal – сущ.
2. to move – сущ.
9. new – сущ.
3. science – прил.
10. to introduce – сущ.
4. to develop – сущ.
11. geometry – прил.
5. to connect – сущ.
12. to research – сущ.
6. to understand – сущ.
13. to know – сущ.
7. to calculate – сущ.
14. to compute – сущ.,прил.
V. Answer the questions on the text.
1. What is the text concerned with?
2. What was the first step in theoretical physics?
3. What physical concepts did Galileo introduce into theory?
4. What did Galileo explain by these concepts?
5. What did Newton develop to explain the structure and the motion of celestial bodies?
6. What two departures from Newtonian principles followed at the very beginning of the 20th
century?
7. What did Planck want to explain by his constant h?
8. What is this branch of physics called?
9. What are Einstein’s theories called?
10. What is happening to the different sciences nowadays?
21
The Ugly Nature of the Earth's Twin Sister
I. Read the text and explain why it has such a title.
Venus wouldn't be a comfortable planet to live on: it is hot enough to melt lead [led],
the air is thick enough to swim in, and there are never- ending electrical storms. Venus is closer
to the Sun than the Earth is, and the sunlight reaching Venus is twice as powerful as that
reaching the Earth. However, it has also been found that Venus might support life, and even it
might be thought of as the home of some mysterious fair-haired Venusians.
Unfortunately, this attractive idea does not stand up to close examination. Instead of
spinning anti-clockwise like most other planets, Venus revolves clockwise, and it turns so slowly
that the Sun rises in the west and sets in the east 59
days later. This means that during the long
Venusian "day" the temperature has time to reach
450 degrees Centigrade easily, which is hot enough
to melt tin or lead. Moreover, the polar axis is
almost vertical, so there are no seasons.
But the real shock comes when we
consider the atmosphere. Normally, you expect that
the closer a planet is to the Sun, the less atmosphere
it will be able to retain. Venus, however, has an
atmosphere about 100 times as dense as ours. The
air is much too thick to run in and you would rather
have to swim and not to walk in it. On the other hand, the atmosphere is so thick, that you could
fly through it without any problem. The winds are very slow; the Russian spacecraft Venera 10
measured on landing a maximum air flow of seven miles per hour, yet the atmosphere is so
dense that a seven mile per hour wind could be strong enough to knock down a tall building.
Most of Venus is permanently covered in clouds of sulphur and sulphuric acid, and
these clouds absorb so much of the Sun's light that on the surface of the planet there is no more
than a dark reddish gloom. The Russian spacecrafts Venera 9 and Venera 10 found that there
was enough light to take TV pictures. This light, however, came not from the Sun, but from
flashes of lightning given off by continual electric storms.
All in all, then, Venus turns out to be an extremely inhospitable place, and, along with
Mars, Jupiter and Saturn has to be added to the list of planets that are quite incapable of
supporting human life.
II. Find the English equivalents of the following Russian phrases.
1. два раза сильнее;
2. к сожалению;
3. привлекательная идея;
4. тщательное изучение;
5. по часовой стрелке;
6. против часовой стрелки;
7. более того;
8. сто раз плотнее нашей [атмосферы];
9. с другой стороны;
10. темно-красноватый мрак;
11. вспышки молнии; в целом;
12. негостеприимное место;
13. вместе с;
14. градусов Цельсия.
22
III. Finish the sentences in a suitable way.
1. Unlike most other planets Venus is spinning....
2. Instead of running or walking on Venus you would have to... or to....
3. The temperature on the planet is hot enough to... .
4. The atmosphere is so ... that a 7 mile/h wind would be strong enough to....
5. The sunlight reaching Venus is .... however, on the surface of the planet you could see only ....
6. There was enough light to take TV pictures on Venus, though this light came not
from ... but from ....
IV. Read the text and list all differences and similarities between the Earth and Venus.
V. Make up 5 questions on the text and ask your groupmates.
Electricity and Magnetism
I.
Read the text and name the contributions of the following scientists in the studying
of electromagnetism.
The first new science to arise after the end of the
Newtonian period was electricity, in part because it was almost the
only aspect of physical science to which Newton himself had not
devoted his attention and where his great prestige did not frighten
off lesser investigators. Electricity had had a long and legendary
past. The phenomena of electrostatics and magnetism were known
to ancient men as early as 600 B.C. The ancient Greek
philosophers thought magnetic and electric forces to be of common
origin.
Science of magnetism, however, only began when its power could be used to good
purpose, as in the compass. In its early stages, however, magnetism didn't seem to promise any
profitable application. It was a philosophic toy and lay a little outside the interests of the time,
which were turned so largely to mechanics and the vacuum.
Some experiments with electricity were made in the early eighteenth century. One of
them was made by the English amateur (любитель) Stephen Gray that led him in 1729 to a
discovery of the transmission of electricity. Franklin, in remote Philadelphia heard of
experiments with electricity and sent for some electrical apparatus. Having studied the problem,
Franklin came to the conclusion that electricity is a kind of immaterial fluid existing in all
bodies, undetectable as long as they were saturated with it. If some was added, they became
positively charged, if some was removed — negatively. Replacing the fluid by electrons and
changing the sign of the charge “-“ for “+”, for it is a negatively charged body that has an excess
of electrons, Franklin's explanation becomes the modern theory of electric charge. This
simplification was Franklin's serious contribution to electrical theory, but what really impressed
the world was his understanding the analogy between electric spark in the laboratory and the
lightning which he snatched from the sky with his kite (воздушный змей) and showed that it
was electricity. From this he, in his practical way, immediately drew the conclusion that it would
be possible to prevent the damage due to lightning by the lightning conductor which he tried out
in 1753. With this invention electrical science became for the first time of practical use.
Despite all these advances electricity and magnetism remained mysterious and their
quantitative study could not begin until some method could be found of measuring them. This
was the work of Coulomb in 1785. He established that the forces between magnetic poles as well
23
as those between charges of electricity obeyed the same laws as those of gravity, that is, a force
proportional inversely to the distance. These experiments enabled the whole apparatus of
Newtonian mechanics to be applied to electricity, but with this difference: that in electricity
repulsive as well as attractive forces are to be found.
The multiple analogies between electricity and magnetism made physicists think that
there must be some connection between them but it was one very difficult to find. It was not
until 1820 that through another accident at the lecture table, Oersted in Copenhagen found that
the electric current deflected a compass needle. He thus joined together, once and for all, the
sciences of electricity and magnetism. One immediate consequence was the invention of the
electromagnet, then the electric telegraph and the electric motor.
II. Find the English equivalents of the following Russian phrases.
a) имели общее происхождение; на ранних ступенях развития; вне интересов; избыток
электронов; предотвратить ущерб, наносимый молнией; молниеотвод; подчиняются тем
же законам; объединил раз и навсегда; стрелка компаса;
b) исследователи; сила; применение; механика; открытие; положительно/отрицательно
заряжены; измерить/измерение; установить; выяснить; следствие.
III. Complete the sentences.
1. After the Newtonian period scientific interests mainly turned to ...
2. In the early 18th century Stephen Gray discovered ....
3. Soon after that Franklin discovered that all bodies are saturated with ... .
4. With the excess of this fluid a body becomes ....
5. The first practical invention in the field of electricity was Franklin's ... .
6. Scientific studies of electricity could begin only with Coulomb's discovery ... .
7. The multiple analogies between electricity and magnetism made scientists think that...
IV. Answer the questions on the text.
1. When did magnetism and electricity appear as a science?
2. Why did electricity attract little attention during the Newtonian period?
3. How did Franklin explain electrically charged bodies?
4. Why did electricity and magnetism remain mysterious even after Franklin's discovery?
5. What discovery did Coulomb make?
6. Why was his discovery of great importance?
7. What did Oersted accidentally find?
8. Why was this discovery of great importance?
9. What inventions followed all these discoveries?
The Revolution in Physics
I. Read the text and say why Röntgen’s discovery is described as ‘revolutionary’ and in
what ways it influenced the further development of Physics.
Nineteenth-century physics was a majestic achievement of
the human mind. The revolution in physics broke out unexpectedly.
In November 1895 the general direction of the world research was
sharply changed by an accidental and altogether unforeseen
discovery.
Konrad von Röntgen (1845-1923), then professor of
physics bought a new cathode-ray discharge tube with the object of
studying its inner mechanism. Within a week he found that
something was happening outside the tube; something was escaping
24
An X-ray photo of a flower
that had properties never before imagined in Nature. That something made fluorescent screen
shine in the dark and could fog photographic plates through black paper. These astonishing
photographs showed coins in purses and bones in the hand. He didn't know what that something
was, so he called it the "X-rays". This scientific discovery was atop press news all over the
world. It was the subject of innumerable music-hall jokes and within a few weeks almost every
physicist of repute was repeating the experiment for himself and demonstrating it to admiring
audiences.
The immediate value of X-rays was great, particularly to medicine; however, their
importance was much greater to the whole of physics and natural knowledge, because the
discovery of X-rays provided the key not only to one, but to many branches of physics. This
discovery was followed by a number of unexpected discoveries like that of radioactivity in 1896,
of the structure of crystals in 1912, of the neutron in 1932, of nuclear fission in 1938, and of
mesons between 1936 and 1947. This revolutionary development includes great theoretical
achievements of synthesis like Planck's quantum theory in 1900, Einstein's special relativity
theory in 1905 and his general theory in 1916, the Rutherford-Bohr atom in 1913 and the new
quantum theory in 1925.
The period from 1895 to 1916 might be called the first phase of the revolution in
physics, the so-called heroic, or in a different aspect, the amateur stage of modern physics. In it
new worlds were being explored, new ideas created, mainly with the technical and intellectual
means of the old nineteenth-century science. It was still a period primarily of individual
achievement: of the Curies and Rutherford, of Planck and Einstein, of the Braggs and Bohr.
Physical science, particularly physics itself, still belonged to the university laboratory and it had
few links with industry; apparatus was cheap and simple.
II. Find the English equivalents of the following Russian phrases.
великое достижение; непредвиденное открытие; каждый уважающий себя физик;
восхищенная аудитория; непосредственная ценность; ядерный распад; действие
природных сил; экстренные сообщения в газетах; на примитивном уровне лабораторных
средств исследования.
III. Complete the sentences.
1. The late nineteenth-century physics seemed to many scientists to come to a certain ... .
2. However, the ways in the world research were sharply changed by ... .
3. The rays discovered by Röntgen showed the unknown before properties of... .
4. Unable to explain these properties Röntgen called them ... .
5. The X-rays proved to be the key to such branches of physics as ... .
6. The new unexpected discoveries were followed by great theoretical achievements like....
7. The earliest period in science revolution might be called ... because ... .
IV. Express the main idea of each paragraph in a suitable title.
V. Make up 5 questions based on the text and ask your
groupmates.
An X-ray photo of starfish
and seaweed
25
Definition of Mathematics,
Part I.
Before reading the text study the following concepts:
Binary arithmetic - the arithmetic of binary numbers; base two arithmetic; internal arithmetic
of electronic digital logic.
Laws of probability- set of principles that govern the use of probability in determining the truth
or falsehood of a hypothesis.
Sampling - selecting a subset of a group or population in such a way that valid conclusions can
be made about the whole set or population.
Chaos theory - the qualitative study of unstable aperiodic behavior in deterministic nonlinear
dynamical systems.
I. Read the text and list the practical applications of Mathematics mentioned in this article.
Over the centuries, people have thought of
mathematics, and have defined it, in many different ways.
Mathematics is constantly developing, and yet the
mathematics of 2,000 years ago in Greece and of 4,000
years ago in Babylonia would look familiar to a student of
the twenty-first century.
Mathematics, says the mathematician Asgar
Aaboe, is characterized by its permanence and its
universality and by its independence of time and cultural
setting. Try to think, for a moment, of another field of
knowledge that is thus characterized. "In most sciences one
generation tears down what another has built and what one
has established another undoes. In mathematics alone each
generation builds a new story to the old structure," noted
Hermann Henkel in 1884.
From Truth to Application
The mathematician and philosopher Bertrand Russell said that maths is "the subject in
which we never know what we are talking about nor whether what we are saying is true."
Mathematics, in its purest form, is a system that is complete in itself, without worrying about
whether it is useful or true.
Mathematical truth is not based on experience but on inner consistency within the
system. Yet, at the same time, mathematics has many important practical applications in every
facet of life, including computers, space exploration, engineering, physics, and economics and
commerce.
In fact, mathematics and its applications have, throughout history, been inextricably
intertwined. For example, mathematicians knew about binary arithmetic, using only the digits
0 and 1, for years before this knowledge became practical in computers to describe switches that
are either off (0) or on (1). Gamblers playing games of chance led to the development of the
laws of probability. This knowledge in turn led to our ability to predict behaviors of large
populations by sampling.
The desire to explain the patterns in 100 years of weather data led, in part, to the
development of mathematical chaos theory. Therefore, mathematics develops as it is needed as
a language to describe the real world, and the language of mathematics in turn leads to practical
developments in the real world.
26
II. Find the English equivalents of the following Russian phrases.
определять/определение; выглядеть знакомо; математик; исследование космоса; законы
вероятности; приводить к; данные о погоде; следовательно.
III. Finish the sentences.
1. Mathematics is a system that is complete in itself, without worrying about…
2. Mathematical truth is not based on … but on …
3. According to the mathematician Asgar Aaboe, mathematics is characterized by ….
4. Gamblers contributed to the development of …
5. The development of mathematical chaos theory was begun by …
IV. Answer the questions.
1. What did Herman Henkel say about Mathematics?
2. What is ‘sampling’? How can this method be applied?
3. Where are the principles of binary arithmetic used?
Definition of Mathematics,
Part II .
I. Read the text and name some basic rules of Mathematics.
The Rules of the Game
Another way to think of mathematics is as a game. When players decide to join in a
game—say a game of cards, a board game, or a baseball game— they agree to play by the rules.
It may not be "fair" or "true" in the real world that a player is "out" if someone touches the
player with a ball before the player's foot touches the base, but within the game of baseball, that
is the rule, and everyone agrees to abide by it.
One of the rules of the game of mathematics is that a particular problem must have the
same answer every time. So, if Bill says that 3 divided by 2 is 1 l/2, and Maria says that 3
divided by 2 is 1.5, then mathematics asks if these two different-looking answers really represent
the same number (as they do). The form of the answers may differ, but the value of the two
answers must be identical if both answers are correct. Another rule of the game of mathematics
is consistency. If a new rule is introduced, it must not contradict or lead to different results from
any of the rules that went before.
These rules of the game explain why division by 0 must be undefined. For example,
when checking division by multiplication it is clear that 10 divided by 2 is 5 because 2 X 5 is 10.
Suppose 10/0 is defined as 0. Then 0 X 0 must be 10, and that contradicts the rule that 0 times
anything is 0. One may believe that 0 divided by 0 is 5 because 0X5 is 0, but then 0 divided by 0
is 4, because 0 X 4 is also 0. There is another rule in the game of mathematics that says if 0
divided by 0 is 5 and 0 divided by 0 is 4, then 5 must be equal to 4—and that is a contradiction
that no mathematician or student will accept.
Mathematics depends on its own internal rules to test
whether something is valid. This means that validity in
mathematics does not depend on authority or opinion. A thirdgrade student and a college professor can disagree about an
answer, and they can appeal to the rules of the game to decide who
is correct. Whoever can prove the point, using the rules of the
game, must be correct, regardless of age, experience, or authority.
27
Learning the Language
Mathematics is often called a language. Numbers and symbols are understood without
the barrier of translation, and mathematics can be used to describe many aspects of today's
world, from airline reservation systems to theories about the shape of space.
Yet learning the vocabulary of mathematics is often a challenge and can be confusing.
For example, mathematicians speak of the "bottom" of a fraction as the "denominator," which is
a pretty frightening word to a beginner. But, like any language, mathematics vocabulary can be
learned, just as Spanish speakers learn to say anaranjado, and English speakers learn to say
"orange" for the same color.
In Islands of Truth (1990), the mathematician Ivars Peterson says that "the
understanding of mathematics requires hard, concentrated work. It combines the learning of a
new language and the rigor of logical thinking, with little room for error." He goes on to say
"I've also learned that mystery is an inescapable ingredient of mathematics. Mathematics is full
of unanswered questions, which far outnumber known theorems and results. It's the nature of
mathematics to pose more problems than it can solve."
II. Find the English equivalents of the following Russian phrases.
представлять; различаться; зависеть от; вне зависимости от; вызов/сложная задача;
знаменатель; требовать.
III. Finish the sentences.
1. The form of the answers may differ, but the value of the two answers …
2. When … it is clear that 10 divided by 2 is 5 because 2 X 5 is 10.
3. The understanding of mathematics combines … and …, with little room for error.
4. Mathematics can also be thought of as a …. where one should play by the rules.
5. Validity in mathematics doesn’t depend on…
6. Mathematics is often called a language because…
7. According to the mathematician Ivars Peterson, mathematics is …
IV Answer the questions.
1. Why is division by 0 impossible?
2. What aspects of today’s world are described through mathematics?
3. What is a necessary ingredient of mathematics according to Ivars Peterson?
28
Chapter III
Supplementary Reading
INVENTION OF TELEVISION
John Logie Baird, the father of television, first publicly demonstrated his invention on 26
January, 1926, in his small laboratory in the Soho district of London. Although large
companies with great financial support were also working on the problem of television, Baird
managed to surpass them all with very little money, a handful of unpaid helpers and equipment
pieced together using rather unconventional materials.
John Logie Baird was born in 1888, the fourth and the youngest child of Jessie and the
Reverend John Baird. His family lived in a coastal town which lies 25 miles northwest of
Glasgow. By the turn of the century their house had seen the development of a telephone
exchange, had been supplied with electric lighting and had been the site of an early flight
experiment, all of which were the work of the imaginative youngest child.
Even as a child, from the time he suffered an undiagnosed illness at the age of two, Baird’s
health was never good. Later on, as well as incurring various minor injuries in the early days of
his work on television, he would also suffer from repeated physical breakdowns. At school he
was reported to be “very slow”, “timid” and “… by no means quick learner”. Nevertheless, in
1906 he entered a diploma course in electrical engineering at the Glasgow and West of
Scotland Technical College. After graduating, Baird entered Glasgow University to upgrade
his diploma to a Bachelor of Science. Unfortunately, World War One broke out, and Baird
never completed his degree.
The earliest suggestion of Baird’s interest in television technology is an experiment which
he conducted at his parents’ house in 1903. This experiment involved the attempted
construction of a selenium photo-electric cell, but was unsuccessful, and Baird burnt his hands
in the process.
In order to tackle the problem of television, John Logie Baird chose a system which
employed mechanical scanning. There were various methods available to achieve this, and
Baird selected a system which used the Nipkow disc as being the most promising. Invented by
Paul Nipkow in 1884, this disc had a series of apertures cut into it, which could then be used to
scan an image. This disc was combined with other discs, and produced a very different
television set from the ones we use today, for Baird’s system did not use a cathode ray tube.
There were two main problems which Baird had to overcome in order to achieve television.
The first was the problem of the insensitivity of the photo-electric cell and also the difficulty of
obtaining a clear image. At first he could only produce pictures of the outline shapes, known as
“shadowgraphs”. To overcome his first problem Baird worked on the development of a photoelectric cell. The experimentation was successful, and he eventually produced a cell that “…
was entirely different from existing cells on the market”.
The second problem was solved by Baird’s refinement of
his electronics. Baird’s system was as poor as everyone
else’s but it was his use of a technique called “sharpening”
that finally produced a television picture. Sharpening is an
electronic method which brings a picture into focus in the
same manner in which a normal lens focuses an image.
Almost eleven years to the day after graduating with an
electrical engineering diploma from the Royal Technical
College, John Logie Baird first achieved a recognizable
television image. Baird waited four months, until 26
January 1926, before demonstrating his achievement to the
Baird's televisor
Royal Institute and a reporter from the Times newspaper.
John Logie Baird’s achievement of television brought
him great recognition. Baird’s work did not stop with his achievement of true television. He
29
went on to develop television for cinemas, both colour and three-dimensional television, and
also investigated further into secret signaling and radar technology.
Answer the following questions:
1) What did school teachers think of John Logie Baird?
2) What proves that John was an imaginative child?
3) Why did he not get the degree of Bachelor of Science?
4) When did he first show his deep interest in television?
5) What were the main problems Baird had to overcome to achieve television?
6) Who did John Logie Baird first publicly demonstrate his invention to?
7) Was the invention of television Baird’s only contribution to the technical progress?
THE FIRST COMPUTER IN THE USSR
The first electronic computing machine in continental Europe, MESM, was created in Kiev by
Sergey Alekseyevich Lebedev, a soviet scientist in the field of electrical engineering and
computer science.
Lebedev was born in Nizhniy Novgorod in 1902. He graduated from Moscow Highest
Technical School in 1928. From then until 1946 he worked at All-Union Electrotechnical
Institute (formerly a division of MSTU) in Moscow and Kiev. In 1939 he was awarded the
degree of Doctor of Sciences for the development of the theory of "artificial stability" of
electrical systems.
During the World War II Lebedev worked in the field of control automation of complex
systems. His group designed a weapon-aiming stabilization system for tanks and an automatic
guidance system for airborne missiles. To perform these tasks Lebedev developed an analogue
computer system to solve ordinary differential equations.
In 1948 Lebedev learned from foreign magazines that scientists in western countries were
working on the design of electronic computers, although the details were secret. In the autumn
of the same year he decided to focus the work of his laboratory on computer design. Lebedev's
first computer was completed by the
end of 1951. The computer was
known as MESM (МЭСМ, Small
Electronic Calculating Machine). It
had about 6,000 vacuum tubes and
consumed 25 kw. of power. It could
perform
approximately
3,000
operations per minute.
This machine was followed by a
number of other computers of the
BESM family. Lebedev began
development of a new, more
The first brain-child of S.A.Lebrdev - MESM
powerful computer, the M-20, the
number denoting its expected processing speed of twenty thousand operations per second. In
1958 the machine was accepted as operational and put into series production. Simultaneously
the BESM-2, a development of the BESM-1, went into series production. Though the BESM-2
was slower than the M-20, it was more reliable. It was used to calculate satellite orbits and the
trajectory of the first rocket to reach the surface of the Moon. Lebedev and his team developed
several more computers, notably the BESM-6, which was in production for 17 years.
These computers played a great role in the development of the most advanced fields of
science and engineering: atomic energy, cosmonautics, missilery, creation of modern weapons,
and, in particular antimissile research.
30
All of the computers created under the leadership of S.A. Lebedev were based on the
original developments rather than on foreign prototypes. Their architectures are characterized
by a high degree of balance of electronic facilities of the day and by pioneer ideas that
outstripped foreign developments.
S. A. Lebedev’s contribution to programming science goes beyond the development of the
first computers. He was one of the first developers of computer architectures who understood
the role and significance of system software as an important component of a computational
system as a whole.
Answer the following questions:
1) What was Sergey Lebedev’s greatest achievement before the World War II?
2) What was he mostly involved in during the War?
3) When did he start his research work on computer design?
4) What does MESM stand for?
5) In what fields of science were the BESM-family computers used?
6) What was so special about the computers created in Lebedev’s laboratory?
7) What did Sergey Lebedev consider to be a very important component of a computational
system?
INVENTION OF THE MOBILE PHONE
Dr. Martin Cooper, a former general manager for the system divisions at Motorola, is
considered the inventor of the first modern portable handset. Cooper made the first call on a
portable cell phone in April 1973. He made the call to his rival, Joel Engel, head of research
department of company AT&T Bell Labs.
The idea of cellular telecommunication appeared in company AT&T Bell Labs in 1946.
Then this firm created first-ever radio telephone service - it was a hybrid of a phone and a radio
transmitter: with the help of a radio station established in a vehicle, it was possible to transfer a
signal to automatic telephone exchange and to make usual phone calls. AT & T offered
Americans the rent of automobile radio stations and it also decided to develop a cellular
telephony in the same style. The device (about 12 kg in weight) was placed in the trunk of a
car, the control panel and the telephone receiver were put inside the car. It was necessary to
make a hole in the roof of the car for the antenna.
However Motorola was the first to incorporate the technology into portable device that was
designed for outside of the automobile use. The truth is this “child” of Motorola was poorly
similar to the portable device. As Martin Cooper recollects today, he made that historical call
with the help of a phone similar to a brick. The first-ever “mobile phone” weighed about 1 kg!
The first mobile phone offered just a half-hour of
The First Cellphone (1973)
talk for every recharging.
On April 3, 1973, standing on a street near the
Name: Motorola Dyna-Tac
Manhattan Hilton, Mr. Cooper decided to attempt a
Size: 9 x 5 x 1.75 inches
private call before going to a press conference
Weight: 2.5 pounds
upstairs in the hotel. He picked up the 2-pound
Display: None
Motorola handset called the Dyna-Tac and pushed
Number of Circuit Boards:
the "off hook" button. The phone came alive,
30
connecting Mr. Cooper with the base station on the
Talk time: 35 minutes
roof of the Burlington Consolidated Tower (now the
Recharge Time: 10 hours
Alliance Capital Building) and into the land-line
Features: Talk, listen, dial
system. To the bewilderment of some passers-by, he
dialed the number and held the phone to his ear.
31
For about ten years AT&T Bell Labs and Motorola had conducted research simultaneously.
Motorola managed faster to become successful and won. The first cell phone call caused a
fundamental technology and communications market shift toward the person and away from
the place. Martin Cooper started the 10-year process of bringing the portable cell phone to
market. Motorola introduced DynaTac phone into commercial service in 1983, with each
phone costing the consumer $3,995. DynaTac 8000X was the result of 15 years of
development on which Motorola Company spent more than 100 million. The phone weighed
785 gr and had the size 33x4,4x8,9 cm. The charge of accumulators of the first mobile phone
with the light-emitting diode display sufficed for 8 hours of work in a stand-by mode and one
hour of talk time.
The success of cellular phones was amazing. Telephone companies could not give phones to
all people who wanted to have one because their opportunities were limited due to insufficient
quantity of frequencies and insufficient amount of cellular transmitters. It took seven additional
years before there were a million subscribers in the United States. Today, there are more
cellular subscribers than wire line phone subscribers in the world, with mobile phones
weighing as little as 3 ounces.
Answer the following questions:
1) Was the first call on a cell phone made by Dr. Martin Cooper to a friend of his?
2) Why didn’t the radio telephone service become popular?
3) What company invented the first portable mobile phone?
4) How much did the first portable phone weigh?
5) When was the mobile phone put into commercial service?
6) How long could a person talk on the DynaTac 800X without recharging it?
7) Why did the number of the cell phone users grow so slowly?
Effects of Cell Phone Radiation
Today the cell phone is one of the most popular means of communication throughout
the world. However, concerns are being raised all over the world on the possible effects of
radiations emitted by them. Read on to know more...
Radiation can be defined as energy that is transmitted in the form of rays, waves or
particles. Human body is exposed to various types of radiation. Some of these are harmful to
our body, whereas others are not. Electromagnetic radiation is emitted by cell phones for the
purpose of communication.
The amount of emissions made by cell phones is quite
minimal. Our body is exposed to cell phone radiation while making
or receiving calls. The radio waves given out by the mobile
handsets are absorbed by the human body. This type of radiation
has a mild heating effect on the living tissues in the body. It is
likely that this rise in temperature does not cause any damage to the
cells, per se.
However, there are indications that cell phone radiation can
cause a few changes in the functioning of cells. These changes are
mostly temporary in nature. The functions that get affected by
radiation include activation of proteins, communication between the
body cells, genetic functions etc. Though the exact reasons behind
these changes have not yet been ascertained, it has been confirmed
that they are not caused by heating of the tissues.
Cell Phone Radiation and Tumor
Attempts have been made to establish a link between the risk of tumor and cell phone
radiation. But so far, there is no strong evidence to prove that use of cell phones can give rise
32
to such a health risk. However, some studies reported that the risk of brain tumor increases
manifold, if a cell phone is used for a prolonged period of time.
Cell Phone Radiation and Cancer
Several intensive research works are being conducted to investigate if cell phone
radiation causes cancer. The possibility of cancer due to cell phone radiation is not totally ruled
out. Cancer takes many years to develop within the human body, whereas, common use of cell
phones began just ten years ago. Naturally, it will take some more time to find out whether
there is any relation between cancer and cell phone radiation.
Many hospitals discourage usage of cell phones within their premises. This is because
the electromagnetic signals of cell phones may interfere with some of the medical devices,
even when they are kept in the standby mode. A possibility of major disturbances is high in
intensive care unit (ICU) and Neonatal intensive care unit (NICU).
Growth in mobile phone technology is taking place at a rapid pace. On the other hand,
research works have not made any major breakthrough to prove the actual effects of cellular
radiation. Therefore, it is better if we take some safety measures to minimize our exposure to
cell phone radiation.
Answer the questions:
1. What definition of ‘radiation’ is given in the text?
2. What effect does cell phone radiation have on body tissues?
3. Is there any correlation between cell phone radiation and tumors?
4. Why is it difficult to confirm the link between cancer and cell phone radiation?
5. Why do some hospitals disapprove of usage of mobile phones on their
premises?
Fun Facts about Astronomy
Did you know there are stars which are nearly
600,000 times as bright as the Sun? Or the sunspots on
the surface of the Sun are 3000º C cooler than the other
sun surface areas? Surprised! Then read on to know
some more fun facts about astronomy...
Astronomy is the scientific study of celestial
objects like stars, comets, planets and galaxies. It is
derived from Greek words astron and nomos which
mean 'star' and 'law' respectively. It is related to
formation and development of the universe, motion of
celestial objects, evolution, physics and chemistry.
Since the 20th century, the field of astronomy has got divided into two branches:
observational and theoretical. Observational astronomy lays emphasis on acquiring and
analyzing the data by using basic principles of physics. Whereas, theoretical astronomy focuses
on the development of computer or analytical models to explain astronomical objects and
phenomena. Both these branches complement each other.
Fun Facts about the Sun
 The Sun is 4.5 billion years old and produces 383 billion trillion kilowatts of energy.
 Sunlight takes 8 minutes to reach the Earth and is responsible for the ocean currents and
weather patterns on our planet.
 The Earth orbits the Sun in an elliptical uneven orbit and the distance between them varies
depending on where the Earth lies in that orbit.
33
 The solar winds produced by the Sun extend to about 50AU, where AU is the distance from the
Earth to the Sun.
 The lightning in the sky is nearly 3 times hotter than the Sun.
Fun Facts about the Moon
 The Moon is the only non-Earth object upon which a man has walked.
 The giant footprint left on the moon dust by astronaut Neil Armstrong is believed to be the
oldest footprint.
 Every year the Moon is moving away from the Earth by 3 cm.
Fun Facts about Stars
 Some of the stars in the sky are so far that the light from them takes million of years to reach
us.
 Proxima Centauri is the closest star to our solar system and is nearly 4 light years away.
 Inside the nebula, when gases and dust condense, a new object is formed which is known as a
protostar.
 Depending upon how hot the white dwarf star is, its color varies from blue, white, yellow, or
red.
 Supernova explosions are capable of destroying an entire star.
 Pulsar, a neutron star which was discovered in 1967 emits radio waves.
 Polaris, the North Star, is the only star in the sky that doesn't appear to move from night to
night.





Fun Facts about Planets
Mercury is the second smallest planet in the solar system and has no moon. It can get as hot as
800º C and cold as 300º C below zero. One year on Mercury is equal to 88 days on the Earth. It
is named after the Roman God of Commerce.
Venus is the only planet that rotates from east to west. A year on this planet is equal to 225
days on the Earth.
The Earth is nearly 93 million miles away from the Sun. It takes about 16 million horsepower
to break the Earth's gravitational pull. According to scientists, in around 5 billion years, a day
on Earth will be 48 hours long and somewhere during that time the Sun will explode.
The planet Neptune was discovered more than150 years ago in 1846 and since then it still has
to complete an orbit around the Sun, as one Neptune year equals to 165 Earth years.
Pluto does not have a fixed orbit and its orbit comes in the middle of Neptune's orbit. Also,
Pluto's size is very small which made scientists demote it to a dwarf planet status.
Astronomy can be considered as an interesting science filled with many fun and interesting
facts. Whether it’s the size or temperature of a star, the Sun, distant planets - anything and
everything once discovered is recorded. This information can be retrieved to entertain and
enlighten people.
Answer the questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
What is astronomy? What is it concerned with?
What is the difference between observational and theoretical astronomy?
What influence does sunlight have on our planet?
How is the Moon different from other non-Earth objects?
What determines the color of the white dwarf star?
What interesting facts can be mentioned about the following planets: Mercury, Venus,
Earth, Neptune, and Pluto?
34
List of Proper and Geographical Names
Proper Names
Aaboe Asger [‘a:bəu ‘a:sgə]
Ampere, André-Marie [‘æmpiər an’dre ma’rie]
Archimedes [a:kə’mi:di:z]
Aristotle [,ærə’sto:tl]
Baird, John [‘beəd ‘dʒon]
Bell, Alexander Graham [‘bel ,ælig’za:ndə ‘greiəm]
Bell, Alexander Melville [‘bel ,ælig’za:ndə ‘mel,vil]
Bohr Niels [‘bo:r ‘ni:ls]
Cooper, Martin [‘ku:pə ‘ma:tin]
Coulomb Charles [‘ku:,la:m ‘tʃa:lz]
Curie Marie, Pierre [‘kju:,ri: ma’ri: / ‘piə ]
Davy, Humphry [‘deivi ‘hʌmfri]
Desargues, Gerard [dei’za:g ʒə’ra:r]
Descartes [dei’ka:t]
Edison, Thomas [‘edəsən ‘toməs]
Eistein, Albert [‘ainstain ‘ælbət]
Engel, Joel [‘endʒəl ‘dʒo: əl]
Euclid [‘ju:kləd]
Eudoxus [ju’doksʌs]
Faraday, Michael [‘ferədei ‘maik(ə)l]
Franklin, Benjamin [‘fræŋklən ‘bendʒəmən]
Galileo [gələ’li:,o:]
Gauss, Carl Friedrich [‘ɡaʊs ka:l ‘fredrik]
Gray, Stephen [‘grei ‘sti:vən]
Hercules [‘hə:kju,li:z]
Kovalevsky, Sofya [kəvə’levski ‘sofja]
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm von [‘laɪbnɪts ‘gotfrid ‘vɪlhəlm fən]
Maxwell, James Clerk [‘maks,wel ‘dʒeimz ‘kla:k]
Morse, Samuel [‘mo:rs ‘samjə(wə)l]
Newcomen, Thomas [‘nju:komən ‘toməs]
Newton, Isaak [‘njutn ‘aizək]
Oersted, Hans Christian [‘ə:stəd ‘hæns ‘kristiən]
Pascal, Blaise [ pæ’skæl ‘blez]
Peterson, Ivars [‘pi:təsən ‘aivəz]
Planck, Max Karl [‘pla:ŋk ‘mæks ‘ka:l]
Pythagoras [pə’θægərəs]
Röntgen, Karl von [‘rə:ntgən ‘ka:l fən]
Russell, Bertrand [‘rʌsəl bə’tra:n]
Rutherford, Ernest[‘rʌðəfəd ə:nəst]
Savery, Thomas [‘seivəri ‘toməs]
Volta, Alessandro [‘vo:ltə ale’sa:ndrə]
Watt, James [‘wa:t ‘dʒeimz]
35
Geographical Names
Atlantic Ocean [ət'læntɪk 'əuʃən]
Babylonia
[,bəbə’lounjə]
Baddeck
[bə’dek]
Baltimore
[‘boltɪmo:]
Berlin
[bə:'lɪn]
Birmingham [‘bə:mɪŋəm]
Boston
[’bostən]
Cambridge
Canada
[‘keɪmbrɪdʒ]
[‘kænədə]
Charlestown [‘tʃa:lz,taun]
Copenhagen
[‘koupən,heɪɡən]
Edinburgh
Europe
France
[‘edɪnb(ə)rə]
[‘juərəp]
[’fra:ns]
Glasgow
[‘ɡla:zɡou]
Göttingen
[‘ɡə:tɪŋən]
Grantham
[‘grænθʌm]
Greenock
Heidelberg
[‘gri:nʌk]
[‘haidelbə:g]
Kiev
[‘kɪjiw]
Massachusetts [,mæsə’tʃu:sɪts]
Milan
New Jersey
[mɪ’læn]
[nju:’dʒ ə:zi]
New York
Newark
[nju: ‘jɔ:k]
[‘nju: ək]
Nova Scotia
Oslo
[,nouvə’skouʃə]
[‘ozləu]
Philadelphia [,fɪlə’delfiə]
Scotland
[‘skotlənd]
Somerville
Stockholm
Sweden
[‘sʌməvəl]
[‘stokhoum]
[‘swi:dən]
Washington
[‘woʃɪŋtən]
36
Bibliography
1. Курашвили Е.И. Английский язык для студентов-физиков. М., 2002, С. 316.
2. Encyclopedia of Mathematics. - Macmillan Science Library, New York, 2002.
3. Russell W. Burns. John Logie Baird. Television Pioneer.- The Institution of
Engineering and technology, London, UK, 2000
4. On the 100th Anniversary of the Birth of Academician Sergei Alekseevich Lebedev.Programming and Computer Software, vol.29, N 1, 2003
5. http:// www.nls.uk/scientists
6. http://inventors.about.com
7. http://www.buzzle.com/chapters/science-and-technology.asp
8. http://www.cellular.co.za/cellphone_inventor
9. http://www.wikipedia.org
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Contents
Foreword ……………………………………………………………………………………… 2
Chapter I “Famous Physicists and Mathematicians” ………………………….……………….3
Famous Mathematicians, part I ……………………………………………………………...…3
Famous Mathematicians, part II ………………………………………………………………. 4
Sofya Kovalevsky …………………………………………………………………………..… .6
Isaac Newton ………………………………………………………..………………………… 8
James Watt …………………………………………………………...………………………. 10
Michael Faraday ……………………………….…………………………………………...…12
Samuel F. B. Morse ………………………………………………………………………..… 14
Alexander Graham Bell ……………………………………………………………………… 16
Thomas Alva Edison ………………………………………………………………………... 18
Chapter II “Texts on Sciences” …………………………………………………….………… 20
The History of Physics ……………………………………………………………………….. 20
The Ugly Nature of the Earth's Twin Sister ………………………………………………….. 22
Electricity and Magnetism …………………………………………………….………… ….. 23
The Revolution in Physics …………………………………………………….………… ….. 24
Definition of Mathematics, part I …………………………………………………….……… 26
Definition of Mathematics, part II …………………………………………………….……... 27
Chapter III “Supplementary Reading” ………………………………………….…………… 29
Invention of television …………………………………………………….……………....… 29
The First Computer in the USSR …………………………………………………….…….…30
Invention of the Mobile Phone …………………………………………………….………… 31
Effects of Cell Phone Radiation …………………………………………………….……...…32
Fun Facts about Astronomy …………………………………………………….………… …33
List of Proper and Geographical Names …………………………………………………...…35
Bibliography …………………………………………………….…………………………….37
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