Close Textual Analysis of Book 22 of The Iliad (The Death of
Hector)
Notes
Conditions of Assessment
 This CTA – in essay format – was done in two hours, under test conditions, in the unit
Classical Literature, in Semester 2 2009
 The students did not know which part of The Iliad they would receive for the CTA – it was an
edited version of the whole of book 22 – on two pages
 Spelling has been corrected, and some expression tidied up
Strong features of this response:
 Language register
 Use of quotation
 Sophistication of ideas
 Discusses all required elements – language, plot, characterisation and themes
 Knowledge of the whole text, while concentrating on the extract
Homer’s Book 22 of The Iliad explores the characterisation of Hector, Achilles and
the gods in respect to glory, war and fate. Language, especially the characteristic style
and structure of Homeric composition, exemplifies the themes, plot and character
development. The Death of Hector typifies the attitudes of Mycenaean Greek culture
as this book explores the heroic nature of this society, especially when the archetypal
heroes are involved in one-on-one warfare, as demonstrated by Achilles killing
Hector. Throughout the epic, Homer explored many themes, including the glory of
war, military values over family and longevity, and the role of gods in the lives of
men. This particular extract is significant in the overall context of the epic as it gives
an insight into Mycenaean society, their customs and their way of life. The death of
Hector is not merely the death of one hero, it is Homer exploring aspects of ancient
Greek society, through his use of the following factors: plot movement, character
development, themes and writing style and structure.
This introduction
nicely foreshadows
the conclusion of the
essay.
Book 22 explores and exemplifies the glory and importance of war in ancient Greek
society. This theme is strengthened and created successfully through the use of
language, the plot itself and the development of the characters through the epic. In
The Iliad, both Hector and Achilles have been developed into archetypal heroes, both Accurate and insightful
contrasting of characters
consisting of prideful, heroic attributes. Hector, however, is not consumed by his
pride, wrath of Achilles’ tendency to be blinded by grief and, in turn, bloodlust. These
characteristics of Hector and Achilles are evident in this extract as Hector is willing to
sacrifice himself for Troy and Achilles is blinded by his grief over Patroclus’ death
and it will not stop until he has avenged his lost friend’s life. It is these slight
differences in the characterisation of Hector and Achilles that fuel the plot as well as
interestingly explore this idea of the glory in war. As explored in previous books, a
warriors’ worth in battle (and in ancient Greek culture) is based on competence and
bravery, the men are built up as heroes. This is where Homeric style and the use of
language is necessary. Homer used a combination of similes, fixed epithets and ring
composition, as The Iliad was originally composed orally, and it is this structure that
reinforces the importance and glorious nature of Hector and Achilles. As Hector
stands outside the Trojan gates for Achilles, Homer describes the approaching
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Achilles as “like Engalist, the warrior god of battle with the shining helmet…” (Page
1, column 2)
In this one sentence, Homer has manipulated the language to utilise simile - Achilles
is compared to a mighty god and is depicted as godlike. Importantly, the use of
language focuses strength, swiftness and godlike qualities of the warriors; they are not
merely men, Hector and Achilles are depicted as heroes and embody the
characteristics of the gods.
sufficient identification
of the source (given the
formatting of the
extract)
sophisticated insight
into characterisation
Both men are compared to animals in this book, Hector “just as a mountain snake
waits for some man right by its lair…dauntless heart will not retreat” (page 1, column good use of quotation
2) and Achilles as a “mountain falcon, the fastest creature of all the ones that fly”
(page 1, column 2). It is this use of vivid imagery and the development of the
individual simile that reinforces the heroic nature of Greek society as well as informs
the reader (audience) of the outcome of the epic. In these two descriptions, Homer
interestingly compares the two men to strong animals, however, based on animal
a sophisticated point,
instinct and animal hierarchy it is clear the falcon can and will easily kill the snake,
which goes beyond
‘surface level’
just as Achilles will do to Hector. This demonstrates the incredible complexity and
deployment of
the structure of Homer’s poetry as the phrases themselves are fixed, a combination of
quotation
a detailed description and expressing the characteristic nature of the two warriors. I t
is the use of language, especially focussing on the use of similes and fixed epithets
(such as “swift footed Achilles [page 1, column 1] to demonstrates his likeness to a
falcon) that develops the glory and the importance of war in ancient Greek culture.
Throughout The Iliad, Homer has explored the glory of war as aforementioned and
clear linking
with this theme comes the celebration of war and the fact that military values often
overwhelm the importance of family. In the Death of Hector, Priam tries to get Hector
to retreat for his family and to save his life. However, as explores previously, it is
neither in the nature of Hector’s character nor an aspect of ancient Mycenaean culture
for a warrior to retreat from glory, even if it means sacrificing his youth and family to
Achilles. Priam is blinded by his fatherly tendencies and is short-sighted
metaphysically, as he would rather have his sons around him than save the city (also references to broader text,
in his decision to support Helen and Paris). His role in this book foreshadows his role beyond the extract
in book 24 when he begs Achilles for the body of his son to be returned. Homer uses
the characteristic fixed epithet of “old” (page 1, column 1) to refer to Priam,
expressing his nature and to appeal to the man who has lost a son. Just as death is
related to glory and the fate of Hector, Priam tries to persuade Hector into retreating as
it will spare the life of his dearest son and insure that the Trojan army keeps is
inspirational leader:
“Don’t give that man,
the son of Peleus, great glory. He’ll take
your own dear life. Have pity on me, too”
(Page 1, column 2)
longer quotation correctly
indented
However, Hector as emphasised in the previous books, is the embodiment of a hero
and is responsible for his duty to Troy, even if it will result in his death. Throughout
the epic, Hector has been quite controlled over his attitude to his fate, his death at the
hands of Achilles, facing it calmly and heroically. However, even the hero that was
Hector could not face his fate without regreats and fear:
“At that moment…
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Hector began to shake with fear.
His courage, gone, he could no longer stand there.”
(Page 1, column 1)
This ties in with the constant tension between being a father, husband, warrior and
prince, for Hector is all of these roles. However, these responsibilities clash and cause
issues. In the end it is the heroic values rather than life and family that controls the
“fate” of Hector. Indeed, it is not the gods that ultimately control humanity, as
represented by Hector himself; customs and social mores control your fate.
very sophisticated
point
As explored in previous books in the Iliad, the role of gods in ancient Greek culture
was extremely important and their influence controlled the lives of men. Although the
death of Hector is mainly the depiction of the wrath of Achilles, the gods, as they have
influenced the war so far, are important characters. The role of the gods in The Iliad,
gives and extremely close insight into the structure of Mycenaean Greek culture and
also gives an explanation for causation. It is evident that ancient Greek culture was
polytheistic. In the Death of Hector, Athena and Zeus both still play a role in the fate
of Hector and the subsequent glory attained by Achilles. Just as the human characters
develop as the epic progresses, so do the gods and their tendency to favour different
sides of this antagonistic clash between Troy and the Greeks. The gods themselves
are anthropomorphic and therefore are susceptible to experiencing human emotion and
this directly influences the outcome and the direction of the plot. In the death of
Hector, Zeus himself is tempted by his tendency to favour Hector and is willing to
rescue him from death:
How my heart pities Hector,
who’s often sacrificed to me…
come you gods, think hard and offer your advice –
do we wish to rescue him from death,
or kill him now…”
(Page 2, column 1)
However, just as Zeus is affected by his connection to the mortal world, the other gods
are just as easily swayed by flattery, or in the case of Athena on the side of the
Achaeans, jealousy and rage. It is interesting as Athena herself is clouded by her
hatred of the Trojans due to he hatred of Paris in choosing Aphrodite and her (and
Hera) in a beauty contest, however, she argues on the side of fate. It seems as though
the gods themselves cannot control fate, nor do they wish to, however, as explored
through the entire epic and especially in this book, it is their anthropomorphic nature
and their tendency to be overcome with human emotion that controls their actions.
The role of the gods is closely related to fate and morality. Although the gods and
create supremacy for individual warriors, such as Achilles, they still remain mortal,
and it is their fate to die. Athena explores this idea of fate and the imminent nature of
death, Hector’s death foreshadowing the downfall of the great Achilles himself:
“How can you want, to snatch the man back
from his wretched death.
He is mortal – his fate doomed him long ago”.
(Page 2, column 1)
The role of the gods is extremely important in the overall outcome of The Iliad as their
relations and interactions with each other and with humanity dictate the outcomes on
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earth. To a certain extent the feeble bickering between the gods and their feeble
nature is a direct mirroring of the troubles on earth. Homer explored the motivation
behind the gods’ control of causation as representation of human emotion and
tendencies. Just as humanity inevitably responds to arguments and disagreements
with conflict, the gods themselves are merely an immoral projection. This in itself is
an interesting statement for Homer to make on ancient Greek customs, structure of
society and religion. However, overall the role of the gods in this particular extract, as
depicted through the entire epic is symbolic of a particular period in history controlled
by extremely different mores and this idea of a changeable fate.
Book 22 exemplifies the themes, characterisations and the Homeric style and structure
to explore the glory in war, the military values overriding family and the role of the
gods. Although this book depicts the death of Hector, overall there are no significant
aspects of the epics in this excerpt that are new. Homer composed an epic orally, and
with that came discrepancies and the influence of different periods. The original
Trojan War was in approximately 1200BC and the composition of the epic by Homer
in about 800 BC, and the codification about 600 BC. It is evident in the overarching
themes that the customs, culture and attitudes to religion were incorporated into the
Iliad and in turn represent a huge period of ancient Greek culture. This particular
extract explores the heroic nature of Achilles and Hector, the superficial and
anthropomorphic nature of the gods and the idea of fate. Although The Iliad may
seem like an artificial conglomeration, elements belonging to different societies in
ancient Greece, overall The Iliad and especially in the book, Homer focuses on the
importance of tradition, glory and the role of the gods in the lives of men.
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