A Guidebook
i
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
A Guidebook
Y.P. Aggarwal
R.S. Thakur
Operations Research and Systems Management Unit
National Institute of Educational
Planning and Administration
17-B, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi - 110016
July, 2003
ii
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
Prepared for publication by (Late) Dr. Y.P. Aggarwal and Dr. R.S. Thakur
National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration
17-B, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi – 110 016
First Published: November 2003 (5h)
© National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration, 2003
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or
by any electronic, or other means including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the author.
Design and Layout by Publication Unit, NIEPA, New Delhi
Cover Design: Sabyasachi Panja
Published by the Registrar, National institute of Educational Planning and Administration,
17-B, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi and printed by the Publication Unit, NIEPA at M/s. Suchi
Advertising, Shakti Nagar, Delhi 110007.
A Guidebook
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iv
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
FOREWORD
The role of research and documentation is to fill the vacuum in the current
understanding and provide the basis for further development. This is particularly
relevant for social sciences which use definitions and concepts which are not only
contextual but also amenable to different types of interpretations. Educational
planning is such an area.
NIEPA, since its inception has been actively engaged in capacity building and
providing professional and technical support to the GOI as well as to the state
governments and resource institutions at various levels. NIEPA also produces a
large number of research studies and monographs to broaden the horizons of
knowledge. One such area of interest to NIEPA is the design and development of
decision support models that can be implemented at various levels.
The present publication entitled ‘Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning’ is
a step in presenting a consolidated picture of often used terms. I am happy to
note that the Operations Research and Systems Management Unit at NIEPA
undertook the task of compiling the definitions of often used terms in educational
planning. The authors have made all efforts to include terms and concepts
relevant to Indian educational administrators but many more may need to be
included further.
I am particularly thankful to Late Professor Y.P. Aggarwal for conceiving the idea
of such a publication. He along with Dr. R.S. Thakur (Consultant) had worked
hard in producing the present document. I am sure that researchers,
administrators, development planners, and all those interested in Indian
educational system would find it useful.
B.P. Khandelwal
Director, NIEPA
NEW DELHI
July, 2003
A Guidebook
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Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
PREFACE
The idea for preparing a Guidebook on ‘Concepts and Terms in Educational
Planning’ emerged as a result of the authors’ interaction with the national and
state level educational administrators. A survey of literature revealed that the
Educational Statistical Manual existing in India dates as back as to 1964 and has
not been revised since then. The 1964 manual was very narrow in nature and
provided the description of statistical terms/instructions for completing
educational survey forms. The educational planners, statisticians, planning
officers, educational researchers, are using different terms and concepts in
different ways and lack of standardization is causing a considerable confusion
among them. The same type of feedback was obtained at NIEPA during various
capacity building programs for district education officers and other field
functionaries.
While everyone realized that sound educational information system based on the
standardized concepts, terms and definitions is essential for effective planning
and monitoring of education development programs, not much has been done in
India in this context. NIEPA undertook many initiatives to reform the educational
database for decentralized planning, especially after the DPEP was initiated.
These efforts also acquire significance in the context of SSA, which has now
been taken up by the Government of India. In India, more than 300 districts
have now been covered under programs like DPEP/SSA and the need for a
publication dealing with basic concepts and definitions has been felt all the more.
The present effort is a step in this direction. While the authors fully realize the
wide differences in definitions and concepts used by educational planners in
different contexts, it was decided to document some important concepts and
terms which are relevant in the Indian context. It is expected that such a move
would result in standardization of definitions and concepts as used in the Indian
educational system at various levels and also among the researchers.
Initially, the draft was circulated to all the States Education Departments, CSO,
MHRD, NCERT, and NIEPA in July 2002. During the last one year some of the
organizations had sent their valuable suggestions, which have duly been
incorporated
in
this
volume.
We
are
grateful
to
all
those
organizations/educationalist who have contributed through their seasoned and
valuable suggestions.
A Guidebook
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Being the first effort of its type, the authors solicit feedback from educational
researchers, administrators, planners and field functionaries on the relevance
and appropriateness of the publication. Further suggestions to improve the
publication would be highly appreciated. It is also visualized that many
refinements and addition would take place as a result of the feedback from the
users.
New Delhi
Yash Aggarwal
R.S. Thakur
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
viii
CONTENTS
Concepts
Page
A.
Contextual................................................................................................................... 1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
Education.................................................................................................................... 1
Training ...................................................................................................................... 2
Culture........................................................................................................................ 2
Concept ...................................................................................................................... 2
Compulsory Education.................................................................................................. 2
Basic Education ........................................................................................................... 2
Education System ........................................................................................................ 3
Comparative Education ................................................................................................ 3
General Education ....................................................................................................... 3
Vocational Education.................................................................................................... 4
Professional Education ................................................................................................. 4
Inclusive Education...................................................................................................... 5
Recurrent Education .................................................................................................... 5
Tertiary Education ....................................................................................................... 5
Technical Education ..................................................................................................... 5
Formal Education......................................................................................................... 6
Educational Innovation ................................................................................................ 6
Educational Program.................................................................................................... 6
Course ........................................................................................................................ 6
Data ........................................................................................................................... 6
Information ................................................................................................................. 7
Variable ...................................................................................................................... 7
Questionnaire .............................................................................................................. 7
Schedule ..................................................................................................................... 7
Distracters................................................................................................................... 8
Domain ....................................................................................................................... 8
Project ........................................................................................................................ 8
Audio-Visual Aids ......................................................................................................... 8
B.
Policy & Planning ......................................................................................................... 8
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
Policy.......................................................................................................................... 8
Philosophy .................................................................................................................. 8
Vision.......................................................................................................................... 9
Planning...................................................................................................................... 9
Types of Planning ........................................................................................................ 9
Feasibility Studies .......................................................................................................12
Planning, Programing, Budgeting System (PPBS) ..........................................................12
Programs ...................................................................................................................12
Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) .......................................................12
Synergy .....................................................................................................................12
School Mapping ..........................................................................................................13
Performance Appraisal ................................................................................................13
A Guidebook
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
Human Resource Development ................................................................................... 13
Human Development Index (HDI) ............................................................................... 13
Critical Path Method (CPM) ......................................................................................... 13
Forced Choice Appraisal.............................................................................................. 14
Scalar Principle...........................................................................................................14
Estimation.................................................................................................................. 14
Projection34...............................................................................................................14
Prediction .................................................................................................................. 14
Forecasting ................................................................................................................15
Critical Incidents Method ............................................................................................ 15
Random Sampling ...................................................................................................... 16
Education Management Information System (EMIS) ..................................................... 16
Mass Media................................................................................................................ 16
C.
Levels and Type of Education...................................................................................... 16
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
ISCED 1997 ............................................................................................................... 16
Levels of Education .................................................................................................... 17
Grade ........................................................................................................................ 19
Early Childhood Care & Education (ECCE) .................................................................... 19
Primary Education ...................................................................................................... 20
Upper Primary Education ............................................................................................ 20
Secondary Education .................................................................................................. 21
D.
Modes of education .................................................................................................... 21
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
Formal Education ....................................................................................................... 21
Adult Education.......................................................................................................... 21
Special Needs Education ............................................................................................. 22
Distance Education ..................................................................................................... 25
Montessori Method ..................................................................................................... 26
Kindergarten ..............................................................................................................26
E. Population and settlement structure .................................................................................. 27
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
School-Age Population ................................................................................................ 27
Disadvantaged Groups................................................................................................ 27
Urban Areas............................................................................................................... 27
Rural Areas ................................................................................................................28
Village ....................................................................................................................... 28
Gram Panchayat......................................................................................................... 29
Habitation .................................................................................................................. 29
Household ................................................................................................................. 29
Cluster Resource Centre ............................................................................................. 30
Blocks........................................................................................................................ 30
F.
Access & Equity in Education ...................................................................................... 31
77.
Access ....................................................................................................................... 31
ix
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Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
78.
79.
80.
Equity ........................................................................................................................31
Gender.......................................................................................................................31
Gender Equality ..........................................................................................................32
G.
Legal Basis of Education..............................................................................................32
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
Legal Basis .................................................................................................................32
Compulsory Early Childhood Care & Education .............................................................32
Elementary Education as Fundamental Right of the Child & fundamental duty of
parents .....................................................................................................................32
Education: A Joint Responsibility of Central and State Governments ..............................33
Decentralization of Primary Education ..........................................................................33
Other Constitutional Safeguards ..................................................................................33
H.
Content and purpose of education ...............................................................................34
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
Academic Year............................................................................................................34
Curriculum .................................................................................................................35
Syllabus .....................................................................................................................35
Achievement ..............................................................................................................36
Basic Learning Needs ..................................................................................................36
Minimum Levels of Learning (MLL)...............................................................................36
Learning Assessment ..................................................................................................36
Competencies.............................................................................................................37
Pass-Fail ....................................................................................................................37
I.
Educational Institutions and their classification ...........................................................37
96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
The School .................................................................................................................37
Categories of Educational Institution............................................................................38
Special Schools for the Handicapped............................................................................38
Institutions in the Same Building .................................................................................39
Shift Schools ..............................................................................................................39
Residential Schools .....................................................................................................39
School Pattern ............................................................................................................40
Schools by Stages.......................................................................................................40
School Management ...................................................................................................41
Community Schools ....................................................................................................42
Neighbourhood School ................................................................................................42
School Complexes.......................................................................................................42
Alternative Schools .....................................................................................................43
Mobile Schools............................................................................................................43
J.
110.
111.
112.
113.
Enrolment in educational institutions .............................................................................43
Enrolment ..................................................................................................................43
Student......................................................................................................................43
Adolescents................................................................................................................44
Cohort .......................................................................................................................44
A Guidebook
114.
115.
116.
117.
118.
119.
120.
121.
122.
Pupil.......................................................................................................................... 44
Graduate ................................................................................................................... 44
Truancy ..................................................................................................................... 45
New Entrants ............................................................................................................. 45
Disturbed Child .......................................................................................................... 45
Gross Enrolment......................................................................................................... 45
Net Enrolment............................................................................................................ 45
Children Attending Schools/Colleges ............................................................................ 45
Typical Ages ..............................................................................................................46
K.
School Efficiency ........................................................................................................ 46
123.
124.
125.
126.
127.
128.
129.
130.
131.
132.
133.
134.
135.
136.
137.
Out-of-School Children ............................................................................................... 46
Pupil-Cohort............................................................................................................... 46
Coefficient of Efficiency............................................................................................... 46
School Life Expectancy ............................................................................................... 46
Survival Rate.............................................................................................................. 47
Drop out .................................................................................................................... 47
Repeater.................................................................................................................... 47
Promotee................................................................................................................... 47
Pupil-Year .................................................................................................................. 48
Monitoring ................................................................................................................. 48
Evaluation.................................................................................................................. 48
Grade Transition ........................................................................................................ 48
Education Indicators................................................................................................... 48
Educational Wastage .................................................................................................. 49
Symposium ................................................................................................................ 49
L.
Teaching and non-teaching staff ................................................................................. 50
138.
139.
140.
141.
142.
143.
144.
Teacher ..................................................................................................................... 50
Supporting Staff ......................................................................................................... 51
Categories of Teaching Staff ....................................................................................... 51
Teachers Training Institutes........................................................................................ 51
Teaching-Learning Methods (TLMs) ............................................................................. 52
Teaching-Learning Material (TLM) ............................................................................... 52
Resource Teacher....................................................................................................... 52
M.
Public Finances .......................................................................................................... 52
145.
146.
147.
148.
149.
150.
151.
152.
153.
Budget ...................................................................................................................... 52
Zero Based Budgeting ................................................................................................ 53
Deficit Budget ............................................................................................................53
Surplus Budget........................................................................................................... 53
Financial Year ............................................................................................................53
Date of Reference ...................................................................................................... 53
Expenditure ...............................................................................................................53
Recurring Expenditure ................................................................................................ 54
Non – Recurring Expenditure ...................................................................................... 54
xi
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Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
154.
155.
156.
157.
158.
159.
160.
161.
162.
163.
164.
Capital Expenditure.....................................................................................................54
Expenditure (Revenue Account)...................................................................................54
Plan Expenditure ........................................................................................................54
Non-Plan Expenditure .................................................................................................55
Current Expenditures ..................................................................................................55
Income ......................................................................................................................55
National Income .........................................................................................................55
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ....................................................................................55
Gross National Product at Market Prices (GNP) .............................................................56
Gross National Product (GNP)......................................................................................56
Cost-Benefit Analysis ..................................................................................................56
N.
School Buildings .........................................................................................................57
165.
166.
Status of School Buildings ...........................................................................................57
Types of School Buildings............................................................................................57
O.
Educational Attainment and Literacy ............................................................................58
167.
168.
Educational Attainments..............................................................................................58
Literacy......................................................................................................................58
P.
Information & Communication Technologies.................................................................60
169.
170.
171.
172.
173.
174.
175.
176.
177.
178.
179.
180.
181.
182.
183.
184.
185.
186.
187.
188.
189.
190.
191.
192.
193.
Backbone ...................................................................................................................60
Backup.......................................................................................................................60
Bandwidth..................................................................................................................60
Bar Code....................................................................................................................60
Browser .....................................................................................................................60
Compact Disk .............................................................................................................61
CPU ...........................................................................................................................61
Download...................................................................................................................61
Drive..........................................................................................................................61
Driver ........................................................................................................................61
Electronic Mail (Email).................................................................................................61
File ............................................................................................................................61
Flow Chart .................................................................................................................62
Hardware and Software ..............................................................................................62
Icon...........................................................................................................................62
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) ..................................................................62
Internet .....................................................................................................................62
Intranet .....................................................................................................................62
Local Area Network (LAN) ...........................................................................................63
Modem (Modulator – Demodulator) .............................................................................63
Multi-tasking ..............................................................................................................63
Newsgroup.................................................................................................................63
Operating System .......................................................................................................63
Peripherals .................................................................................................................63
Protocol .....................................................................................................................63
A Guidebook
xiii
194.
195.
196.
197.
Source Code .............................................................................................................. 63
Uploading .................................................................................................................. 63
Webmaster ................................................................................................................ 64
Website ..................................................................................................................... 64
Q.
Important Educational Programs at School Stage in India ............................................ 64
198.
199.
200.
201.
202.
203.
204.
205.
206.
207.
208.
209.
210.
District Primary Education Program (DPEP) .................................................................. 64
District Information System for Education (DISE) ......................................................... 65
Education Guarantee Scheme and Alternative Innovative Education ............................. 65
Lok Jumbish...............................................................................................................66
Shiksha Karmi ............................................................................................................ 66
Operation Blackboard ................................................................................................. 67
APPEAL...................................................................................................................... 67
Education for All (EFA)................................................................................................ 67
Information Technology.............................................................................................. 67
District Institutes of Education & Training (DIET) ......................................................... 68
Navodaya Vidayalayas ................................................................................................ 68
Nutritional Support to Primary Education ..................................................................... 69
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) ...................................................................................... 69
APPENDICES........................................................................................................................ 71
Appendix-A Description of ISCED-97, Classification Criteria, and Sub-categories....................... 71
Appendix-B SYSTEM OF SCHOOL CLASSES IN INDIA.............................................................. 79
Appendix-C Compulsory Education Acts Presently in Force in States and UTs of India............... 80
Appendix-D Structure of Educational In India......................................................................... 81
CONCEPTS AND TERMS IN EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
A Guidebook
A. CONTEXTUAL
1.
Education
Different philosophers and educationists have defined education
differently. Froebel defined education as ‘the unfoldment of what is
already enfolded in the germ. It is the process by which the child makes
internal external.’ For Swami Vivekananda, "education is the
manifestation of the divine perfection already existing in man". According
to Mahatma Gandhi, "Education is an all round drawing out of the best in
the child and man - body, mind and spirit". However, for the purpose of
educational statistics, education, according to UNESCO, “is understood to
involve, organized and sustained communication designed to bring about
learning”.1 Here, the words organized, sustained, communication and
learning need to be explained.
1.1
Organized: means planned in a pattern or sequence with explicit or
implicit aims. It involves a providing agency (person or persons or body),
which sets up the learning environment and a method of teaching
through which the communication is organized. The method is typically
the one that is engaged in communicating or releasing knowledge and
skills with a view to bringing about learning. It can also be indirect or
inanimate, e.g. a piece of computer software, a film or tape, etc.
1.2
Sustained: means that the learning experience has the elements of
1.3
Communication: Communication is a relationship between two or more
persons involving the transfer of information in the form of messages,
ideas, knowledge, strategies, skills etc. Communication may be verbal or
non-verbal, direct/face to face, or indirect/remote, and may involve a
wide variety of channels and media.
1
duration and continuity. No minimum duration has been stipulated. The
appropriate minima differ from course to course and program to program.
ISCED 1997.UNESCO, Paris (November, 1997)
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
2
1.4
Learning: Learning is any improvement in behavior, information,
2.
Training
knowledge, understanding, attitude, values, skills etc.
Training is learning experience that leads to the acquisition of a skill2. It
is a process for preparing people for different jobs enabling them improve
their job-capacities and potentials.
3.
Culture3
`Culture comprises values, beliefs, customs, behaviors, institutions and
artifacts of a group of people or of a nation.’ In the Oxford dictionary
(Vol. II), culture has been defined as `cultivation, tending, training,
development and refinement of mind, tastes and manners– refinement by
education and training. It is the intellectual side of civilization.’
4.
Concept
‘Concept is an idea or representation of the common element or attribute
by which groups or classes may be distinguished; it is any general or
abstract intellectual representation of a situation, state of affairs or
objects; a thought, an opinion, an idea or a mental image’4 It is an idea
or aggregation of ideas that has been acquired as a symbol or
generalization for an intangible, i.e. of square, circle, soft, ten, fast, long,
over etc.
5.
Compulsory Education
Compulsory Education refers to the number of years or the age-span
during which children and youth are legally obliged to attend school for a
specified number of years.5 That which must be attended or undertaken
by the law of a particular country or state. The legal requirement may be
education from a certain starting age to a certain school-leaving age or it
may be education to a certain standard.6
6.
Basic Education
Basic Education refers to a whole range of educational activities that
takes place in different settings and that aims to meet basic learning
2
3
4
5
6
Manual for Statistics on NFE, Division of Statistics, UNESCO, Paris
A Directory of Education. Edited by P.J. Hills, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1982
Dictionary of Education, III Edition. By Carter V. Good and W.R. Market, McGraw – Hill Book Company, NY,
1973
EFA 2000 Assessment-Technical Guidelines, UNESCO 1998
International Dictionary of Education, by G. Terry Page & G.B.Thomas, Kogan Page, London (1997)
A Guidebook
3
needs as defined in the World Declaration on Education For All (Jomtein,
1990). It thus comprises both formal schooling (Primary and sometimes
Lower Secondary) as well as a wide variety of non-formal and informal
public and private educational activities offered to meet the defined basic
learning needs of groups of people of all ages.5
Basic Education according to UNESCO is education intended to
meet basic learning needs; it includes instructions at the first or
foundation level on which subsequent learning can be based; it
encompasses early childhood and primary (elementary) education for
children as well as education in literacy, general knowledge and skills for
youth and adult; it may extend into secondary education in some
countries.7
7.
Education System
Education System is the overall network of institutions and programs
through which education of all types and all levels is provided to the
population.5
8.
Comparative Education
The study of educational systems of different countries is defined as
comparative education.
‘Comparative Education’ and `International Education’ are often
confused. The former refers to a field of study that applies historical,
philosophical and social sciences theories and methods to international
problems in education. Its equivalents in other fields of academic study
are those dedicated to the trans-societal study of other social institutions,
such as comparative government, comparative economics, and
comparative religions. Comparative education is primarily an academic
and inter-disciplinary pursuit.”8
9.
General Education
General Education is mainly designed to lead participants to a deeper
understanding of a subject or group of subjects, especially, but not
necessarily, with a view to preparing participants for further (additional)
education at the same or a higher level. Successful completion of these
7
8
Asia Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO, Literacy Glossary
E. Epstein in International Encyclopedia of Education, by Torsten Husen, T. Neville Postlethwaite (eds.)
Oxford: Pergamon, New York: Elsevier Science, 1994, p. 918.
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
4
programs may or may not provide the participants with a labour-market
relevant qualification at this level. These programs are typically schoolbased. Programs with a general orientation and not focusing on a
particular specialization should be classified in this category. 9
Knowledge: Knowledge is the aggregate of facts, information and
principles that an individual has acquired through learning and
experience; formal education seeks to raise levels of knowledge
systematically.10
Intelligence: Psychologically, there are different technical meanings of
intelligence, such as verbal reasoning, quantitative thinking, abstract
analysis etc. but intelligence in popular understanding is mental abilities
enabling one to think rationally, learn readily, act purposefully and deal
effectively with one’s environment. 10
Conscience: Conscience is moral sense of right and wrong. `A faculty
developed at home and in school from early childhood, functioning as the
center of awareness for an individual’s moral and ethical beliefs; similar in
some respects to what Freudian psychoanalytic theory terms as
superego.’ 10
10.
Vocational Education
Vocational Education is designed mainly to lead participants to acquire
the practical skills, know-how and understanding necessary for
employment in a particular occupation or trade or class of occupations or
trades. Successful completion of such programs can lead, but not
necessarily to a labour-market relevant vocational qualification recognized
by the competent authorities in the country, like Ministry of Labour &
Employment, Education etc11.
11.
Professional Education
Professional Education is all that education which has direct value as
preparation for professional calling or employment in life. It is
differentiated, on the one hand, from vocational education which relates
to those employments of social grades not recognized as profession and,
9
10
Instruction Manual for Completing the Questionnaire on Statistics on Education, UNESCO, Paris, 1998
Concise Dictionary of Education by Gene R. Hawes, Lynne Salop Hawes. A Hudan Group Book-Van Nostrand
Reinhold Co., New York-London-Toronto.
11
Instructional Manual for Completing the Questionnaire on Statistics of Education, UNESCO, Paris, 1998.
A Guidebook
5
on the other hand, from the general or so called `liberal’ education which
has no specific practical application in view.12
12.
Inclusive Education
Inclusive Education means that all students (disabled and non-disabled
children and young people) in a school/college study together, regardless
of their strengths or weaknesses in any area and become part of the
school/college community.13
13.
Recurrent Education
Recurrent Education is an approach that rejects the concept of education
as a preparatory front and/or apprenticeship process at the beginning of
working life but seeks to make learning experience available flexibly
throughout a person’s life according to choice, interests, career, social
and economic and job relevance. It has points in common with adult
education, continuing education, permanent in-service training and life
long education but places emphasis on ready availability and access on
relevance to individual needs and on an autonomous learner situation.
Recurrent education calls for a radical reshaping of the educational
system rather than the mere provisions of second chance institutions.
14.
Tertiary Education
Tertiary Education is that education which follows the completion of
secondary education or its equivalent. Thus, tertiary education includes
higher education and the more-advanced parts of further education
though the term is more often used in the UK in a sense excluding higher
education.14
15.
Technical Education
Technical Education designed at upper secondary and lower tertiary
levels to prepare middle level persons (technicians, middle management
etc.) and at University level to prepare engineers and technologists for
higher management positions. Technical education includes general
education, theoretical, scientific and technical studies and related skill
training. The component of technical education may vary considerably
depending on the types of personnel to be prepared and the education
level.
12
13
14
Encyclopaedia of Education. Macmillian Co. & Free Press, New York.
Dictionary of Primary Education by Henal Ashraf. A.P.H. Publishing Co, New Delhi, 1999.
International Dictionary of Education by G.Terry Page & J.B. Thomas. Kogan Page, London, 1977.
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
6
16.
Formal Education
Formal Education refers to intentionally organized full time learning
events with fixed duration and schedule, structural hierarchy with
chronological succession of levels and grades, admission requirements
and formal registration; catering mainly to the population of 5-25 years
old, which are held within established educational institutions and use
predetermined pedagogical organization, contents, methods and
teaching/learning materials.15
17.
Educational Innovation
Educational Innovation refers to an idea or practice new to a specific
educational context that meets specified needs. It is the introduction or
promotion of new ideas and methods that are devised in education or
school practices which have a substantial effect on changing the existing
patterns of behaviour of a group or groups involved. Innovative
strategies imply the development of new ideas which are disseminated
and utilized; these usually occur in response to particular problems.16
18.
Educational Program
Educational Program is a set of organized and purposeful learning
experiences with a minimum duration of one school or academic year,
usually offered in an educational institution.17
19.
Course
A course is a planned series of learning experiences in a particular range
of subjects or skills, offered by an institution and undertaken by one or
more learners.17
20.
Data
Data is the plural form of datum. A datum results from the reduction of
information to a single recorded unit. For instance, ‘Radha is 16 years old’
can be reduced to age, sex or both, depending on what is of interest to
us. The only requirement is to classify into meaningful and mutually
exclusive categories. Data collection is the process of allocating to
categories and counting and data thus collected are presented as a data
matrix. This matrix can have any number of dimensions.
15
16
Literacy Glossary Asia/ Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO, Japan.
Evolution of NGO Projects under MHRD Scheme of Innovative and Experimental Programmes of Elementary
Education. NCERT, New Delhi, 2001.
17
EFA, the Year 2000 Assessment - Technical Guidelines . UNESCO, Paris, p 26.
A Guidebook
21.
7
Information
Oxford Dictionary defines information as the act of informing;
communication of knowledge or news of some fact or occurrence.
Knowledge communicated concerning some particular fact, subject or
event etc. “Information Science is sometimes equated with the study of
information and communication systems of all types including mechanized
data, computerized information and documentation of all types.18
22.
Variable
Generally, any quantity which varies. A variable is a quantity, which is
susceptible to continuous change while others remain constant. US Deptt
of Education, Office of Research & Improvement have defined `variable’
as a quantity that may assume any one of a set of values.19
22.1. Dependant Variable: A dependant variable is that which depends for its
value on another variable.19
22.2. Independent Variable: An independent variable is a variable arbitrarily
assumed as one on which other related variables shall be regarded as
dependant.
22.3
Exogenous Variable: Variables for which the values are determined
outside the model but which influence the model.
23.
Questionnaire
Questionnaire is a group or sequence of questions designed to elicit
information upon a subject or sequence of subjects from informants.
24.
Schedule
A Schedule is a specialized series of a group or sequence of questions
designed to elicit data/information upon a subject.
Usually, it is
completed by an investigator on the basis of data/information supplied by
the particular member of the population chosen for inclusion in the
sample but sometimes it is completed by that member himself/herself as
in postal enquiries.
18
International Dictionary of Education by G. Terry Page & G.B. Thomas with Mr. AR Marshall. Kogan Page,
London; NY.
19
Projections of Education Statistics to 2007. Education Department, Washington DC.
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
8
25.
Distracters
A number of options are presented to a testee as the possible right
answer to each item in a multiple-choice test. Only one is correct. The
other options are called distracters, since they are intended to be
plausible answers unless the person has confidence in his choice of the
correct answer.
26.
Domain
The everyday usage of the word refers to an area of land or territory,
which has clear boundaries. In educational parlance, the term also refers
to an area of educational interest, which is defined and bounded.
However, educational domains are not like that. Intelligence is a good
example of a domain where boundaries are not well defined.
27.
Project
A Project is a combination of non-routine activities that must be
completed with a set of resources and within a set time interval, e.g. (i)
construction of a school building of a specific design, (ii) design of a
training program for a specified group, (iii) production of textbook.
28.
Audio-Visual Aids
Audio-Visual Aids use the senses of both sights (seeing) and sound
(hearing) collectively or sometimes individually. These aids include Sound
Films; Filmstrips; Tapes/Slides, Broadcast Television, Closed Circuit
Television (CCTV), Video-Recording etc. Recently, microprocessors have
also been used in computer-assisted learning/training.
B.
POLICY & PLANNING
29.
Policy
Policy is a statement of aims, purposes, principles or intentions, which
serve as continuing guidelines for management in accomplishing
objectives20.
30.
Philosophy
Philosophy is the science that seeks to organize and systematize all fields
of knowledge as a means of understanding and interpreting the totality of
20
International Directory of Management (III Edition), by Hano Johannsen & T. Gerry Page, 1986.
A Guidebook
9
reality, usually regarded as comprising ethics, aesthetics, metaphysics
and epistemology.21
31.
Vision
`Vision is something which is apparently seen otherwise than by ordinary
sight. The action or fact of seeing or contemplating something not
actually present to the eye; mystical or supernatural in sight or
foresight.22 Vision is to articulate the purposes of an organization into
idioms and goals.
32.
Planning
Planning is the formal process of making decisions for the future of
individuals and organizations. Planning involves dealing on aims and
objectives, selecting to correct strategies and program to achieve the
aims, determining and allocating the resources required and ensuring that
plans are communicated to all concerned. Plans are statement of things
to be done and the sequence and timing in which they should be done in
order to achieve a given end.20
33.
Types of Planning
There are two basic kinds of planning: strategic and operational. Strategic
planning, also known as long range, comprehensive, integrated, overall
and managerial planning, has three dimensions: the identification and
examination of future opportunities, threats and consequences; the
process of analyzing an organization’s environment and developing
compatible objectives along with the appropriate strategies with policies
capable of achieving those objectives; and the integration of the various
elements of planning into an overall structure of plans so that each unit
of the organization knows in advance what must be done when and by
whom. Operational planning, also known as divisional planning, is
concerned with the implementation of the larger goals and strategies that
have been determined by strategic planning; it is also concerned with
improving current operations and with the allocation of resources through
the operating budget23.
33.1
Macro Planning: Macro Planning deals with broad entities having such
large magnitude, aggregates, and averages as National Income, Per
21
22
23
Dictionary of Education, by Carter V. Good & W R Markel, McGraw Hill Book Co. Inc, New York, London.
Oxford English Dictionary (Vol. XII). Clavendon Press, London, 1970.
Directory of Education, Vol.2, by (General Editor) Prof S.K. Singh. Commonwealth Publishers, Delhi.
10
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
Capita Income, National Expenditure on consumption and income;
Balance of Trade and Balance of Payment, National Population, Total
Enrolment, Enrolment Ratios, Age Structure etc. Thus, macro-planning
deals with broad plans not taking note of breakdowns between skills or
scheme implementation at grass root level.
33.2
Micro-Planning: As against macro theory, micro economic theory analyses
consumption and investment of households, prices of particular goods,
output, sales and purchase decisions of individual firms and industries.
Micro-Planning in education starts from grass root level. For instance, the
head of an institution has to plan how best he/she should bring all the
children to school in his/her area. Here planning at the village level has
to be done. How best individual schools can bring and retain all the
children in schools; how schools in individual habitations can be provided;
and whether eligible students are getting their scholarships on time.
33.3
Decentralised Planning: Decentralization implies distribution of
administrative powers and functions among local constituents.
Decentralized planning means to confer the authority of planning for the
local development. The 73rd and 74th constitutional amendments have
placed the primary education under the control of Panchayati Raj
institutions. Under the decentralized planning model, all local units
prepare their plans after due consultations with their people and analysis
of the strengths and weaknesses of the planning area. These local level
plans are then coordinated and summated to make the district plan by
taking into account the availability of the physical and financial resources.
Apart from this, in India the Government have also delegated financial
and administrative powers to the heads of educational institutions to
which budget is also allocated for being spent by them according to their
requirements.
Such financial delegations are available in the general
Financial Rules. The administrative powers are delegated according to the
provisions contained in the state Education Code of each state.
33.4
Many times decentralization is viewed as something opposite to
centralization. In the socialist countries, the concept of centralized
planning was practised as the central authority did all planning. These
plans were then passed on to the grassroots for implementation.
A Guidebook
33.5
11
Rolling Plan: A long-term plan that is revised regularly and each revision
is projected forward again for the same period as the original plan.24
Thus, a three-year Rolling Plan might be revised each year so that at the
end of year one the plan is revised and fresh projections made to the end
25
of the year four.
33.6
Strategic
Planning: The managerial process of developing and
maintaining a viable link between the organization’s objectives and
resources and its environmental opportunities.25
33.7
Contingency Planning: A planning technique, which determines actions to
be taken by individuals and groups at specific places and times if
abnormal threats or opportunities arise.26
33.8
Corporate Planning: A technique, which aims to integrate all the planning
activities of a company and relate them to the best overall objectives for
the company.26
33.9
Manpower Planning: A generic term for those techniques used to arrive at
a specification of any aspect of future manpower requirement,
deployment or development needs.26 Manpower planning has been an
important feature of centralized planning in socialist countries. The
Government of India has established a specialized institute to undertake
manpower planning exercises in the Indian context.
33.10 Process Planning: Determining how the product or part should be
manufactured by referring to the component and assembly drawings and
drafting an operation sequence for each component;
deciding the machines or hand tools to be used;
drawing up the manufacturing layout for each component and
sub-assembly, the departments and type of labour to perform the
operations and specifying the tools, fixtures and gauges to be
used.26
33.11 Indicative Planning: Indicative Planning is planning by agreement and
indication of desirable targets rather than by compulsion or decree. It is
also known as Participative Planning.
24
25
26
International Dictionary of Education, by G. Terry Page and J.B.T Homas with A.R. Marshall, London
International Dictionary of Management, by Hano Johannsen & G. Terry Page 1986, London.
A Concise Encyclopaedia of Management Techniques, by Frank Finch. Printed by M/s Allied Publishers (P)
Ltd, NewDelhi.
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
12
34.
Feasibility Studies
A technique for discovering the extent to which a proposal is practicable.
35.
Planning, Programming, Budgeting System (PPBS)
Output budgeting wide ranging management technique introduced into
the USA in the mid 1960s, not always with ready cooperation with the
administrators and based on the industrial management techniques of
program budgeting. Subsequently, the technique has been introduced
into other countries, including the UK where it is often called output
budgeting. PPBS is in effect on integrating of a number of techniques in a
planning and budgeting process for identifying, costing and assigning a
complexity of resources for establishing priorities and strategies in a
major program and for forecasting costs, expenditure and achievements
within the immediate financial year or over a longer period.27
36.
Programs
Programs are approved and authorized means, strategies and details of
procedures for achieving the targets. The goals are desired ends to be
achieved. The Central Government adopted NPE 1986 and for achieving
the goals mentioned therein, they simultaneously prepared the POA (the
Program of Action).
37.
Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)
The technique was adopted by industry to plan for system defence
program.27 “PERT: acronym for `Program Evaluation and Review
Technique’, is a planning and control process that requires identifying the
accomplishment of programs and the time and resources needed to go
from one accomplishment to the next. A PERT diagram shows the
sequence and inter-relationship of activities from the beginning of a
project to the end and uses probabilities for activity start and completion
dates’28
38.
Synergy
Where combining two or more courses of action is more effective than
pursuing them individually.29
27
A Concise Encyclopaedia of Management Techniques, by Frank Finch. Printed by M/s Allied Publishers, New
Delhi.
28
Dictionary of Education, Vol.2 (General Editor) Prof. S.K. Singh, Commonwealth Publishers, Delhi.
29
International Dictionary of Management (Third Edition) by Hano Johannsen & G. Terry Page, Kogan Page
London
A Guidebook
39.
13
School Mapping
School mapping is an exercise which is undertaken normally after a
survey of all existing facilities, like school building (i.e. availability of
classrooms, laboratories, lavatories, drinking water facilities etc.) library,
library books, teachers, equipment, consumable stores, availability of
schools in habitations/villages, etc. so that the deficiencies are pinpointed for taking corrective measures.
40.
Performance Appraisal
Performance Appraisal is systematic assessment of an individual’s
performance in order to assess his training needs, potential for
promotion, eligibility for a merit increment as part of pay or salary review
or for management succession planning. Methods of appraisal include
the controlled report, factor rating, forced choice ranking system, task
based appraisal etc.30
41.
Human Resource Development
Human Resource Development (HRD) is used by development economists
and educational administrators to denote productive investment in human
beings (formal and non-formal education, short term and on the job
training) that enhances their knowledge, skills and abilities to perform
day-to-day tasks.31
42.
Human Development Index (HDI)
HDI measures the overall achievements in a country in three basic
dimensions of human development, namely: longevity, knowledge and
decent standard of living. It is measured by life expectancy, educational
attainment (adult literacy and combined primary, secondary and tertiary
enrolment) and adjusted income.
43.
Critical Path Method (CPM)
CPM is the project network analysis technique for determining the
minimum project duration. Critical Path in a set of activities is that subset
of activities, which will delay planned completion date for the whole
32
project if any of its activities is subjected to delay.
30
International Dictionary of Education by G. Terry Page & J.B. Thomas Kogan Page, London/Nicolas
Publishing Com, New York.
31
Literacy Glossary Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO.
32
A Concise Encyclopaedia of Management Techniques by Frank Finch, Allied Publishers (P) Ltd. New Delhi.
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
14
44.
Forced Choice Appraisal
Forced Choice Appraisal is a performance appraisal technique in which
the freedom of choice in making assessment is restricted.
45.
Scalar Principle
Concept that subordinates should communicate with their seniors only
through the intermediate superiors following the chain of command33.
46.
Estimation
Estimation is to assess the magnitude of an already existing quantity. It is
concerned with inference about the numerical value of unknown
population values from incomplete data such as a sample. If single figure
is calculated for each unknown parameter, the process is called point
estimation. If an interval is calculated with which the parameter is likely
in some sense, to lie, the process is called interval estimation.34
47.
Projection34
Projection is an estimate of future values based on current trends. This
term is used in two connected senses:
48.
•
In relation to a time series, it means the forecast value of the series;
a value projected forward from current experience;
•
More recently, it has been used in probability theory to denote the
conditional expectation of a variate. Since a regression equation
gives the expected value of the dependent variate based upon the
values of the predicted (independent) variates, such equations are
used for forecasting or prediction.
Prediction34
Prediction is defined as ‘to tell in advance; to foretell the future;
prophesy; to predict the weather; to predict the fall of a civilization’.35 It
is also referred to the process of forecasting the magnitude of statistical
variate at some future point of time. In statistical contexts, the word
33
International Dictionary of Management (III Edition), by Hano Johannsen & G. Terry Page, Kogan Page,
London.
34
Directory of Statistical Norms (II Edition) by M.G. Kendall & W.R. Buckland, Printed by Oliver & Boyd,
London.
34
Directory of Statistical Norms (II Edition) by M.G. Kendall & W.R. Buckland, Printed by Oliver & Boyd,
London.
35
The Randam House Dictionary of English Language, edited by Jess Stein and Lauraence Urdang, Randam
House, New York.
A Guidebook
15
may also occur in slightly different meanings, e.g. in a regression
equation expressing a dependent variate y in terms of dependent x’s; the
value given for y by specified values of x’s is called the predicted value
even when no temporal element is involved.
Prediction in the educational context is defined as a probability statement
of the degree of the scholastic success likely to be achieved by a student,
judgment being based on the case study method with particular emphasis
on the result of the scholastic aptitude test scores.36
49.
Forecasting37
Forecasting and Prediction are used synonymously in the customary
sense of assessing the magnitude, which a quantity will assume at some
future point of time, as distinct from estimation – which attempts to
assess the magnitude of an already existing quantity. An estimate of a
future trend, event or magnitude on the basis of previous experience36.
For example, the final yield of a crop is forecast during the growing
period but estimated at harvest.
The errors of estimation involved in prediction from a regression equation
are sometimes referred to as `forecasting errors’ but this expression is
better avoided in such a restricted sense. Likewise, terms such as `Index
Numbers of forecasting efficiency’, in the sense of residual error variances
in regression analysis are to be avoided.
50.
Critical Incidents Method
A method for determining what abilities are needed to do a particular job
in order to establish standards of success through actual incidents
occurring on the job; used by Flangan to develop charts of the personal
and social developments of elementary school children: critical incidents
films or tapes are sometimes used in teaching to study the causes and
possible solutions of problems encountered in achieving success in the
activity illustrated by such an incident.38
36
37
38
Dictionary of Education, edited by Carter V. Good; McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
Directory of Statistical Terms by M.G. Kendall & W.R. Buckland II Edition, by Oliver & Boyd, London.
Dictionary of Education, by Carter V. Good; McGraw – Hill Book Company, New York.
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
16
51.
Random Sampling
A sampling technique in which each member of the population has an
equal probability of being sampled and in which each item sampled is
determined by chance.39
52.
Education Management Information System (EMIS)
EMIS is a formal method of providing educational managers with accurate
and timely information so that decision making, planning, project
development and implementation and other management functions and
operations can be carried out effectively.40
53.
Mass Media
Mass media are means of communicating to large numbers of individuals
more or less simultaneously. Used in education as a group term for the
press and printed text, films, radios, televisions and popular music.41
C.
LEVELS AND TYPE OF EDUCATION
54.
ISCED 1997
ISCED is the International Standard Classification of Education42 for the
purpose of cross-country comparisons, classification and reporting of
educational statistics to UNESCO. Designed by UNESCO in early 1970’s to
serve as an instrument suitable for assembling, compiling and presenting
statistics of education, both within individual countries and internationally.
It presents concepts, definitions and classifications. It is a classification of
educational programs and has been defined on the basis of their
educational content as an array or a sequence of educational activities,
which are organized to accomplish a pre-determined objective or a
specified set of educational tasks. Since it is difficult to define the content
of a program level in an abstract way, proxy criteria are used to help
describe educational programs and determine their levels. ISCED
excludes communication that is not designed to bring about learning. It
also excludes various forms of learning that are not organized43.
39
40
41
42
43
A Concise Encyclopaedia of Management Technique, by Frank Finch, Allied Publishers (P) Ltd, New Delhi.
Literacy Glossary, Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO, Japan.
International Dictionary of Education, by G. Terry Page & J.B. Thomas, Kogan Page, London, 1977.
ISCED 1997 – Manual. UNESCO, Paris, 1998.
ISCED 1997 –UNESCO, Paris, November 1998.
A Guidebook
55.
17
Levels of Education
Based on the above definition, UNESCO has divided levels of education
for cross-country comparison of education and classification of
educational statistics as under:
Levels of Education for Cross Country Comparison & Classification of Education
Statistics
Level
Code
0
Name of Level
Main Criterion44
Pre-Primary
The educational properties of the program;
School or centre based;
The minimum age of children catered for;
The upper age limit of the children
1
Primary education or first
stage of Basic Education
Beginning of systematic apprenticeship of reading,
writing and mathematics
2
Second stage of Basic
Education
or
Lower
Secondary Education
Subject presentation using more qualified teachers than
for Level 1; Full implementation of basic skills and
foundation for lifelong learning
3
Upper Secondary Education
Typical entrance qualifications (some 9 yrs of full time
education since Level 1); Minimum entrance requirement
4
Post
Tertiary
Entrance requirement, content, age, duration; (successful
completion of Level 3; Program content to be more
specialized)
5
First stage of Tertiary
Education (not leading
directly to an advanced
research qualification)
Minimum entrance requirement;
Type, duration of certification obtained;
6
Second stage of Tertiary
Education (leading to an
advanced
research
qualification)
Research oriented content; Submission of a thesis or
dissertation of publishable quality, representing
significant contribution to knowledge
Secondary/Non-
Details are available at Appendix A.
The structure of education and learning in India has undergone
significant changes over the last 50 years. The increasing complexity of
44
UNESCO Manual of Instructions, 1998; and ISCED 1997, UNESCO, Paris, 1997
18
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
education systems, often reflecting more choices, both between types of
programs and modes of attendance, have resulted in classificatory
problems. The multiple entry system has been useful.
55.1
Level 0: Pre-Primary level of education is the initial stage of organized
instruction, designed primarily to introduce very young children to a
school-type environment, i.e. to provide a bridge between the home and
a school based atmosphere. It is generally confined to 3-5/6 year’s age
group.
55.2
Level 1: Primary Education usually begins at the age of 5 or 6 years and
generally lasts 4 to 5 years in India. In some countries it lasts 6 years.
Programs at the primary level generally require no previous formal
education although it is becoming increasingly common for children to
have attended a pre-primary program before entering primary education.
Level 1 gives students a sound basic education in reading, writing and
mathematics along with elementary understanding of other subjects of
social studies.
55.3
Level 2: Upper Primary or Lower Secondary level of education generally
continues the basic programs of the primary level, although teaching is
typically more subject-focused, often requiring more specialized teachers
who conduct classes in their fields of specialization.
55.4
Level 3: Upper Secondary level of education: Instructions in this level are
more organized along subject matter lines than in lower secondary level
and teachers need to have a higher level or more subject specific
qualifications than at lower secondary level. The entrance age is 15 or 16
years and duration ranges between 2-5 years of schooling. This level may
either be terminal and/or preparatory for tertiary education.
55.5
Level 4: Post Secondary/Non-Tertiary: Level 4 was introduced in ISCED97 to cover programs that straddle the boundary between upper
secondary and post secondary education. Such programs are available in
Europe. These programs are not considered as tertiary programs. In
India, we include under this category programs like Basic Teachers
Training, Diploma Courses in Engineering and Technology, Diploma
Courses in Primary Education etc. for which the minimum school
qualification is 12th pass.
55.6
Level 5: First stage of Tertiary Education: The curriculum of programs at
this level has a strong theoretical foundation, emphasizing the liberal Arts
and Sciences (History, Philosophy, Mathematics etc.) or preparing
A Guidebook
19
students for professions with high skills requirements (e.g. Medicine,
Dentistry, Architecture etc.). Have a minimum cumulative theoretical
duration of 3 years full-time equivalent although they are typically 4 or
more years. In case a program has 3 years full-time duration, it is usually
preceded by at least 13 years of previous schooling. Some programs
directly lead the incumbent to market relevant qualifications.
55.7
Level 6: Second stage of Tertiary Education: This level is reserved for
tertiary programs that lead directly to the award of an advanced research
qualification. The duration is 3 years in most countries (for a cumulative
total of at least 7 years FTE at the tertiary level). It requires submission
of a thesis or dissertation of publishable quality, representing contribution
to knowledge and is not solely based on course work.
56.
Grade
Grade is a stage of instruction usually covered in one school year45. In
India, this is also known as class. Classes are further divided into
sections depending upon the strength of students.
56.1
Section: All students in a grade or class are divided into groups for
convenience of teaching. Each such group is called a section. In a big
class/grade, there can be a number of sections labeled as A, B, C, D etc.
Sections are also formed for the following reasons:
•
To teach various types of optional subjects;
•
To cater to the requirements of children offering different medium of
instruction; and
•
To segregate poor performing students from high scoring students.
This grouping is also called as ability based sections.
There can be variations in the number of students amongst sections.
These need not be uniform.
57.
Early Childhood Care & Education (ECCE)
ECCE offers a structured and purposeful set of learning activities either in
a formal institution or in a non-formal children program. The age-span
covered under ECCE is from conception to 6 years. Emphasis has been
given to a child-centered approach, play-way and activity based learning
45
EFA, The Year 2000 Assessment, Technical Guidelines, UNESCO 1998, P 28
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
20
in place of formal methods of teaching. In addition, linkages between
Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) and other ECCE programs
are also stressed to be established. National Policy on Education (1986)
as amended, has given a great deal of importance to ECCE as a crucial
input in the strategy of human resource development. The ECCE
programs include:
•
•
•
•
•
ICDS
Scheme of assistance to voluntary organizations for conducting
ECCE centres.
Balwadis and Daycare centres run by voluntary agencies with
Government assistance.
Pre-Primary schools run by the State Governments, Municipal
Corporations and other governmental and non-governmental
agencies.
Maternal and child health services through primary health centres
and sub-centres and other agencies.
Pre-Primary education in some states starts at the age of 4 years instead
of 3 years. According to 93rd Constitutional Amendment, now the State
shall have to endeavour to provide early childhood care and education for
all children until they complete the age of six years.
58.
Primary Education
Primary Education usually begins at the age of 5 or 6 years as shown in
Appendix B for different states and lasts for about 4-5 years. Programs
at Primary school education require no previous formal education,
although it is becoming increasingly common for children to have
attended a pre-primary school before entering primary school education.
93rd Constitutional Amendment when notified will make it obligatory to
provide pre-primary education to all children. Primary school education
gives students a sound basic education in reading, writing and
mathematics along with an elementary understanding of social sciences.
59.
Upper Primary Education
Upper primary education comprises three years duration and usually
starts at the age of 11 years (though in some states it starts at the age of
10 years) and continues up to the 13th year of the child. At this stage,
education generally continues the basic programs of primary school level,
though teaching is more subject-focused.
A Guidebook
60.
21
Secondary Education
Secondary school education comprises four years duration: two years of
lower secondary and two years of senior secondary school education. In
most of the states, the lower secondary starts at the age of 14 years and
ends at the 17th year of the child. Admission requirement is the
completion of upper primary school education. Instruction is more
organized along subject-specifics. At the Senior secondary level, a
student has a choice for particular subjects/vocations (keeping
requirement of Boards and his taste in view).
The system of school education in India is given in Appendix B.
The Education Acts in respect of some of the states are given in
Appendix C.
Structure of education in India is given in Appendix D.
D.
MODES OF EDUCATION
61.
Formal Education
See item No. 16 above.
61.1
Non-Formal Education (NFE):
61.2
Informal Learning:
61.3
Random Learning: Random or incidental learning refers to unintentional
NFE refers to intentionally organized
learning events catering essentially to persons not currently participating
in formal
education; the educational activities of NFE are not
organized as part of formal school and university education as in Formal
Education (item No 16 above).46
Informal Learning is generally intentional but
unorganized and unstructured learning events that occur in the family,
the work place and in daily-life of every person on a self-directed, familydirected or socially-directed basis.46
learning occurring at any time and in any place in every person’s
everyday life.46
62.
Adult Education
Adult Education means the education of the adults in the age group of 15
years and above. In the western world, it is some sort of continuing
education of the
adults. `One of the oldest forms of education in
46
Manual for Statistics on NFE, Division of Statistics, UNESCO, Paris.
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
22
USA, Adult Basic Education was for the eradication of illiteracy. It has
been differently designated as remedial,
elementary,
fundamental,
literacy and common branches of education’.47 Adult education (or
continuing or recurrent education) in the western concept is `the entire
body of organized education processes, whatever the content, level and
method, whether formal or otherwise, whether they prolong or replace
initial education in schools, colleges and universities as well as in
apprenticeship, whereby persons regarded as adults by the society to
which they belong, improve their technical or professional qualifications,
further develop their abilities, enrich their knowledge with the purpose:
•
to complete a level of formal education;
•
to acquire knowledge and skills in a new field;
•
to refresh or update their knowledge in a particular field.’
In the Indian context, adult education is a major program of the Central
and State Governments. It started with social education and has now
taken the shape of a mission, i.e., National Literacy Mission (NLM) for the
eradication of illiteracy in the country amongst the age-group 15-35
years. During eighties the Government launched five Technology
Missions, of which National Literacy Mission was one. It is a social Mission
which implies that adequate awareness and motivation have to be
generated at all levels. The objectives of NLM are as follows:
• Achieving self-reliance in literacy and numeracy;
• Generating awareness about the cause of deprivation;
• Improving conditions through organization and participation in the
process of development;
• Acquiring skills to improve the economic status and general wellbeing;
• Improving the values of national integration, conservation of
environment, women’s equality and observance of small family
norms.
63.
Special Needs Education48
The term Special Needs Education (SNE) essentially refers to the
provisions for educating children having disabilities. Earlier these children
47
48
Encyclopedia of Education, Vol. I, Macmillan Co.& Free Press, New York.
Min of Social Welfare Gazette Notification in the GOI Extraordinary Gazettes Part II, dated 1-1-1996, Act:
Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities Protection of Rights & Full Participation) Act 1995.
A Guidebook
23
were being educated primarily in special schools established for the
purpose as a part of social welfare activity. Presently the policy is to
educate all such children in normal/general schools along with their
peers. Though children with severe disabling conditions can even now be
educated in special schools, children due to their slow pace of learning,
social deprivations etc, with or without disability, are also referred to as
children with special education needs. Special Needs Education thus
implies education of all such children who may have specified
education needs meriting special attention of education
providers. Following Salmanca Declaration of 1994, now all such
children (other than children with disabilities) who may need special
support such as remedial teaching, special policy inputs etc are also
termed as children with special education needs. All are to be educated
preferably in general/mainstream schools. Emphasis is on meeting the
needs and facilitating learning and not labeling a child. Since GOI has
already initiated pro-active measures, like special programs for SC/ST
children, girls etc., SNE refers mainly to education needs of children with
disabilities. These programs are referred to as IEDC/inclusive education.
PWD Act (1995) defines the disabilities as under:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
a)
b)
49
Blindness
Hearing Impaired
Leprosy Cured Persons
Loco motor Disability
Mental Retardation
Low Vision
Mental Illness49
Blindness: Blindness refers to a condition where a person suffers
from any of the following conditions, namely:
• total absence of sight; or
• visual acuity not exceeding 6/60 or 20/200 (Snellen) in the
better eye with correcting lenses; or
• limitation of the field of vision subtending an angle of 20
degree or worse.
Hearing Impaired: Hearing impaired means loss of sixty decibels or
more in the better ear in the conversational range of frequencies.
In place of mental illness, there is proposal to include learning disabilities but this proposal has not been
through as yet.
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
24
c)
Leprosy Cured Person: Leprosy cured person means any person
who has been cured of leprosy but is suffering from:
•
•
•
d)
loss of sensation in hands or feet as well as loss of sensation
and paresis in the eye and eye-lid but with no manifest
deformity;
manifest deformity and paresis but having sufficient mobility in
their hands and feet to enable them to engage in normal
economic activity;
extreme physical deformity as well as advanced age which
prevents him from undertaking any gainful occupation.
Loco motor Disability: Loco motor disability means disability of the
bones, joints or muscles leading to substantial reduction of the
movement of the limbs or any form of cerebral palsy; cerebral palsy
means a group of non-progressive conditions of a person
characterized by abnormal motor control posture resulting from
brain insult or injuries occurring in the pre-natal or infant period of
development.
e)
Mental Retardation: Mental retardation means a condition of
arrested or incomplete development of mind of a person, which is
specially characterized by sub-normality of intelligence.
f)
Low Vision: A person with low-vision means a person with
impairment of visual functioning even after treatment or standard
refractive correction but who uses or is potentially capable of using
vision for the planning or execution of a task with appropriate
assertive device.
g)
Mental Illness: Mental illness means any mental disorder other than
mental retardation.
i)
Dyslexia:
Dyslexia is a reading disability, apparently caused by
neurological dysfunction in which the student experiences difficulty
in clearly perceiving individual letters, words or passages. Dyslexic
A Guidebook
25
students often need special instructional provisions and may
ultimately outgrow or overcome the handicap.50
j)
Juvenile Delinquent: Juvenile delinquent is generally a youth under
the age of 18 years who commits an anti-social or criminal act and
who may be suspended from school. A juvenile delinquent usually
receives mitigated punishment before the law.
64.
Distance Education
Education from the distance and not face-to-face but indirect/remote or
inanimate and involving a wide variety of channels and media. Distance
Education has the following types:
(a)
Correspondence Courses
(b)
Home Study
(c)
Open Education
(d)
E-Learning
a)
Correspondence Courses/Study: Correspondence Courses/Study is a
(1) method of providing for the systematic exchange between
student and instructor of materials sent by mail for the purpose of
instruction in units of subject matter; (2) set of printed lessons or
assignments based on textual materials and/or instructional media
with directions for study, exercises, tests etc. to be used as primary
or supplemental aids to learning outside a regular classroom
environment; (3) formal study and instruction conducted by mail,
using texts, course outlines, and other materials, with lesson
reports, corrections and examinations51.
b)
Home Study: Some of the Universities permit female students to
appear in Degree and Post Degree courses privately without having
attended any college or without undergoing any correspondence
course whatsoever. Such students do their home studies themselves
and appear in the university examinations after, of course, paying
examination dues.
c)
50
Open Education: Open Education has spread in India and a large
number of Universities are now offering open education system. In
Concise Dictionary of Education by G.R. Hawes & L.S. Hawes; A. Hudan Group Book Van Nostrand Reinhold
Co.
51
Dictionary of Education edited by Carter V. Good; McGraw-Hill Books Company, New York.
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
26
addition, there are half a dozen Open Universities in India. Under
the open education system, the students are not required to comply
with the hierarchical ladder which is compulsory under the formal
education system. Instead, the students, who have attained a
particular age, are free to undertake the open education courses i.e.
only age condition is applicable. There are no other restrictions
under open education scheme.
d)
E-Learning: E-Learning is the effective learning process created by
combining digitally delivered content with (learning) support and
services52.
65.
Montessori Method53
Maria Montessori (1870-1952) was an Italian physician and educator who
developed a special method of teaching young children as a result of
initial experience of working with mentally retarded children. The method
worked out, in great detail, received wide attention both in Europe and
the USA and continues in practice in Montessori schools. In Montessori
Method, the child is considered a self-activated learner at work in a
prepared environment of programmed materials which encourage autoeducation under the trained observation of a “new teacher” – the
individuals’ normalization – Montessori’s term for the development of
confidence, competence, self-discipline and the preparedness to meet
environmental challenge. The Montessori approach recognizes the
importance of allowing the young child to utilize his formative periods,
sensitive periods, absorbent mind, and other unique characteristics in the
learning process.
66.
Kindergarten54
Kindergarten is an institution for furthering the systematic development
of children below the school age by the organization of their natural play
instincts in accordance with the principles upon which development is
based. The name signifies children’s garden or garden of children, and
its founder, Friedrich Froebel, selected it because it expressed the idea,
which he wished to convey, of development directed by knowledge of the
organism to be developed, and aided by the selection of a right
52
Vaughan Walter and Jim Wilson: e-learning & Network, Forum for Technology on Training, E-learning
Newsletter.
53
Encyclopaedia of Education (vol.6), Macmillan Company, New York.
54
An Encyclopaedia of Education by Paul Monroe; Macmillan Company, New York.
A Guidebook
27
environment. There is another aspect of the Kindergarten, i.e. its social
aspect, of which this name gives no suggestion. From this standpoint, it
has been defined as “a society of children engaged in play and in various
forms of self-expression through which the child comes to learn
something of the values and methods of social life without as yet being
burdened by its technique.”
E. POPULATION AND SETTLEMENT STRUCTURE
67.
School-Age Population
School age-population is the number of children in officially defined
school age-group, whether enrolled in school or not. For instance, the
population in the age group 6-14 years is the school age population for
elementary school education. 6-11 years population is primary school age
population while 6-18 years population is total school age population in
India.
68.
Disadvantaged Groups
Disadvantaged groups are those groups of people who, for one reason or
another remained ignored and did not benefit to the same degree as the
majority of other people in their country from services and other
concessions provided by the Government.55
In India, the disadvantaged groups of people include,
• Scheduled casts
• Scheduled tribes
• Women
• Other Backward Classes
69.
Urban Areas
The census adopts the following criteria for treating habitations as urban:
55
a)
All statutory towns, i.e. all places within a municipality,
corporation, cantonment board, or notified town area committees
etc.
b)
All other places which satisfy the following criteria:
Literacy Glossary. Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO, Japan.
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
28
•
•
•
a minimum population of 5000;
at least 75% of the male working population engaged in
non-agricultural activities, and
a density of population of at least 400 persons per square
km (1000 per square mile).
69.1 Urban Agglomeration:
Urban agglomeration is a continuous urban spread constituting a town
and its adjoining urban outgrowths (OGs), or two or more physically
continuous towns together and any adjoining outgrowths of such towns.
For the census of India 2001, it was decided that the core town or at
least one of the constituent towns of an urban agglomeration should
necessarily be a statutory town and the total population of all the
constituent units should not be less than 20000 (as 1991 census). With
these two basic criteria having been met, the following are possible
different situations in which urban agglomerations could be constituted:
a) A city or town with one or more continuous outgrowths;
b) Two or more adjoining towns with or without their outgrowths;
c) A city and one or more adjoining towns with their outgrowths all
of which form a continuous spread of town classes.
The town classes are:
Class I town with one lakh and above
Class II town with 50,000-99999
Class III town with 20,000-49999
Class IV town with 10,000-19999
Class V towns with 5000-9999
Class VI towns with population below 5000
70.
Rural Areas
Rural areas are those areas which are not urban areas.
71.
Village
Village represents a parcel of land whose boundaries are settled and
defined for revenue purposes. Village with no population will be termed
as Bechirag or deserted or uninhabited.
A Guidebook
72.
29
Gram Panchayat
The Government, by notification in the official Gazette, declares a Gram
Sabha of a village or group of villages with a population not less than
500. Every Gram Sabha has a Gram Panchayat duly notified by the
Government. Government can relax the condition of the population for
reasons duly recorded in writing56.
73.
Habitation
A habitation is a distinct cluster of houses existing in a compact and
contiguous manner with a local name having a population of not less than
25 persons in plain areas and not less than 10 persons in hilly or sparsely
populated areas57.
74.
Household
A ‘household` is usually a group of persons who normally live together
and take their meals from a common kitchen unless the exigencies of
work prevent any of them from doing so. Persons in a household may be
related or unrelated or a mix of both. However, if a group of unrelated
persons live in a census house but do not take their meals from the
common kitchen, then they are not constituent of a common household.
Each such person should be treated as separate household58.
74.1
Institutional Household: A group of unrelated persons who live in
74.2
Houseless Household: Households that do not live in buildings or
74.3
Census House: A census house is a building or part of a building
an institution and take their meals from a common kitchen is
called an institutional household (e.g. hostels, boarding houses,
hotels, messes, rescue homes, jails, ashrams, orphanages etc.)59
census houses but live in the open on roadside, pavements, in
hume pipes, under fly-overs and staircases, or in the open in
places of worship, railway platforms etc. are to be treated as
houseless households.59
used or recognized as a separate unit because of having a
separate main entrance from the road or common courtyard or
56
57
58
59
Harayana Gram Panchayat Act, 1994.
All India Educational Surveys, NCERT, New Delhi.
Census of India 2001 Instruction Manual for Filling Up the Household Schedule P8
Census of India 2001 Instruction Manual for Filling up the Household Schedule Page8
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
30
staircase, etc. It may be occupied or vacant. It may be used for a
residential or non-residential purpose or both. 59
75.
Cluster Resource Centre
A nodal school/centre to provide academic support to a number of
schools lying within short distance of the nodal school. The DPEP has
promoted the concept of Cluster Resource Centre in India. The CRC
(primary school) acts as a nodal point for providing academic support to
8 to 10 primary schools lying within a distance of 5-10 Kms. The CRCs do
not perform any administrative functions.
75.1
Community Learning Centre(CLC): CLC is the continuing education
centre under the NFE scheme.
75.2
Community Based Organization (CBO): CBO refers to any
organization that exists at local or grassroots level and works for
the local community.
76.
Blocks
In India, there are two types of Blocks: (a) Educational Blocks, and (b)
Community Development Blocks. The Educational Blocks have been
established by State Education Departments. In some states these are
co-terminus with Community Development Blocks but in many states
these are not co-terminus with C.D. Blocks.
In 1951, 15 pilot projects were started in 15 states in collaboration with
Ford Foundation. In this, three basic units were visualized, namely: (a)
the village; (b) the Mandi, and (c) the Development Block. A village on
an average was to consist of nearly 500 persons (about 100 families); a
Mandi was visualized as a nucleus of 15 to 25 villages depending upon
population, serving as a centre for marketing, communications,
recreational and other services; and the Development Block was to
comprise 4 to 5 Mandis. Eventually, the idea of a Mandi unit had to be
given up and the Community Development Block Program was launched
in 1952 as a movement60. This is still continuing.
60
Panchayati Raj – A Policy Perspective, by M. Shiviah, National Institute of Rural Development, Hyderabad.
A Guidebook
31
F.
ACCESS & EQUITY IN EDUCATION
77.
Access
Access means a channel, a passage, an entrance or a doorway to
education. It has a two-way role:
(i)
A physical approach;
(ii)
Utilization of existing facilities: It is not only essential to provide
education facilities but it is equally important that these facilities
are utilized. The utilization is measured by various rates like: SLE,
RA, GER, NER, GAR,NAR,AAR, ASER etc.
To provide access for all children to elementary education according to
the National Norms or where not possible to provide alternative schools
of teaching learning of comparable level. The National Norms are as
under:
• Primary School to be provided within a radius of 1km from
habitation(s) with 300 persons in plains and 200 persons in hilly
areas.
• Upper Primary School to be provided within a radius of 3 kms. from
habitation(s) with a population of 500 persons.
78.
Equity
Equity means equitable access to and participation in all management
and program functions regardless of special characteristics including but
not limited to gender, race, colour, national origin, disability and age.
79.
Gender
Gender refers to the social differences and relations between men and
women which are learned, very widely among societies and cultures, and
changes over time. The term gender does not replace the term sex,
which refers exclusively to biological difference between men and
women. For example, statistical data are broken down by sex. The term
gender is used to analyse the roles, responsibilities, constraints and
needs of women and men in all areas and in any given social context61.
61
ABC of Women Worker’s Rights and Gender Equality, ILO, Geneva, 2000, pp 47-48.
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
32
80.
Gender Equality
Equality between men and women entails the concept that all human
beings, both men and women, are free to develop their personal abilities
and make choices without the limitations set by stereotypes, rigid gender
roles and prejudices. Gender equality means that the different behavior,
aspirations and needs of women and men are considered, valued and
favoured equally. It does not mean that women and men have to become
the same, but that their rights, responsibilities and opportunities will not
depend on whether they are born male or female. Gender equity means
fairness of treatment for women and men, according to their respective
needs. This may include equal treatment or treatment that is different but
which is considered equivalent in terms of rights, benefits, obligations
and opportunities.
G.
LEGAL BASIS OF EDUCATION
81.
Legal Basis
Legal Basis of education means the legal provisions or legislative
authority Government has for imparting education for its people.
82.
Compulsory Early Childhood Care & Education for All Until
the Age Up to 6 Years
According to 93rd Constitutional Amendment, the Article 45 (“45:
Provision for free and compulsory education for children: The state shall
endeavour to provide, within a period of ten years from the
commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory education
for all children until they complete the age of fourteen years.”) has been
substituted as follows: `The state shall endeavour to provide early
childhood care and education for all children until they complete the age
of six years’.
83.
Elementary Education as Fundamental Right of the Child &
Fundamental Duty of Parents
Further, 93rd Constitutional Amendment provides that after Article 21 of
the Constitution, the following Article shall be inserted:
(a)
“21A: The State shall provide free and compulsory education to all
children of the age of six to fourteen years in such manner as
the State may, by law, determine.”
The following clause has been added to Article 51 after clause (j):
A Guidebook
33
(b)
“Article 51(k): who is a parent or guardian to provide
opportunities for education to his child or as the case may be
ward between the age of six and fourteen years.”
84.
Education: a Joint Responsibility of Central Government
and State Governments
The 42nd Amendment to the Constitution of 1976 has put education in
the Concurrent List and empowered the Indian Parliament with the
authority to legislate on education concurrently with the States.
85.
Decentralization of Primary Education
The 73rd and 74th Amendment to the Constitution provide for
decentralization of school education and entrust primary education to the
Panchayati Raj Institutions and Urban Area Committees so that
participatory and interactive management for primary education could be
evolved.
86.
Other Constitutional Safeguards
Article 46 states that the State shall promote with special care the
educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people,
and, in particular, of the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes and
shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitations.
86.1
Article 24: Prohibition of employment of children in factories etc.
states that no child below the age of fourteen years shall be
employed to work in any factory or mine or engaged in any other
hazardous employment.
86.2
Article 29(2): lays down that no citizen shall be denied admission
into any educational institution maintained by the State or
receiving aid out of State funds on grounds only of religion, race,
caste, language or any of them.
86.3
Article 30(1): enjoins that all minorities, whether based on religion
or language shall have the right to establish and administer
educational institutions of their choice.
86.4
Article 30(1A): states that in making any law providing for the
compulsory acquisition of any property of any educational
institution established and administered by a minority, referred to
in clause (1), the State shall ensure that the amount fixed by or
determined under such law for the acquisition of such property is
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
34
such as would not restrict or abrogate the right guaranteed under
that clause.
86.5
Article 30(2): lays down that the State shall not in granting aid to
educational institutions discriminate against any educational
institution on the ground that it is under the management of a
minority, whether based on religion or language.
86.6
The Article 39: states that State shall, in particular, direct its policy
towards securing xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
xxx xxx xxx
(e) that the health and strength of workers, men and women, and
the tender age of children, are not abused and that citizen are not
forced by economic necessity to enter a vocation unsuited to their
age or strength.
(f) That children are given opportunities and facilities to develop
in a healthy manner and in conditions of freedom and dignity and
that childhood and youth are protected against exploitation and
against moral and material abandonment.
86.7
Article 350(A): lays down that it shall be the endeavour of every
State and of every local authority within the State to provide
adequate facilities for instructions in the mother-tongue at the
primary stage of education to children belonging to linguistic
minority groups and the President may issue such directions to
any State as he considers necessary or proper for securing the
provision of such facilities.
H.
CONTENT AND PURPOSE OF EDUCATION
87.
Academic Year
The education cycle consists of a number of years divided into annual
calendar. The students are evaluated at the end of each year and are
either promoted to the next grade or detained in the same grade.
Normally academic term begins in the month of April or May or June and
ends in the month of March, April or May of the following year in India. In
eastern sector, the academic term is between January and December
month of the year. In most of the states long-term vacations are in
summer season but hilly states have summer vacation as also winter
vacation schools. In the case of many higher education institutions, the
educational cycle is divided into terms of semesters and trimesters.
A Guidebook
88.
35
Curriculum
Curriculum is the course of study duly prescribed by a Board or University
for completing a particular level of education. Educationists’ definitions of
curriculum have tended to shift from the content of discrete courses of
study to the much wider notion of all the learning experiences offered to
pupils under the aegis of school. Curriculum has, therefore, to be seen in
terms of four facets, namely: content, method, purpose and evaluation62.
Curriculum is a group of courses and planned experiences which a
student has under guidance of the school or college; it may refer to what
is intended as planned courses and other activities or intended
opportunities or experiences or to what was actualized for the learner, as
in actual educational treatment or all experiences of the learner under the
direction of the school.’63
UNESCO has defined curriculum as the subjects that are studied or
prescribed for study in an educational program.64
89.
88.1
Core-Curriculum: In core-curriculum, the intention is to shift
attention from essential knowledge to fundamental social values.
Core-curriculum is built around problems common to every one’s
cultural experiences, like the effect of technology on life styles.
The idea has been expressed in cultural map curriculum in which
core activities include work experience, community service,
integrative projects, in-house crafts, craft and design as well as
orthodox academic studies.
88.2
Extra Curricular Activities:
Activities that are associated with
schools but take place outside of the usual schedule of classes
and which are optional for learners.65
88.3
Common Curriculum: Common curriculum usually implies a
compulsory pattern of learning for all pupils. It tends to
emphasize syllabuses and time allocations.
Syllabus
Main heads and topics to be covered by a course of study or instruction.66
62
63
64
65
A Dictionary of Education, edited by P.J. Hills. Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1982.
Dictionary of Education, by Carter V. Good: McGraw – Hill Book Company New Delhi.
Literacy Glossary, Asia/Pacific Cultural Cemtre for UNESCO, Japan.
Dictionary of Primary Education, by Henal Ashraf; APH Publishing Co, New Delhi., 1999.
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
36
90.
Achievement
Accomplishment or proficiency of performance in a given skill or body of
knowledge67. Achievement or performance in school or college in a
standardized series of educational tests. The term is used more generally
to describe performance in the subjects of the curriculum68.
91.
Basic Learning Needs
Basic Learning Needs comprise both essential learning tools (such as
literacy, oral expression, numeracy, problem solving etc.) and the basic
learning content (such as the knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, etc.)
required by human beings to survive, to develop their full capacities, to
live and work in dignity, to participate fully in development, to improve
the quality of their lives, to make informed decisions and to continue
learning.
92.
Minimum Levels of Learning (MLL)
National Policy on Education 1986, as amended, brought to the fore the
need for focusing not only on quantitative aspects but on quality in terms
of achievement levels also. Ministry of Human Resource Development,
therefore, constituted a committee who specified the basic competencies
to be achieved by all children at the primary stage which is known as
Minimum Levels of Learning (MLL) in selected subjects, such as language,
mathematics, environment studies etc. across the country. Many states
are implementing the project through institutional mechanism around
DIETs. Financial assistance for preparation of competency based
textbooks, TLMs, training of teachers, etc, is being provided by State
Governments.
93.
Learning Assessment69
In education, Learning Assessment is the process by which one attempts
to measure the quality and quantity of learning and teaching using
various techniques, e.g. assignments, projects, continuous assessment,
objective type tests, final examinations and other standardized tests, etc.
In psychology, it is the branch of applied psychology concerned with
66
67
68
69
International Dictionary of Management(Third Edition) Edited by Hano Johannsen & G. Terry Page, London.
Dictionary of Education, edited Carter V. Good; Mc Graw-HillBook Company, New York/New Delhi.
International Directory of Education, London(1977)
International Directory of Education, by G. Terry Page & J.B. Thomas, p26. Kogan Page, London
A Guidebook
37
testing in educational, occupational, clinical or other settings eg the
psychological assessment of mental and physical handicaps.
94.
Competencies
Ability to apply to practical situations the essential principles and
techniques of a particular subject matter field. 70 It is also defined as:
a) Those skills, concepts and attitudes needed by all workers
regardless of their occupations or specific jobs.
b) Specific jobs are those concepts, skills and attitudes, which are
highly specialized and relate directly to the single job classification
in which the student learner is interested, and the specific
requirements of the student learner’s training station position.
c) Specific occupations are those concepts, skills and attitudes
essential to a broad occupational grouping, those with common
usefulness to a family of occupations.70
95.
Pass-Fail
A grading option, usually exercised at the secondary/post secondary
levels which can take the place of the more typical A, B, C, etc, grade
system. It also signifies the similar dichotomy of satisfactory/
unsatisfactory.
I.
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS AND THEIR
CLASSIFICATION
96.
The School
A school normally comprises a group of pupils of one or more grades
organized to receive instructions of a given type and level duly prescribed
by a School Board/Government under one or more than one teacher.
Schools are classified by type, by management, by category, by stage, by
recognition etc.
96.1
70
Recognized School: A recognized school is one in which the
course(s) of study followed is/are prescribed or recognized by the
Government (Central/State) or a University or a Board constituted
by law or by any other agency authorized in this behalf by the
Central or State Government and which satisfies one or more of
Dictionary of Education, edited by Carter V. Good; Mc Graw-Hill Book Company, New York/New Delhi.
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
38
the authorities, eg, Directorate of Education, Municipal Board,
School Board etc. with regard to its standard of efficiency. It runs
regular classes and sends candidates for public examinations, if
any.
96.2
97.
Unrecognized School: Unrecognized schools are those which are
not recognized by the Govt. (Central/State/Local Body/Board/
University etc). Such schools are not obliged to follow the
prescribed curriculum or the textbooks. The management can fix
fee without approval from the government.
Categories of Educational Institution
The educational institutions are divided into three types, viz; Boys, Girls
and Co- educational.
97.1
98.
Boys Institutions: An educational institution for boys is one where
only boys are admitted to all classes and admission of girls is
restricted to some specific classes only. For instance in a Senior
Secondary School for Boys, there is the facility for teaching of
geography which is not available in the adjoining Girls Senior
Secondary School. So, the girls of that School will be admitted to
this school for the teaching learning of geography only but it will
still be treated a Boys Senior Secondary School and not a Coeducational Senior Secondary School.
97.2
Girls Institution: An educational institution is girls institution if only
97.3
Co-educational Institution: A co-educational institution is one in
which both boys and girls are admitted to all classes in the
institution.
girls are admitted to all classes and admission of boys is restricted
to some specific classes as described above.
Special Schools for the Handicapped
The special education for the disabled is conducted in two types of
schools. One type of schools are known as special schools for the
handicapped, such as schools for mentally retarded/ school for deaf and
dumb/school for the blinds etc. These are under the Welfare Department.
These schools are meant for severely handicapped children who are
trainable. The other types of schools fall under “integrated education”. In
this category, the educable disabled children are taught along with
normal children. The only difference in this type of education is that there
A Guidebook
39
are special teachers for different disabilities along with resource rooms
where the disabled children are prepared by the resource teacher and
then they are integrated with the normal students.
99.
Institutions in the Same Building
If two institutions are functioning in the same building with separate
heads of institutions and administration for want of accommodation,
these institutions will be treated as two institutions and each institution
will fill up a separate form of educational statistics. However, in the case
of an institution having two shifts under the same head and
administration, it will be treated as one institution and, only one form of
educational statistics about both the shifts, will be filled up by the
institution.
100. Shift Schools
Shift schools are quite popular in many parts of the world. Shift schools
are normally opened to optimally utilize the school infrastructure or to
provide one level of education in one shift and another in the second or
third shift. Shift schools also function to provide separate educational
facilities to the boys and girls. In Delhi there is the concept of shift
schools, ie, two shifts, one in the morning and the other in the evening
are functioning with separate Vice-Principals in charge. These have been
treated as separate schools for various reasons as follows:
a) These shifts are under separate heads
b) These shifts are separate by nomenclature; the morning shift is
for boys, the evening shift is for girls with separate name.
c) Even if in some cases the shifts are not for boys alone, the
morning shift is a primary school and the evening shift is for
secondary school; these are separate schools.
101. Residential Schools
Residential schools are those schools where both board and lodging
arrangements are made by the school management for the students
along with teaching learning. Residential schools are of the following
types:
a) Those who admit only boarders and day scholars are not admitted
to schools. In this category fall all the Navodaya Vidyalayas, Sainik
Schools, Doon School, BCS, Shimla, Ashram Schools and the like.
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
40
b) Those who admit both boarders and day scholars as well. In this
category fall all other schools that have attached hostels including
hostels for SC/ST children/Ashram schools etc.
c) Sports hostels: In order to encourage sports, there are sports
hostels attached to schools where admission is restricted to sports
persons only and none else.
102. School Pattern
The school pattern differs from state-to-state. Various combinations of
classes of the school system constitute different stages of school
education. In India, 22 States/UTs have classes I-V in primary school
stage. In 12 States/UTs, the primary school stage comprises classes I-V;
In Nagaland primary school stage comprises Pre-Primary, A, B, I-IV
classes. So is the case in upper primary school stage. The details are
contained in Appendix B.
103. Schools by Stages
Schools are established for teaching of specific grades which may or may
not follow a particular level of education. For example, a school may be
offering education from class 1 to class 12. Such a school would be
classified as a Senior Secondary school. However, it comprises of four
stages of education, namely, Primary, Upper Primary, Secondary and
Senior secondary. The classification of schools by stage is as follows:
a) Primary stage: A primary school comprising classes I-IV/V.
b) Upper Primary stage: An upper primary school comprises classes
V/VI-VII/VIII.
c) Primary and Upper Primary stage: An upper primary school having
primary as attached classes (I-VII/VIII).
d) Primary, Upper Primary and Secondary stage: A high school
having primary and upper primary classes as attached classes (IX).
e) Primary, Upper Primary, Secondary and Senior Secondary stage: A
higher secondary school having primary and upper primary as
attached classes (I-XII).
f) Upper Primary and Secondary stage: A high school with upper
primary as attached classes (VI-X)
g) Secondary stage: A high school having classes IX-X.
A Guidebook
41
h) Upper Primary, Secondary and Senior Secondary stage: A higher
secondary School having classes (VI-XII).
i)
Secondary and Senior Secondary stage: A higher secondary school
having classes IX-XII.
j) Senior Secondary: A higher secondary school comprising classes
(XI-XII).
104. School Management
The authority, which runs an educational institution, determines its type
of management. It may be government, local body, and private body
receiving grants-in-aid or not receiving grants-in-aid. As such educational
institutions may be classified as follows:
104.1 Government: An educational institution run by Central or State
Government, public sector undertaking or autonomous organization and
wholly financed by Government will be classified as Government
educational institution. For instance KVS, NVS, Sainik Schools, State Govt,
Schools, Ashram Schools, Military Schools, Air Force Schools, Naval
Schools, etc, will fall under this category.
104.2 Local Body: An educational institution run by Municipal Committee/
Corporation/ NAC/Zilla Parishad/Panchayat Samity/Cantonment Board etc,
is classified as local body institution. In Delhi for instance, all primary
schools managed by NDMC/MCD etc, will fall under this category.
104.3 Private School: A private educational institution is one, which is run by an
individual or a private organization, including religious bodies, private
trusts and philanthropic institutions. Private recognized schools are of
two types.
104.4 Private Aided School: It is privately managed but is in receipt of regular
maintenance grant from the government, local body or from any public
authority. If an institution which is on the grant-in-aid list of a public
authority but does not get the maintenance grant in a particular year,
that institution will still be treated as an aided institution for that year.
104.5 Private Unaided School: A private unaided educational institution is one
which is managed by an individual or a private organization and is not
receiving maintenance grant either from government, local body or any
public authority etc. One time grant for a specific purpose like adding a
science block, fencing of the institution, etc, will not make the unaided
institution as aided. It will still remain unaided institution. In Delhi,
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
42
schools like Goenka School, DPS, Modern School, St. Stephens College;
and in Shimla, Tara Hall, BCS, St Edwards, St Bedes, Aukland House etc,
fall under this category.
105.
Community Schools71
This concept was started by Henry Morris, Chief Education Officer,
Cambridge, with the establishment of Village Colleges in 1920s. The
college housed not only the school but the village hall, the branch of
county library, the clubroom for old pensioners, and so on; the facilities
available to the school, for example, those in the workshops and
gymnasium were also available to the community. The college was the
place not only where children went to school but also where their parents
and elder brothers and sisters went to concerts, attended evening classes
or meetings of the women’s institutions, etc.
In India, we do not have community schools but Mahatma Gandhi started
the concept of basic education and all the primary schools were then
converted into Junior Basic Schools in the country. The proceeds there
from were expected to be able to meet the expenses towards teachers’
salaries. However, this experiment also didn’t materialize and all the
Junior Basic Schools were re-converted into Primary Schools and Senior
Basic Schools into Upper Primary Schools.
106. Neighbourhood School
This concept was developed and refined in the Kothari Commission
Report (1964-66). The idea was that the children of a particular area will
necessarily attend schools in their locality or neighbourhood and will not
be permitted admission in any other school beyond their neighbourhood
in order to avoid segregation in schools. The concept of neighbourhood
school has not been implemented in India.
107. School Complexes
The concept of School Complexes had been developed by Kothari
Commission Report (1964-66)72. Since the High and Higher Secondary
Schools have better laboratory and library facilities and these schools
have also better qualified and trained teachers; they have larger and welldeveloped playgrounds and games materials, therefore five or six primary
and upper primary schools, as per convenience, may form a complex and
71
72
A Dictionary of Education, edited by P.J. Hills. Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1982
Report of Education Commission 1964-66, MHRD, Page43.
A Guidebook
43
get their academic and administrative problems solved at the school
complexes level. The attached schools in the complex may arrange cocurricular activities, give better exposure to their students at the thus
formed school complex rather than taking up the matter at block or
district level. In case of temporary absence due to illness of the single
teacher school, the school complex head, immediately, on knowing, can
send a teacher from the school where teachers are available in his
complex. A large number of academic issues and problems can be
discussed at the school complex level by arranging a meeting of all the
teachers or otherwise. Thus many states have formed school complexes.
108. Alternative Schools
Alternative Schools are those schools that are set up in unserved
habitations (with no schooling facilities within one km) under the
Education Guarantee Scheme (EGS) component of the EGS&AIE Scheme
to provide education to out- of-school children. Such schools are
available in MP, Kerala, Orissa, UP, AP, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, etc.
109. Mobile Schools
Mobile school is an innovative and alternative method of school teaching
where unreachable children of the nomadic tribes are provided education.
The nomadic tribes continue moving from one place to another along
with their families and folks. For the education of their children, teachers
are sent along with the moving population. This experiment has not
been very successful. The other experiment is that the children of these
nomadic tribes are allowed attendance in various public schools wherever
these nomadic tribes move. This experiment has also not been very
useful.
J. ENROLMENT & EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
110. Enrolment
Enrolment is the number of students registered on the rolls of an
educational institution on a specific point of time. In the Indian context,
the enrolment refers to the number of children enrolled as on 30th
September of the academic session.
111. Student
A student is a person formally enrolled in an educational program for
undergoing a course of study.
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
44
111.1 Foreign Student: A foreign student is a person enrolled in an
educational program in a country of which he is not a permanent
resident73.
111.2 Full-Time Student: A full-time student is a person enrolled in an
educational program whose study load is considered to be fulltime by national norms or conventions73.
111.3 Part-Time Student: A part-time student is a person whose study
load is less than that of a full-time student and who consequently
will require a longer period of time to complete an equivalent
education program.
112. Adolescents
Chronological years of individual growth and development beginning with
puberty (about 13 years old) and lasting more or less until maturity
(above 21 years old). Adolescent is past childhood and not yet an adult
so that the physical and psychological process of development may be
erratic or confusing and lead to difficulty in adjustment or adolescent
crisis.74
113. Cohort
A group of individuals that have a statistical factor in common75. Another
definition of Cohort given by IIEP, Paris is: ‘Cohort is a group of pupils
joining standard 1 of primary education in a given year76.’
114. Pupil
A pupil is a young person who is enrolled in an educational program. For
purposes of the assessment, ‘pupil’ refers to a child enrolled in primary
school, whereas children or adults enrolled at more advanced levels are
students77.
115. Graduate
Graduate is a pupil or student who successfully completes a level of
education, such as primary education, elementary education, etc. 77
73
74
75
76
77
Instructional Manual for Completing the Questionnaire on Statistic of Education UNESCO, Paris 98, P6.
Concise Dictionary of Education, by G.R. HAWES and L.S.HAWES, Van Nostrand Rainhood Co. NY/Toronto.
Projections of Education Statistics to 2007, by Department of Education, USA, Washington D.C.
Primary Education in Lesotto, by International Institute For Educational Planning, Paris, 1992, Glossary, p.9.
EFA, the Year 2000 Assessment – Technical Guidelines, UNESCO, 1998, Paris, P28.
A Guidebook
45
116. Truancy
Students' absence from school for unexcused reasons is truancy.
117. New Entrants
New entrants are those pupils who enter Grade I of primary education
for the first time. 77 OECD has defined new entrants as: New entrants to
a level of education are students who are entering any program leading
to a recognized qualification at this level of education for the first time,
irrespective of whether students enter the program at the beginning or
at an advanced stage of the program. Individuals who are returning to
study at a level following a period of absence from studying at that same
level are not considered new entrants78.
118. Disturbed Child
A child with emotional difficulties stemming from organic or functional
disorders, which interfere with his normal learning and usually cause
behaviour problems in the school is called as disturbed child.
119. Gross Enrolment
Gross Enrolment is the total enrolment of pupils in a grade or cycle or
level of education, regardless of age, in a given school year.
120. Net Enrolment
Net Enrolment is the number of pupils in the official school age-group in a
grade or cycle or level of education in a given school year.
121. Children Attending Schools/Colleges
The decennial census and the occasional NSSO Rounds collect data on
the number of persons attending schools/colleges and the educational
attainments they have achieved. The information in these two surveys is
collected from households. However there is a difference in the
definitions they have used. The NSSO in its 52nd Round has defined the
persons attending schools/colleges as under:
`The current attendance status refers to whether person is currently
attending any educational institution or not. While every person who is
attending an educational institution is necessarily enrolled in that
institution, it may so happen that a person who is enrolled is not currently
78
Investing in Education- Analysis of the 1999 World Education Indicators, OECD, Paris (2000).
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
46
attending the institution. While most of the educational statistics are
based on enrolment, the NSSO survey, because of its household
approach, bases its analysis on the current attendance status79.’
122. Typical Ages
Typical ages are the age of students at the entry time and ending time of
a level or a cycle of education.
K.
SCHOOL EFFICIENCY
123. Out-of-School Children
Out-of-school children are those children in the official school age group
who are not enrolled in schools80. These comprise dropouts and never
enrolled children.
124. Pupil-Cohort
Pupil-cohort is a group of pupils who enter the first grade of a level of
education in the same school year and subsequently experience
promotion, repetition, drop-out each in his or her own way.80
125. Coefficient of Efficiency
Coefficient of efficiency is a measure of the internal efficiency of an
education system obtained by dividing the total number of pupil-years
required for a pupil cohort to complete a level or cycle of education by
the estimated total number of pupil years actually spent by the same
pupil cohort. The reciprocal of the co-efficient of efficiency is the input:
output ratio. 80
126. School Life Expectancy
School life expectancy for a child of certain age is defined as the total
number of years of schooling which the child can expect to receive in the
future, assuming that the probability of his or her being enrolled at school
at any particular future age is equal to the current enrolment ratio for
that age. It is the sum of the age specific enrolment ratios for primary,
secondary and higher education81.
79
80
81
52nd Round of NSSO, Ministry of Statistics & Program Implementation, GOI, New Delhi.
EFA, the Year 2000 Assessment, Technical Guidelines, UNESCO, 1998, P28
World Education Report, 1993, UNESCO, Paris P94
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47
127. Survival Rate
Survival rate is the percentage of a pupil cohort that enters together in
the first grade of primary education and that reaches a given grade (e.g.
Grade 5) or the final grade of an educational cycle either with or without
repeating a grade. 80
128. Drop out
A dropout is the pupil who leaves school before the completion of a given
stage of education or leaving at some intermediate or non-terminal point
in a cycle of schooling82.
129. Repeater
Repeater is a pupil who is enrolled in the same grade for a second (or
further) consecutive year. 80 Repeaters will also include the following:
129.1 Repeater Due to Failure: A student who appeared but failed in the
annual examination; also includes the student who didn’t appear
in the annual examination and is declared as ‘fail’.
129.2 Repeater Due to Readmission: A child whose name was deleted
due to some reason from the school register (including transfer
certificate cases) but is again readmitted into the same class
after a gap of more than one academic session.
129.3 129.3 Repeater Due to Long Absenteeism: A child who got
admitted once but discontinued schooling for more than 3 months
without any prior intimation and the same child again starts
attending school.
International Institute for Educational Planning, Paris, has defined
repeater as follows: `Repeaters are pupils who, at the beginning of a
given school year, are enrolled in the same standard doing the same
work as in their previous year in school’83.
130. Promotee
A promotee is the pupil who is promoted to the next grade in the
following school-year after successfully completing the prescribed
procedures.
82
83
Primary Education in Lesotho Indicators 1992, by International Instt, for Educational Planning, Paris.
Primary Education in Lesotho Indicators 1992, by IIEP, Paris, Glossary.
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
48
131. Pupil-Year
Pupil-year is a non-monetary measure of educational inputs or resources.
One pupil-year denotes the resources spent to maintain a pupil in school
for one year84.
132. Monitoring
Monitoring is a management function and operates during the
implementation phase of a project. It tracks the progress of project
implementation against the pre-defined benchmarks and milestones. All
development projects are monitored through an efficiently designed
Information Management System to find out and identify:
• Specific problems as they arise for corrective measures
• Whether or not a project continues to be relevant etc.
133. Evaluation
Evaluation is an important tool for ensuring accountability. As a result of
project interventions, the achievements or failures are brought to the
fore. Evaluation also tells whether the project has been implemented
effectively or not. Evaluation and impact assessment can be summative
or formative. Summative processes are carried out to determine how
effective project was, whereas formative processes are carried out during
the life of the project for providing feedback into the program
reformulation and effecting mid-course changes.
134. Grade Transition
In education, grade transition is the number of a cohort of pupils who
enters first grade of primary education and who experience promotion,
dropout and repetition from grade to grade, ie, how many of them roll
over to the next grade, next year and so on, and thus complete a
particular level or stage of education.
135. Education Indicators85
Oxford Dictionary defines indicators as one who or that which points out,
directs attention to, something. Nuttal defined education indicator as
“which tells something about the performance or behavior of an
education system and can be used to inform educational decision
making.” It is a tool to have both a sense of the state of an education
84
85
EFA, the Year 2000 Assessment – Technical Guidelines, UNESCO, Paris.
OECD(1992) “The OECD International Education Indicators. A Framework for analysis. Paris.
A Guidebook
49
system and to report on that state to the whole of the community.
Education indicator is information processed so as to permit the study of
an educational phenomenon. World Education Report 1991, indicates
that a good indicator should be:
•
policy relevant by being capable of providing clear and
unambiguous responses to key policy issues and concerns.
•
user friendly, ie, comprehensive, timely and a few in numbers.
•
derived from a frame-work which allows interpretation of one
figure in the context of the other basic variable of a particular
country.
•
technically sound, ie, valid, reliable and comparable.
•
feasible to measure at reasonable cost, ie, the basic statistics
required for deriving them can be either readily available or
comparatively easy to collect within a well-defined time-frame.
IIEP Paris has given the following definition of educational indicators:
‘Educational indicators are the indices, ratios, growth rates which are
calculated using educational statistics and, where necessary,
demographic, economic and other types of data’86.
Indices are plural of index. An index is a number developed from a ratio
by expressing the denominator as a fixed base value, expressing the
numerator in terms of this, and then suppressing the denominator which
is implied.87
136. Educational Wastage
Educational wastage is the incidence in a country’s education, of dropout
and repetition taken together88.
137. Symposium
Symposium is a meeting to hear and discuss a range of lectures and
papers on a particular subject89.
86
87
88
Primary Education in Lesotho, Indicators 1992, by international Institute for Educational Planning, Paris.
A Concise Encyclopaedia of Management Techniques, by B Frank Finch, Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.
Primary Education in Lesotho, Indicators 1992, by International Institute for Educational Planning, Paris,
Glossary.
89
International Dictionary of Management (Third Edition) by Hano Johannsen & G. Terry Page, London
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
50
L.
TEACHING AND NON-TEACHING STAFF
138. Teacher
Teacher is a person who in his/her professional capacity, guides and
directs pupils learning experiences in gaining knowledge, skills and
attitudes that are stipulated by a defined curriculum program. Briefly
stated a teacher is a person who is directly engaged in instructing a
group of pupils (students)90.
A teacher is defined as a person whose professional activity involves the
transmission of knowledge, attitudes and skills that are stipulated in a
formal curriculum to students enrolled in an educational program. The
teacher category includes only personnel who participate directly in
instructing students91.
138.1 Full-Time Teacher: A full-time teacher is a person engaged in
teaching for a number of hours of work statutorily regarded as
full-time at a particular level of education in a given year92.
138.2 Part-Time Teacher: A part-time teacher is one who takes only a
few classes on contract basis in an academic session. Part-time
teachers are not full-time employees of the school/institution
where they are teaching.
138.3 Para-Teachers: The concept of para-teachers has come into vogue
after NPE 1986. In the Indian context, para-teachers are full-time
employees in the schools who are not necessarily professionally
qualified as teachers but are generally from amongst the same
population/community/area. Such teachers are normally
appointed on a fixed salary/honorarium, which is much lower than
the normal compensation of full-time teachers. Para-teachers
include: Voluntary teachers Contract teachers, Shiksha Karmi,
Guruji, Community Teachers, etc. Para-teachers’ salary,
recruitment procedure and service conditions are entirely different
from those for regular teachers.
138.4 Trained Teacher: A trained teacher is one who has successfully
undergone a course of teachers training from a recognized
90
91
92
EFA, the Year 2000 Assessment, Technical Guidelines, UNESCO, 1998, P28
Investing in Education-Analysis of the 1999 World Education Indicators, OECD, Paris (2000).
UNESCO Manual of Instructions, Paris 1998, P5.
A Guidebook
51
teacher training institution; deemed trained are those teachers
who have been awarded a certificate by the department of
education on the basis of experience or age etc. The different
teachers
training
courses
in
India
include
B.Ed./B.T./JBT/ETTE/NTT/SV/JV/ CT/LT/OT/DM/PET etc.
138.5 Untrained Teacher: An untrained teacher is one who is not a
trained teacher as specified above.
139. Supporting Staff
In educational institutions, the supporting staff is also classified as nonteaching staff and comprises the following:
a) Non-teaching staff – ministerial,
Assistant, Clerks, Class IV, etc.
such
as
Superintendent,
b) Supporting staff, such as Lecture Assistant, Lab Attendant,
Laboratory Staff, Animal Collector, library staff, etc.
140. Categories of Teaching Staff
Teachers are classified according to their pre-service training and type of
school. There is no standard classification in India. However, illustrative
categories are: Headmaster/Principal/Post Graduate Teacher (PGT)/
M Ed/Trained Graduate Teacher (TGT)/Oriental Teacher (OT)/Language
Teacher (LT)/Drawing Master (DM)/Physical Training Instructor (PTI)/
Music Teacher (MT)/Head Teacher (HT)/Primary Teacher (PT)/Centre
Head Teacher (CHT) etc.
141. Teachers Training Institutes
Teachers Training Institutes are those institutes which are engaged in
imparting pre-service/in-service teachers training of a specified duration.
For pre-service and in-service teachers training at schools and higher
education levels, the NPE and POA 1992 contemplate the following
teachers training institutions:
•
District Institutes of Education & Training (DIETs)
•
Colleges of Teacher Education (CTEs), both Govt & Private
•
Institutes of Advanced Study in Education (IASEs)
•
Regional Colleges of NCERT.
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
52
In addition to NCERT, a large number of Universities undertake preservice teachers training programmes annually through their Teaching
Departments or affiliated colleges (Government, Non-Government).
142. Teaching-Learning Methods (TLMs)
Teaching-learning methods are processes in the education of a student
that facilitate learning. Teaching learning methods are undergoing
changes over time especially after the introduction of computers and the
emergence of multimedia application.
143. Teaching-Learning Material (TLM)
The teacher in order to augment learning to take place amongst the
pupils uses teaching-learning materials. These include books, notebooks,
charts, AV Aids, chalks, blackboards, slide projector, overhead projector,
computer, internet, education kits, science kits, mathematic kits, etc.
144. Resource Teacher
A specially trained (special education) teacher assigned to work with an
individual or with small groups of students who have learning or
behavioral problems. The Resource Teacher may also consult the regular
classroom teacher as a means of assisting students in the regular
classroom93.
M.
PUBLIC FINANCES
145. Budget
(1) Budget is a statement in quantitative and usually in financial terms of
the planned allocations and use of resources. (2) An itemized list of
expected income and expenditure for specific future period94. It is the
annual financial statement of income and expenditure of government for
a fiscal year and is generally approved by the public representative body
like Parliament and Legislature. Revised Budget (RE) is an itemized list of
expected incomes and expenditures for the remaining period of the
current year whereas Budget Estimates (BE) is an itemized list of
expected incomes and expected expenditures for the ensuing year.
93
94
Dictionary of Education, Vol. 2 by Prof S.K. Singh General Editor, Commonwealth Publishers, Delhi.
International Dictionary of Management, by H. Johannsen and G. Terry Page, Kogan Page, London.
A Guidebook
53
146. Zero Based Budgeting
A system of budgeting which requires managers, when preparing their
budgets, to justify all their expenditures from a zero base rather than
simply asking for increments to previously budgeted figures. Thus all
activities and programs have to be re-evaluated to decide whether they
should be eliminated or funded at a reduced, similar or increased level.94
147. Deficit Budget
Deficit budget is that budget when current expenditure of the
government is in excess of the current income or revenues of the
government.
148. Surplus Budget
Surplus budget is that budget when the current expenditure of the
government is less than the current income or revenues of the
government.
149. Financial Year
In India, financial year extends from 1st April of the year to the 31st March
of the subsequent year.
150. Date of Reference
The date of reference in case of financial data is 31st March while in case
of numerical data it is 30th September of the year.
151. Expenditure
Expenditure means the sums of money actually spent on a project,
activity, program etc by the institution during the year. Public expenditure
is the amount of money spent by the government on social and economic
welfare programs/activities. These shall, however, not include the
following:
a) Refund of security deposits such as library deposits, hostel caution
money, laboratory caution money etc.
b) Money collected on behalf of other authorities like boards
registration fee, university enrolment fee, boards'/university's'
examination fee etc. which is passed on to them.
c) Fees collected from students for providing specific services like
bus fees etc.
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
54
d) Repayment of loans.
e) Hostel fee excludes the messing fee, but if the institution
contributes anything towards hostel from its own funds that
amount should be shown as its expenditure.
f) Fees foregone on account, of free studentship should not be
included in the menu of the institution95.
152. Recurring Expenditure
Recurring expenditure on education is the expenditure, which is required
to be incurred frequently or which recurs repeatedly. Under this head, we
may include salaries and allowances of staff, consumable stores,
whitewashing, maintenance etc. of school plant, including repairs and
maintenance.
153. Non–Recurring Expenditure
Non-recurring expenditure on education is that expenditure which is
comparable to capital expenditure on education. It includes expenditure
on construction, purchase of major equipment, land, hostel, vehicles,
development of laboratories, library etc.
154. Capital Expenditure
Capital expenditure is the expenditure for assets that last longer than one
year, and includes expenditure incurred on the purchase of land,
construction of the building of an educational institution, fittings, fixtures,
development of playground, hedging, protection walls of the institution
and on development of institutional infrastructure that last for more than
a year.
155. Expenditure (Revenue Account)
Expenditure (Revenue Account) includes all expenditure excluding capital
expenditure.
156. Plan Expenditure
Plan expenditure is that expenditure which is incurred out of the funds
provided under different Five Year Plans/Annual Plans of the country.
95
Form I (S), Min of Human Resource Development, GOI, New Delhi.
A Guidebook
55
157. Non-Plan Expenditure
Non-plan expenditure is committed expenditure for the maintenance of
the existing school plant. While non-plan expenditure is maintenance
expenditure, the plan expenditure is developmental expenditure.
158. Current Expenditures
Current expenditures are expenditures for goods and services consumed
within the current year, and which should be renewed if there is need for
prolongation to the following year.
159. Income
Income means receipts of the institution during the financial year from all
sources. These, however, does not include the following:
a) Refundable security deposits, such as library deposits, hostel
caution money, and laboratory caution money etc.
b) Money collected on behalf of other authorities like boards
registration fee, university enrolment fee, boards'/ university's'
examination fee etc. which is passed on to them.
c) Fees collected from students for providing specific services like
bus fees etc.
d) Repayment of loans.
e) Hostel fee excludes the messing fee,
f) Fees foregone on a/c of free studentship should not be included in
the menu of the institution96.
160. National Income
National Income is defined as the factor income accruing to the normal
residents of a country. It is the sum of domestic factor income (i.e.
compensation of employees + rent + interest + profits + mixed income
of self employed) and net factor income earned from abroad.
161. Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
GDP is the sum of net values added by all the producers in the domestic
territory of the country and the value of consumption of fixed capital at
factor cost. It is also known as domestic factor income + consumption of
fixed capital. GDP at market prices is equal to GDP at factor cost + net
96
Form I(S), Ministry of Human Resource Development, GOI, New Delhi.
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
56
indirect taxes. IIEP, Paris has defined GDP as follows: “GDP equal to
gross national product (GNP: used in connection with all output of goods
and services of a country) less the net income of the production factors
received from abroad97.”
162. Gross National Product at Market Prices (GNP)
GNP at market prices is equal to the Gross Domestic Product at market
prices + net factor income from abroad. Net National Product (NNP) at
market prices is equal to GNP at market prices minus consumption of
fixed capital. Net National Product at factor cost is equal to GNP at
market prices minus net indirect taxes.
163. Gross National Product (GNP)
GNP is the sum of gross value added by all resident producers plus any
taxes (less subsidies) that are not included in the valuation of output plus
receipts of primary income (employee compensation and property
income) from non-resident sources.98
164. Cost-Benefit Analysis
Economists99 use the technique of cost-benefit analysis to measure and
compare the costs and the expected monetary benefits of an investment
in order to provide a measure of its profitability. Rate of return approach
is used for prioritization of investment decision. The fact that education is
an important form of investment in human capital has resulted in a
number of attempts to apply cost-benefit analysis to education in order to
assess the profitability of expenditure on education as an investment for
society as a whole or for the individual student.
‘Cost Benefit Analysis is a systematic comparison between the cost of
carrying out the service or activity and the value of that service or
activity, quantified as far as possible, all costs and benefits direct and
indirect, financial and social, being taken into account.’100
97
98
99
100
Primary Education in Lesotho Indicators 1992, by IIEP, Paris,(Glossary).
Literacy Glossary, Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO, Japan.
A Dictionary of Education, by P.J. Hills. Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1982.
A Concise Encyclopedia of Management Techniques, by Frank Finch, Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.
A Guidebook
N.
57
SCHOOL BUILDINGS
165. Status of School Buildings
The status of the school buildings refers to the ownership and type of
occupancy of school buildings. The following classifications are used for
this purpose:
• Owned
• Rented
• Rent-free
• No building
But some questionnaires have asked information differently as under:
• Private
• Rented
• Government
• Government school in a rent-free building
• No building
166. Types of School Buildings
The school buildings are classified on the basis of the type of construction
and the materials used in the construction of the building in India. The
following classification for the school buildings is used:
• Pucca buildings
• Partly Pucca buildings
• Kuchcha buildings
• Tent/pre-fabricated materials
• Thatched hut
• Open space
But in some questionnaires, only four classifications have been retained
and thatched huts have been included in Kuchcha buildings.
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
58
O.
EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT & LITERACY
167. Educational Attainments
Attainment has been defined as the performance in a school subject or in
the whole curriculum, which is measured by examinations or tests101. The
educational usage of the term `attainment’ is based on describing a level
on a scale for a certain attribute. The scale, itself, however, has no true
zero and no definable top level. The concept of such a scale can be
implied in everyday usage but it can also be dispensed with altogether.
In India, educational attainment means the highest level of education
attained by an individual. It is measured in different ways. Registrar
General of India collects information on educational levels as follows:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
Literate (without educational level)
Completed Primary level
Completed Middle level
Completed Matriculation (Secondary) level
Completed Higher Secondary/Intermediate/Pre-university
Completed Non-technical Diploma or Certificate not equal to
Degree
g) Graduate and above
NSSO, Department of Statistics, has defined educational attainment as
under:
“It may be noted that if a person has successfully passed the final year of
a given level, then and only then will he/she be considered to have
attained that level. For example, the level attained by a person studying
in class IX will be middle but the level at which he/she is currently
studying is secondary102.”
168. Literacy
Census 2001 in the instruction manual for filling up the household
schedule has defined literacy (p.55) as `a person aged 7 and above who
101
102
International Dictionary of Education, London (1977).
52nd Round of NSSO, Department of Statistics, GOI, New Delhi.
A Guidebook
59
can both read and write with understanding in any language is to be
taken as literate. A person, who can only read but cannot write, is not
literate. People who are blind and can read in Braille will be treated as
literate.
UNESCO has defined literacy as follows: (1) A literate person is the one
who can with understanding both read and write a short simple
statement relevant to his everyday life. (2) Literacy is not the simple
reading of word or a set of associated symbols and sounds, but an act of
critical understanding of men’s situation in the world. (3) Literacy is not
an end in itself but a means of personal liberation and development and
extending individuals educational efforts involving overall interdisciplinary responses to concrete problems. (4) A literate person is the
one who has acquired all the essential knowledge and skills which enable
him to engage in all those activities in which literacy is required for
effective functioning in his group and community and whose attaining in
reading, writing and numeracy make it possible to use these skills
towards his own and his community’s development.
168.1 Prose Literacy: Prose Literacy refers to the knowledge and skills
required to understand and use information from texts, such as
editorials, news, stories, poems, fictions etc.
168.2 Documentation Literacy: Documentation Literacy refers to the
knowledge and skills required to locate and use information
contained in various formats, such as job applications, payroll
forms, transportation timetables, maps, tables, graphs etc.
168.3 Quantitative Literacy: Quantitative Literacy refers to knowledge
and skills required to apply arithmetic operations to numbers
embedded in printed materials, such as balancing a cheque book,
calculating a tip, completing an order form or determining the
amount of interest on a loan from an advertisement.
168.4 Functional Literacy: A person is functionally literate if his/her
ability to read and write is adequate enough for the needs of
his/her job, the demands of a situation or the like.
168.5 Functional Literacy: Functional Literacy is the ability to use literacy
skills for particular purposes in the home, community or
workplace.103
103
Literacy Glossary, Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO, Japan.
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
60
P.
INFORMATION & COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES
169. Backbone
A central high-speed network that connects smaller, independent
networks.
170. Backup
Something which duplicates the function of an active component and is
kept as standby in case of disaster. It is also common to talk of `backing
up’ disks or files on a computer, i.e., duplicating them.
171. Bandwidth
The range of frequencies, expressed in Hertz (Hz), that can pass over a
given transmission channel. The bandwidth determines the rate at which
information can be transmitted through the circuit. The greater the
bandwidth, the more information can be sent in a given amount of time.
172. Bar Code
A line of bars and spaces which is read by an optical scanner. Bar codes
are often used for indexing and product codes. Bar codes are also used
for cataloguing library books.
173. Browser
A browser is an application program that provides a way to look at and
interact with all the information on the World Wide Web. The word
“browser” seems to have originated prior to the Web as a generic term
for user interfaces that let you browse (navigate through and read) text
files online. By the time the first Web browser with a graphical user
interface was generally available (Mosaic, in 1993), the term seemed to
apply to Web content, too. Technically, a Web browser is a client
program that uses the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) to make
requests of Web servers throughout the Internet on behalf of the browser
user. A commercial version of the original browser, Mosaic, is in use.
Many of the user interface features in Mosaic, however, went into the
first widely-used browser, Netscape Navigator. Microsoft followed with its
Microsoft Internet Explorer. Today, these two browsers are used by the
vast majority of Internet users. Lynx is a text-only browser for UNIX shell
and VMS users. Another recently offered and well-regarded browser is
Opera.
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174. Compact Disk
Compact disks are of two types, namely, multiple read and multiple write,
and single write and multiple read. CD-RW (for compact disc, rewriteable) is a compact disc (CD) format that allows repeated recording
on a disc. Prior to the release of the CD-RW, CDs were read-only audio
(CD-Digital Audio, described fully in the Red Book), to be played in CD
players, and multimedia (CD-ROM), to be played in computers’ CD-ROM
drives. After the Orange Book, any user with a CD Recorder drive could
create his own CDs from his desktop computer. CD-RW drives can write
both CD-R and CD-RW discs and can read any type of CD.
175. CPU
CPU (Central Processing Unit) is an older term for processor and
microprocessor, and is the central unit in a computer containing the logic
circuitry that performs the instructions of a computer’s programs.
176. Download
To obtain computer information or programs from a source – usually
another computer transmitting over a telephone line or a local area
network.
177. Drive
The mechanical part of the storage system is known as drive. The most
commonly known is floppy disk drive, which is a flexible plastic disk with
a magnetic coating encased in a protective jacket.
178. Driver
A program or routine which handles the computer relationship with a
peripheral device.
179. Electronic Mail (Email)
One of the many services that can be provided to computer users hooked
through a telecommunications network. Email is a system under which a
computer handles the delivering and sending of messages to people over
a phone line connected to a single computer or a network of computers.
180. File
The file is the entity in which an individually accessible body of
information is stored and manipulated by the computer.
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
62
181. Flow Chart
It is a diagram representing the sequence of operations involved in a
process. Lines connect symbolic shapes, which represent events or
processes.
182. Hardware and Software
Software is a general term for the various kinds of programs used to
operate computers and related devices. The term hardware describes the
physical aspects of computers and related devices. Software can be
thought of as the variable part of a computer and hardware the invariable
part. Software is often divided into application software (programs that
do work users are directly interested in) and system software (which
includes operating systems and any program that supports application
software).
The term middleware is sometimes used to describe
programming that mediates between application and system software or
between two different kinds of application software (for example, sending
a remote work request from an application in a computer that has one
kind of operating system to an application in a computer with a different
operating system).
183. Icon
A graphical representation of various elements such as disk drives,
applications, and documents.
184. Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
A fully digital communications facility designed to provide transparent,
end-to-end transmission of voice, data, video, and still image across the
PSTN.
185. Internet
The Internet, sometimes called simply “the Net”, is a worldwide system of
computer networks – a network of networks in which users at any one
computer can, if they have permission, get information from any other
computer (and sometimes talk directly to users at other computers).
186. Intranet
An internal network that operates identically to, but is not necessarily
connected, to, the global Internet.
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63
187. Local Area Network (LAN)
It is a system devised to allow a number of computers or computer
terminates to exchange information and/or share a central storage
device.
188. Modem (Modulator – Demodulator)
A hardware device which converts digital information from a computer
into modulations or on a carrier wave that can be sent down the
telephone line by another modem and transferred to another piece of
hardware at the other end.
189. Multi-tasking
The ability of a computer to run a number of tasks simultaneously.
190. Newsgroup
A conference area where one can post message on a specified topic.
Newsgroups exist for a huge range of subjects.
191. Operating System
The program which goes between the application program and the
computer. Example: MS Windows.
192. Peripherals
An input/output device which is connected to and controlled by the
computer. A printer, disk drive, keyboard are all examples of peripherals.
193. Protocol
A set of rules which describe the method in which information may be
transferred between two computer systems.
194. Source Code
Programming instructions written or entered by the user, prior to its
being compiled or interpreted by the machine into object code.
195. Uploading
Uploading is the transmission of a file from one computer system to
another, usually larger computer system. From a network user’s point-ofview, to upload a file is to send it to another computer that is set up to
receive it.
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
64
196. Webmaster
Person designated to maintain a web site and to receive general queries
by Email.
197. Website
A Website is a related collection of World Wide Web (WWW) files that
includes a beginning file called a homepage. A company or an individual
tells you how to get to their Website by giving you the address of their
homepage. From the homepage, you can get to all the other pages on
their site. For example, the Website for IBM has the homepage address
of http://www.ibm.com (The home page address actually includes a
specific file name like index.html but, as in IBM’s case, when a standard
default name is set up, users don’t have to enter the file name.) IBM’s
homepage address leads to thousands of pages. (But a Website can also
be of just a few pages).
Q.
IMPORTANT EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS AT
SCHOOL STAGE IN INDIA
198. District Primary Education Program (DPEP)
District Primary Education Program (DPEP) is a centrally sponsored
scheme providing special thrust to achieve Universalization of Primary
Education (UPE). It was initiated in 1994. The program takes a holistic
view of primary education development and seeks to operationalize the
strategy of UPE through district specific planning with emphasis on
decentralized management, participatory processes, empowerment and
capacity building at all levels. The program is structured to provide
additional inputs on, over and above, the provisions made by the State
Government in the form of construction of school buildings, new schools,
opening of non-formal/alternative schooling centres, appointment of new
teachers, establishment of Block Resource Centres/Cluster Resource
Centres, structuring of Teachers Training Institute, development of
teaching-learning materials, research based interventions, special
interventions for education of girls, SC/ST etc. The program mainly aims
at providing access to primary education for all children, reducing primary
dropout rates to less than 10%, increasing learning achievement of
primary school students by 25% and reducing the gap among gender and
social group to less than 5%.
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199. District Information System for Education (DISE)
DISE is a computerized school based system for collection, analysis and
use of school-based data concerning elementary education of districts
covered under DPEP. It includes Data Capture Format and the computer
software for processing the school data thus collected. The Government
of India has decided to extend the scope and coverage of the project to
include all schools up to elementary education and all districts in the
country would be covered under the project by 2003.
200. Education Guarantee Scheme and Alternative Innovative
Education Centres
Recently, the Government of India has discontinued the NFE scheme and
has come out with an alternative approach to provide non-formal
education to out-of-school children. The newly formulated Education
Guarantee Schools and Alternative and Innovative Education (EGS & AIE)
scheme would cover out-of- school children in the age group 6–14 years.
The newly formulated scheme (EGS & AIE) will continue to have three
components as under:
a) State-run centres (now EGS school or a variety of alternative
schools/back-to-schools camps) run by the state governments.
b) EGS/learning centres or alternative schools run by voluntary
agencies (VAs)
c) Innovative and experimental projects and DRUs run by voluntary
agencies.
Since EGS & AIE would be implemented as an integral part of UEE under
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, the structure and personnel would be part of the
elementary education. EGS & AIE would support the following three
broad kinds of strategies:
a) Setting up of schools in school-less habitations (EGS);
b) Intervention for mainstreaming of `out-of-school’ children, viz.
bridge courses, back-to-school camps etc.
c) Strategies for very specific difficult groups of children who cannot
be mainstreamed.
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
66
201. Lok Jumbish104
An innovative project called Lok Jumbish (Peoples’ Movement for
Education for All), with assistance from the Swedish International
Development Authority (SIDA) was undertaken in Rajasthan in 1992. The
basic objective of the project is to achieve education for all through
peoples' mobilization and their participation. The project of LJ is
implemented by Lok Jumbish Parishad (LJP) registered under Societies
Registration Act. The project is shared in the ratio of 3:2:1 by SIDA:
Central Government: State Government. The aims and objectives of Lok
Jumbish are as follows:
a) Access to primary education for all children up to 14 years of age
b) Assurance that all enrolled attend school/NFE centres regularly
and complete primary education.
c) Creation of necessary structures and setting motion processes
which would empower women and make education an instrument
of women's equality.
d) Pursue the goal of equality in education.
e) Necessary modifications in the context and process of education
so as to learn to live in harmony with the environment.
f) Effective involvement of the people in the planning and
management of education.
202. Shiksha Karmi
In order to overcome the problem of teacher absenteeism, the Shiksha
Karmi Project (SKP) in Rajasthan introduced the concept of barefoot
teachers in 1987 with financial assistance from Swedish International
Development Agency (SIDA) subject to the following assumptions:
a) That a barefoot teacher belonging to a local community can work
effectively to reach every child in the locality.
b) That if a person is willing to work as a social worker, the lack of
formal training requirement can be made up by intensive
education and training.
104
Annual Report 1999-2000, MHRD, p-63
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c) That education must have community support and ownership in
order to meet the needs of the deprived sections of the rural
areas.
203. Operation Blackboard
The Central Government started the scheme of Operation Blackboard
under NPE 1986 w.e.f. 1987-88 under which every primary school was
provided with at least two primary teachers, two classrooms with veranda
and urinals, as also the minimum equipments and aids essential for
teaching in primary schools. A list of such teaching aids and equipments
was available in the NPE 1986. The scheme was later on extended to
upper primary schools also. The scheme has since been merged into the
SSA program.
204. APPEAL
‘Asia-Pacific Programme of Education for All’ refers to the regional
cooperative program established by UNESCO in 1987. It focuses on the
eradication of illiteracy, universalization of primary education, and
expanding the provision of continuing education.
Its primary
constituencies are the vast number of illiterate adults and out-of-school
children and youth, most of whom are female.105
205. Education for All (EFA)
EFA is the provision of basic education in the sense of expanded vision
proclaimed in the World Declaration on Education for All adopted by the
World Conference on Education for All: Meeting Basic Learning Needs
(Jomtein, Thailand, March, 1990).105
206. Information Technology (IT)
IT is another name for EDP (electronic data processing). As the range of
computer-aided services has widened, especially since the computer-ona-chip, or microprocessor, so EDP has come to seem inadequate to
describe all the wonders made manifest. Thus IT does embrace wordprocessing and telecommunications, videotext and databases,
microcomputers and mainframes, in a more satisfactory manner than
EDP; though so wide a definition is too wide to have much meaning.106
105
106
Literacy Glossary, Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO, Japan.
The Perfect Manpower by Robert Heller-Hoddwstoughton, London.
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
68
207. District Institutes of Education & Training (DIET)
As envisaged in National Policy of Education and Programme of Action
1986, the centrally sponsored scheme of restructuring and reorganization
of teacher education was taken up in 1987 to create a viable institutional
infrastructure, academic and technical service base for orientation of
knowledge, competence and pedagogical skills of elementary school
teachers in the country. The Scheme envisages setting up of District
Institutes of Education and Training (DIETs) in each district to provide
academic and resource support to elementary education teachers and
non-formal and adult education instructors.
It also envisages
establishment of CTEs/IASEs to organize pre-service and in-service
training for secondary teachers and provide extension and resource
support services to secondary schools. IASEs are expected to conduct
programs for preparation of elementary teacher educators, conduct inservice training for elementary and secondary teacher-educators and
principals of secondary schools engaged in advance levels and
fundamental and applied research especially of inter-disciplinary nature,
and provide academic guidance to DIETs and support services to CTEs.
DIETs are established by upgrading existing Elementary Teachers
Education Institutions (ETEIs). The land is provided by the states free of
cost. The CTEs are set up by upgrading the existing Secondary Teachers
Education Institutions (STEs) offering BEd courses and IASEs by
upgrading Colleges and University Departments of Education offering MEd
courses. DIETs have been identified as the principal technical and
professional resource institutions in DPEP districts.
208. Navodaya Vidayalayas
In order to provide high quality modern education, including strong
component of culture, inculcation of values, awareness of the
environment, adventure activities and physical education to the talented
children predominantly from the rural areas, without regard to their
socio-economic conditions, the Government of India launched the scheme
to establish on an average, one Navodaya Vidayalaya (NV) in each district
of the country. Navodaya Vidyalayas are fully residential, co-educational
institutions, providing education up to Senior Secondary stage. Education
in Navodaya Vidyalyas, including boarding and lodging, textbooks,
uniforms etc., are free for all students. A couple of states had not then
adopted the scheme. Admission to Navodaya Vidyalayas is made at the
level of Class VI through a test conducted in the concerned district in
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which all children who passed Class V from any of the recognised schools
in the district are eligible to appear. From 1998, JNVST is being
conducted by CBSE. As per policy of Navodaya Vidyalayas, 30% of the
students at Class IX migrate to other areas/states.
209. Nutritional Support to Primary Education
National Programme of Nutritional Support to Primary Education,
popularly known as Mid-Day Meals Scheme, was launched on 15th August
1995 on a nationwide scale. The purpose of the scheme was to give a
boost to the universalization of primary education by increasing
enrolment, retention and attendance and to improve the nutritional status
of students in the primary classes. From 1997-98, the program has
covered all the children in primary (Government, Local Body and
Government aided) schools. This is the largest program in the world and
benefits annually more than 10 crores of students. The central support
on this program is on.
(1) provision of foodgrains free of cost to the implementation agencies
for which economic cost is reimbursed to the FCI, and
(2) reimbursement of transportation cost to district authorities for moving
foodgrains from FCI godowns to schools/villages.
210. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is to provide useful and relevant elementary
education for all children in the 6 to 14 age-group by 2010. There is also
another goal to bridge social, regional and gender gaps, with the active
participation of the community in the management of schools.
Objectives of SSA:
a) All children in school, EGS, AS, back-to-school camp by 2003.
b) All children complete five years of primary schooling by 2007.
c) All children complete eight years of elementary schooling by 2010.
d) Focus on elementary education of satisfactory quality with
emphasis on education for life.
e) Bridge all gender and social category gaps at primary stage by
2007 and at elementary stage by 2010.
f) Universal retention by 2010.
70
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
A Guidebook
71
APPENDICES
Appendix-A
Description of ISCED-97, Classification Criteria, and
Sub-categories
0
1
Pre-Primary
Level of
Education
Main Criteria
Auxiliary Criteria
Initial stage of
organized
instruction,
designed primarily
to introduce very
young children to a
school-type
environment.
Should be centre or
school-based, be
designed to meet the
educational and
development needs of
children at least 3
year of age and have
staff that are
adequately trained
(i.e. qualified) to
provide an
educational program
for the children.
Pedagogical qualifications
for the teaching staff;
implementation of a
curriculum with educational
elements.
Primary level of
Education
Main Criteria
Normally designed
to give students a
sound basic
education in
reading, writing
and mathematics.
Beginning of
systematic studies
characteristic of
primary education,
e.g. reading, writing
and mathematics.
Entry into the
nationally designated
primary institutions or
program.
The commencement
of reading activities
alone is not a
sufficient criterion for
classification of an
educational program
at ISCED 1.
Auxiliary Criteria
In countries where the age
of compulsory attendance
(or at least the age at
which virtually all students
begin their education)
comes after the beginning
of systematic study in the
subjects noted, the first
year of compulsory
attendance should be used
to determine the boundary
between ISCED 0 and
ISCED 1.
Sub-Categories
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
72
2
Lower
Secondary
Level of
Education
Main Criteria
Auxiliary
Criteria
The Lower
Secondary
level of
education
generally
continues the
basic
programs of
the primary
level, although
teaching is
typically more
subjectfocused, often
employing
more
specialised
teachers who
conduct
classes in their
field of
specialisation
Programs at
the start of
Level 2 should
correspond to
the point
where
programs are
beginning to
be organised
in a more
subjectoriented
pattern, using
more
specialised
teachers
conducting
classes in their
field of
specialisation.
If there is no
clear break-point
for this
organisational
change,
however, then
countries should
artificially split
national program
into ISCED 1 and
2 at the end of 6
years of primary
education.
A
If this
organisational
transition
point does not
correspond to
a natural split
in the
boundaries
between
national
educational
programs,
then programs
should be split
at the point
where national
programs
begin to
reflect this
organisational
change.
In countries with
no system break
between Lower
Secondary and
Upper Secondary
education, and
where Lower
Secondary
education lasts
for more than 3
years, only the
first 3 years
following primary
education should
be counted as
Lower Secondary
education.
B
Destination
for which
the
programs
have been
designed to
prepare
Students
Program
designed to
prepare
students for
direct access
to Level 3 in a
sequence
which would
ultimately lead
to tertiary
education,
that is,
entrance to
ISCED 3A or
3B.
Programs
designed to
prepare
students for
direct access
to programs
at Level 3C.
Programme
Orientation
1
Education which is
not designed
explicitly to prepare
participants for a
specific class of
occupations or
trades or for entry
into further
vocational/
technical education
programs. Less
than 25% of the
program content is
vocational or
technical.
2
Education, mainly
designed as an
introduction to the
world of work and
as preparation for
further vocational
or technical
education. It does
not lead to a
labour-market
relevant
qualification.
Content is at least
25% vocational or
technical.
A Guidebook
73
C
Programs
primarily
designed for
direct access
to the labour
market at the
end of this
level
(sometimes
referred to as
‘terminal’
programs)
3
Education, which
prepares
participants for
direct entry,
without further
training, into
specific
occupations.
Successful
completion of such
programs leads to
a labour-market
relevant vocational
qualification.
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
74
3
Upper
Secondary
Level of
Education
Main Criteria
Modular Programs
The final stage
of secondary
education in
most OECD
countries.
Instruction is
often more
organised along
subject-matter
lines than ISCED
Level 2 and
teachers typically
need to have a
higher level or
more subjectspecific
qualification than
at ISCED 2.
National
boundaries
between
Lower
Secondary and
Upper
Secondary
education
should be the
dominant
factor for
splitting Levels
2 and 3.
An educational
qualification is earned in a
modular program by
combining blocks of
courses or modules into a
program meeting specific
curricular requirements.
A
Admission into
educational
programs
usually
requires the
completion of
ISCED 2 or a
combination of
basic
education and
life experience
that
demonstrates
the ability to
handle ISCED
3 subject
matter.
A single module, however,
may not have a specific
educational or labour
market destination or a
particular program
orientation.
B
ISCED 3B
programs at
level 3
designed to
provide
access to
ISCED 5B
Modular programs should
be classified at Level 3
only, without reference to
the educational or labour
market destination of the
program.
C
ISCED 3C
programs at
Level 3 not
designed to
lead directly
to ISCED 5A
or 5B.
Therefore,
these
programs
lead directly
to labour
market,
ISCED 4
programs or
other ISCED 3
programs.
There are
substantial
differences in
the typical
duration of
ISCED 3
programs both
across and
between
countries,
typically ranging
from 2 to 5
years of
schooling.
Destination
for which
the
programs
have been
designed to
prepare
Students
ISCED 3A
programs at
Level 3
designed to
provide direct
access to
ISCED 5A.
Program
Orientation
1
Education which is
not designed
explicitly to prepare
participants for a
specific class of
occupations or trades
or for entry into
further vocational/
technical education
programs. Less than
25% of the program
content is vocational
or technical.
Education mainly
designed as an
introduction to the
world of work and as
preparation for
further vocational or
technical education.
It does not lead to a
labour market
relevant qualification.
Content is at least
25% vocational or
technical.
3
Education which
prepares participants
for direct entry,
without further
training, into specific
occupations.
Successful
completion of such
programs leads to a
labour-market
relevant vocational
qualification.
A Guidebook
4
75
PostSecondary
NonTertiary
Main Criteria
Types of
Programs
that can fit
into level
These
programs
straddle the
boundary
between
Upper
Secondary
and PostSecondary
education
from an
international
point of view,
even though
they might
clearly be
considered as
Upper
Secondary or
PostSecondary
programs in a
national
context.
They are
often not
significantly
more
advanced
than
programs at
ISCED 3 but
they serve to
broaden the
knowledge of
participants
who have
already
completed a
program at
Level 3. The
students are
typically older
that those in
ISCED 3
programs.
Students
entering ISCED
4 programs will
typically have
completed
ISCED 3
The first types
are short
vocational
programs
where either
the content is
not considered
‘tertiary’ in
many OECD
countries or the
program dose
not meet the
duration
requirement for
ISCED 5B at
least 2 years
FTE since the
start of Level 5.
A
Program
duration : ISCED
4 programs
typically have a
full time
equivalent
duration of
between 6
months and 2
years.
These
programs are
often designed
for students
who have
completed
Level 3,
although a
formal ISCED
Level 3
qualification
may not be
required for
entry.
B
Destination
for which
the
programs
have been
designed
to prepare
students
Programs at
Level 4
designed to
provide
direct access
to ISCED 5A.
Programs at
Level 4,
designed to
provide
direct access
to ISCED 5B.
Program
Orientation
1
Education which is not
designed explicitly to
prepare participants
for a specific class of
occupations or trades
or for entry into
further vocational/
technical education
programs. Less than
25% if the program
content is vocational
or technical.
2
Education mainly
designed as an
introduction to the
world of work and as
preparation for further
vocational or technical
education. It does not
lead to a labourmarket relevant
qualification. Content
is at least 25%
vocational or
technical.
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
76
The second
type of
programs are
nationally
considered as
Upper
Secondary
programs, even
though entrants
to these
programs will
have typically
already
completed
another Upper
Secondary
program (i.e.
second-cycle
programs).
C
Programs at
Level 4 not
designed to
lead directly
to ISCED 5A
or 5B. These
programs
lead directly
to labour
market or
other ISCED
4 programs.
Education which
prepares participants
for direct entry
without further
training into specific
occupations.
Successful completion
of such programs
leads to a labourmarket relevant
vocational
qualification.
A Guidebook
5
77
First Stage of
Tertiary
Education
Classification Criteria for
Level and Sub-categories (5a
and 5b)
ISCED 5 programs
have an
educational
content more
advanced than
those offered at
Levels 3 and 4.
Entry to these
programs
normally requires
the successful
completion of
ISCED Level 3A
or 3B or a similar
qualification at
ISCED Level 4A
or 4B.
The minimum
cumulative
theoretical
duration (at
tertiary level) is
of three years
(FTE). The
faculty must
have advanced
research
credentials.
Completion of a
research project
or thesis may be
involved.
Programs are
more practicallyoriented and
occupationally
specific than
programs at
ISCED 5A and
they do not
prepare students
for direct access
to advanced
research
programs. They
have a minimum
of two years fulltime equivalent
duration.
5A
ISCED 5A
programs that are
largely theoretically
based and are
intended to provide
sufficient
qualifications for
gaining entry into
advanced research
programs and
professions with
high skills
requirements.
5B
ISCED 5B
programs that are
generally more
practical/technical/
occupationally
specific than ISCED
5A programs.
The
programs
provide the
level of
education
required for
entry into a
profession
with high
skills
requirements
or an
advanced
research
program.
The program
content is
typically
designed to
prepare
students to
enter a
particular
occupation.
Position in
the National
Degree and
Qualification
Structure
Cumulative
Theoretical
Duration of
Tertiary
A
Duration
Categories:
Medium 3 to
less than 5
years; Long
5 to 6 years;
Very long
more than 6
years.
A
Categories:
Intermediate;
First; Second;
Third and
further.
B
Duration
categories:
short: 2 to
less than 3
years;
Medium: 3 to
less than 5
years; Long :
5 to 6 years;
Very long
more than 6
years.
B
Categories:
Intermediate/
First, Second.
Third and
further.
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
78
6
SECOND STAGE OF TERTIARY EDUCATION (LEADING TO AN ANVANCED RESEARCH
QUALIFICATION)
This level is
reserved for
tertiary
programs that
lead to the
award of an
advanced
research
qualification.
The programs
are devoted to
advanced study
and original
research.
The level requires the
submission of a thesis or
dissertation of publishable
quality that is the product
of original research and
represents a significant
contribution
to
knowledge. It is not solely
based on course-work.
It prepares recipients
for faculty posts in
institutions
offering
ISCED 5A programs
as well as research
posts in government
and industry.
A Guidebook
79
Appendix-B
SYSTEM OF SCHOOL CLASSES IN INDIA
State / UT
Andhra Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Chhatisgarh
Goa
Gujarat
Haryana
HP
J&K
Jharkhand
Karnataka
Kerala
MP
Maharashtra
Manipur
Meghalaya
Mizoram
Nagaland
Orissa
Punjab
Rajasthan
Sikkim
TamilNadu
Tripura
U.P.
Uttaranchal
West Bengal
A&N Islands
Chandigarh
D&N Haveli
Diu
Delhi
Lakshadweep
Pondicherry:
Pondy/Yanam
Mahe
Source
Note
Comp
Edu.
*
@
@
@
@
*
@
@
*
Age
at
Class
I
5+
6+
6+
6+
6+
5+
5+/6+
6+
5+
5+
6+
5+
5+
6+
5+
5+
6+
IV
IIV
Structure of School Classes in India
VIVIVVIXVIII
VIII
VII
VII
VIII
X
-X
6+
5+
5+
6+
5+
5+
6+
5+
5+
5+
6+
5+
5+
5+
5+
5+
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
-
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
-
3
3
-
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
-
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
-
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
5+
5+
3
-
3
3
-
-
3
-
3
-
3
3
3
**
*
@
*
@
: Selected Information on School Education, MHRD, Department of Education, 1996-97.
: (3)means that the said class structure exists in that State/UT.
(*) Indicates that Primary Education is compulsory in that State/UT.
(@) Indicates that elementary education is compulsory in the State/UT.
(**) No age restriction for admission to Class I
XIXII
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
80
Appendix-C
COMPULSORY EDUCATION ACTS PRESENTLY IN FORCE IN
STATES AND UTS OF INDIA
S.No
States and UTs
Name of Act
1.
Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh Education Act, 1982 (Act No. 1 of 1982)
2.
Assam
The Assam Elementary Education (Provincialisation) Act, 1974.
3.
Bihar
Bihar Primary Education (Amendment) Act, 1959 (Bihar and Orissa
Education Act (1 of 1919) as amended by Bihar Act IV of 1950).
4.
Goa
The Goa Compulsory Elementary Education Act, 1995 (Goa Act No. 4 of
1996).
5.
Gujarat
Gujarat Compulsory Primary Education Act, 1961 (Gujarat Act No. XLI of
1961)
6.
Haryana
Punjab Primary Education Act, 1960.
7.
Himachal Pradesh
The Himachal Pradesh Compulsory Primary Education Act, 1953 (Act No.
7 of 1954)
(Assam Act No. 6 of 1975)
8.
Jammu & Kashmir
The Jammu & Kashmir Education Act, 1984 (Act No. XI of 1984)
9.
Karnataka
The Karnataka Education Act, 1983 (Karnataka Act No. 1 of 1995)
(First published in the Karnataka Gazette Extraordinary on the 20th day of
January 1995.
10.
Kerala
The Kerala Education Act 1958 (Act. No. 6 of 1959) (As amended by Acts
35 of 1960, 31 of 1969 and 9 of 1985).
11.
Madhya Pradesh
The Madhya Pradesh Primary Education Act, 1961 (Madhya Pradesh Act
No. 33 of 1961)
12.
Maharashtra
The Bombay Primary Education Act, 1947 (Bombay Act No. LXI of 1947)
(As modified up to 30th April 1986)
13.
Punjab
Punjab Primary Education Act, 1960 (Act No. 39)
14.
Rajasthan
The Rajasthan Primary Education Act, 1964 (Act No. 131 of 1964)
15.
Sikkim
The Sikkim Primary Education Act, 2000 (Act No. 14 of 2000)
16.
Tamil Nadu
The Tamil Nadu Compulsory Elementary Education Act, 1994 (Act No. 33
of 1995)
17.
Uttar Pradesh
United Provinces Primary Education Act, 1919* (UP Act No. 7 of 1919)
United Provinces (Dist Boards) Primary Education Act, 1926* (UP Act No.
1 of 1926)
* Adapted and mdified by the Adaptation of Laws Order 1950.
18.
West Bengal
West Bengal Primary Education Act, 1973 (West Bengal No. 43 of 1973)
19.
Delhi
The Delhi Primary Education Act, 1960, (Act No. 39 of 1960)
A Guidebook
81
Appendix-D
STRUCTURE OF EDUCATION IN INDIA
Std.
0 I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII XIV XV XVI XVII XVIII XIX XX XXI
Age: 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
ELEMENTARY EDU.
SEC. EDU.
HIGHER EDU.
M. Phil
B. Ed/M. Ed
PRE-PRIMARY
LLB
PRIMARY
SCHOOL
UPPER
PRIMARY
SCHOOL
SEC.
SCHOOL
TECH.
SCHOOL &
ITIs
OPEN
SCHOOL
NON-FORMAL CENTRES
NON-FORMAL
CENTRES
COMPULSORY EDUCATION
Sr. SEC.
SCHOOL
Acad./
Vocational
OPEN UNIVERSITY
BE / B TECH./ B Arch
MBBS
PRIMARY
TEACHER TRG
I T I's POLYTECHNICS
OPEN
SCHOOL
Ph. D
LLM
ME
MD/ MS
Ph. D
82
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
A Guidebook
Y.P. Aggarwal
R.S. Thakur
Operations Research and Systems Management Unit
National Institute of Educational
Planning and Administration
17-B, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi - 110016
July, 2003