Gender, Politics, Government, and the Military
Politics: Power
Women began voting in 1920/few/and for men
Numbers increased as women became educated and worked outside the
home
GENDER GAP:
In 1980: more women than men cast ballots and women voted significantly
differently than men
Underlying are viewpoints concerned with family and economic issues
(females) or taxation and the national deficit (males).
War and peace: Women more apt to disagree with waging a war (WWI,
Korean War, Vietnam War, Troops in Lebanon, Gulf War)
9/11 men and women equal
Death penalty: more men than women
Gun Control: women more than men
Area of agreement: environment, and reproductive freedom (women more
apt to vote according to the person’s position)
Race and social class intersect with gender. See p. 302/Table 10.2
Most people vote according to issues that are salient in their lives.
Political involvement:
Few gender differences in political activism.
Uninvolved
Gender and Public Office:
191 Countries (2000) 7 female heads of government
US ranked 39th in terms of female representation world wide (1997)
Why is there a gender gap?
Boys learn they can become presidents and girls learn they can marry one.
Boys and girls show no differences in political views and one could argue it
is the absence of female role models and mentors.
Women have greater domestic demands. Many enter politics after the kids
are grown. May are single, or have fewer children than males.
Women are less qualified? No- prior to WWII women inherited seats when
husbands or fathers were deceased and they did not have the education and
background. Today they do.
Prejudice and discrimination? Sexism on decline
Many believe women are needed to balance things.
Media: women: focus on viability of campaign
Men: focus on the issues
Women: focus on female topics (education, drugs)
Men: focus on male topics (national security and trade)
Sexism and discrimination within the political parties:
Majority of party leaders are men of whom many believe that men are better
suited (especially in southern states).
Incumbency and access to funds:
Incumbents hold political office. It is easier to win as an incumbent than as
a challenger.
Money
PACs give more amply to white men even if solicited by women/minorities
In 1990 formation of informal political coalition as well as their PACs.
Women and men in state and local government: see page 311
2002 men dominate state and local government. At the state level women
have made their greatest inroads.
Women and Men in the Fed government: See page 312
2001
Not until 1983 two female senators served via election rather than widow
succession.
1992 “year of the Woman” women made significant progress in
congressional office holding
Also, minority men
Often women do not hold higher positions as chairs or house speakers.
Often are excluded from informal groups.
Seniority an issue
Many positions are appointed and confirmed by the Senate:
Supreme Court
9 justices/2 female
Many of the justices show bias in their hiring practices of law clerks. Only
Justice Bryer has 50/50 male female (but 80%) are white
Justice
John G. Roberts
(Chief Justice)
John Paul Stevens
Samuel A. Alito, Jr.
Antonin Scalia
Anthony Kennedy
David Souter
Clarence Thomas
Ruth Bader Ginsburg
Stephen Breyer
Appointed Appointed
At Age
In
By
2005
G. W. Bush
50
1975
2006
Ford
G. W. Bush
55
55
1986
1988
1990
1991
1993
1994
Reagan
Reagan
Bush
Bush
Clinton
Clinton
50
52
51
43
60
56
Current salary for the Chief Justice is around $202,900 per year, while
Associate Justices make about $194,200.
Women and Men in the Military:
The military in the US is a male dominated institution.
In 1996 VMI (VA Military Institute) was forced to admit females
WWI military nurses did not have military status/no benefits
WWI Women’s Army Core (WAC) was formed/status/benefits
WAVES( Womens’ Reserve of the Navy)
WASPS (Women’s Air Force Service Pilots)
Women considered “reserve” if needed pulled in if not pushed out. No
benefits following the service, so many qualified women i.e. pilots could
only work as secretaries or flight attendants.
1948 Women’s Armed Services Integration Act established a permanent
place for women in the military, 98% of the positions were reserved for men,
and how far a woman could advance was capped. And women were taught
how to be ladylike in uniform. Pregnancy led to dismissal. Husbands only
received benefits if she was the only source of income.
1967 congress passed public law: removed the limits of females and caps on
promotions
1972 Equal rights amendment
1972 congressional hearing on the role of women in the military
1973 Draft was eliminated
1975 parenting ban was lifted/voluntary
More recent: p. 320 table 10.6
Risk rule (1970-1994) barred from ground combat and combat support jobs
/killed, or captured
1994 Clinton/women pilots for combat
1999 Kosovo American women flew bombing missions for the first time
95% of all positions are open to women
Exclusion if cost of accommodation too high
Not performing in exactly the same roles may place limits on women’s
careers
Sometimes the difference is semantic while the danger level is equally high
Dual serving couples my be deployed to different locales (child has to be
over 4 moths)
Sexism rampant
75% of women in the military have been sexually harassed.
25% assaulted
19% raped
Not all women want to serve.