Introduction
The lithosphere is the 70-100 km thick topmost layer of the earth. The lithosphere consists of plates (major and minor) which are moving relative to each other at a very slow rate (2-5 cm/ year) over the aesthonosphere which extends up to a depth of 700km.
The surface of the lithosphere is called land. Land, in a broader sense, encompasses all the natural materials present on the earth’s surface composed of rocks and soil. Rock is the natural aggregate of minerals. Variation of rock is due to the different mineralogical combinations. Rocks are of three types: Igneous (formed by solidification of magma i.e. granite, basalt etc); Sedimentary (formed by consolidation of materials carried out by wind, river, glacier etc. e.g. sad stone, lime stone etc) and Metamorphic (formed by transformation of igneous and sedimentary rocks, e.g. gneiss, marble, slate etc.).
Physical, chemical and biological processes, by their constant interaction with the different rock types, produce the thin outer skinny layer called soil which contains living and non – living materials. Plants are grown well in the soil containing rich macro and micro (trace elements) nutrients. Macro-nutrients include nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and sulphur (S). Trace elements include, iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn). Healthy soil is a combination of minerals, rock, water, air, organic matter (plant and animal residue), microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi and protozoa and a variety of insects and worms. This intricate web carries out a process that continually replenishes the soil and maintains long-term soil fertility. A healthy soil should have the mechanism of supplying the nutrients produced by natural weathering processes as well as mediated by organisms to the plants perennially for sustainability. For optimum plant growth, soil must be capable of storing these nutrients and transferring them to the root surface for uptake by plants.
Soil is one of our most precious natural resources, as it integrates all parts of the ecosystem and provides a medium for plant growth, filters water, decomposes waste, stores heat, and exchanges gases. Soil is alive; it is the home to billions of micro- and

macroscopic organisms. It is a material used for construction, medicine, and art. It produces a snapshot of the geologic, climatic, biological, and human history at the place that they are found. Unfortunately, there is a limited amount of soil that can actually be used for growing food, and all of the other uses that we require it for. When improperly managed, soil can become eroded, polluted, or destroyed. It can also cause damage to other parts of the ecosystem.
To understand the nature of soil, one has to have knowledge on rocks and their mineral composition. Generally, mineral content of soil is referred to as the elements that are responsible for growth of plants. In fact, rocks are made of minerals (structured atomic arrangement of elements in a crystal form) that in turn disintegrate into different soil components that are easily taken by the plants and used for their better growth. The mobility of nutrients from rock to soil is decided by the geological processes that initiate weathering. To understand the mobility and distribution of micro and macronutrients
(calcium, potassium, sodium, nickel, zinc) in the soil system will certainly lead us to manage agricultural practices. The soil system is affected by influences of man intervention as well as natural processes. The removal of topsoil by cutting down the forests and banned agricultural practices would force us to live in environmentally adverse conditions. The environmental degradation of both soil and land makes our planet stressful and initiate us to think over sustainable development. As our interference with natural processes cause many situations unfit for our well being and also for the well being of future generations in stake. In this context we have to look for alternative solutions for enrichment and sustainability of soil as resource mine and in order to sustain for long new management methods are to be adopted.
Collecting data on the past and present land use practices would help us to predict the future pattern of change, which would throw light on our sustainable development. There are diseases caused by the excess presence of certain toxic elements such as fluoride, arsenic and selenium in the biological system introduced through rocks to water and to soil. A Systematic documenting of temporal and spatial distribution of

diseases provides a better database for identifying the root cause for their respective diseases.
Project 1
Collection and identification of important economic minerals and the preparation of mineral distribution of topographical map.
Introduction
The use of minerals has been instrumental in raising the standard of living of mankind.
The sophisticated world of today is largely the result of the large use of minerals.
Fertilizers, food, and the source of power like coal, petroleum, natural gas, and even atomic energy are derived from minerals. Countless other necessities of life, like automobiles, aero plane, ships, modern communications and chemicals are all in some way formed out of minerals.
All engineering and structural materials, machinery, plants, equipments and anything from pins to planes are manufactured from the metals and their innumerable alloys. Iron and steel and their special alloys are the most common metals which largely enter in to the fabrication industry. Other metals which are required most commonly are aluminum, copper, lead, zinc and tin. There is not a single industry which can go without minerals or their products. Minerals thus are a part and parcel of our daily life. All this minerals are produce of rocks. It will be a good exercise for the school children to study this minerals in terms of their geologic and geographic distribution, mode of formation, and its uses. Children can very well attempt for making a mineral distribution map.
Objectives
1. To identify host rock and associated ore minerals
2. Demarcate geologic /geographic distribution (occurance)
3. To find out economic importance / uses
Materials required
1.
Topo-sheet
2.
Hammer and chisel
3.
Geological field guide book
Methodology
Procuring the toposheet of the area to be investigated.
Identifying the extent of the area to be sampled and then preparing a plan for making traverses in order to collect the rock. And the mineral samples from the field. Mark the sampling locations on the toposheet. Identify the type of rock and minerals present in

them. Plot the minerals in a geographical area to mark their distribution. Evaluate the uses of the studied minerals.
Observations.
1.
Variation in distribution of rocks and mineral occurrence of the selected area.
2.
Preparation of rock and mineral distribution map based on the data collected.
Follow up activities
The childrens can further consult the nearby geology department for verification and additional information.
Project 2.
Identification of Structural elements found in the earth crust and their implications
Introduction
The earth surface is expressed in the form of mountains valleys, plateaus and ocean basins. These outer expressions are as a result of the plate ( tortionally rigid part/cover of the earth) movements i.e. the movement of the crust of the earth due to mantle convection. Because of the plate collision earth crust has undergone deformation producing folds, faults and joints etc. The buckling processes of rocks produce mountain and valleys. Himalayan mountain range is a good example of a folded chain of mountains produced by the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates. The Narmada-son- Damodar graben is a valley produced due to faulting. The processes of folding and faulting may be associated with diastrophic phenomena like earth quakes tsunamis etc. The children can observe the structural features associated with rocks present in their area and investigate the relationship between these structures and the land pump/ landscape of the region.
Folds, faults and joints may also serve as good sites for mineralization. For example, faults creates structural traps of petroleum; faults and joints makes the sites for mineralization of gold, copper, lead and zinc etc. when the rocks are well jointed there is high possibility of the formation of an under ground water reservoir (aquifer).
Objectives:
1.
To identify the structural features, folds, faults and joints in the study area.
2.
To understand the relationship between these structures and the land forms / landscapes
3.
To find out mineralization / ground water associated these structures.
Material required
Clinometer compass
Geological field guide

Hammer Pencil etc.
Methodology
The children should carefully make traverses all along the area selected for this purpose. Find out the changes in the rock type, in the courses of river systems, repetitions and omissions of rock strata/ layers, change in attitude of the rock beds etc. The identification of such structures may well be observed in the hill cuts and railway cuts, road cuts and well / trench cuts etc. The type of folds, faults and joints are to be recorded in terms of their orientations, attitudes and size. Such an observation would provide the database for the classification of this structural elements and ultimately to find their importance.
Observation:
Observation of linearity/ parallelism of river patterns, sudden change in rock type could indicate the presence of faults. If there are marked changes in the angle of inclination of dipping strata, then the presence of folds is there. Identification of such deformational structures would help to understand the underlying the structural architecture of the area. Children should observe the shape and geometry of the structure.
Implications
Presence of structures like folds, faults and joints certainly indicate that the rocks having such structures have undergone brittle deformation, that the rock have passed their elastic limits, due to application of natural stresses caused by the movement of the crust of the earth. Further, the occurrence of this structures implies the possibility to find out natural mineral deposit.
Project 3
Collection and identification of fossils
Introduction
Neontology incorporates the study of existing life, while the Paleontology is concerned with the ancient pre-historic life. It is paleontology, the study of fossils (Latin word fosilis meaning “dug-up”), with the help of which the past history of earth since the time from which the life come into existence on this earth could be worked out. Fossils provide much needed information about the history of the earth and evolution of life through out the geologic times. Besides, the fossil collection to many people is most enjoyable, fascinating and rewarding hobby. The presence of fossil plant would suggest a land environment, an assemblage of freshwater snails and leaves indicate the presence of a lake in the past, deltas may be indicated by the mingling of marine and land fauna and floras. Fossilized marine organisms marine organisms would indicate the temperature,

depth and salinity of the past marine environment with which the fossils were associated.
They are also valuable tools for a stratigrapher and could provide important clues to the age of rocks containing them. Besides, Palynology, the study of spores and pollens is important as the rock formations that contain such micro-fossils would indicate possible reservoirs of petroleum.
In this context, young children will find interesting to collect fossils from the sedimentary rocks that are exposed in the nearby area. This exercise will kindle their interest in becoming an amateur fossil collector as well as to understand the paleo-environment - paleoecology, paleoclimate, paleogeography, etc.
Objective
1.
To initiate the young minds for scientific method of classifying the fossils.
2.
To understand and appreciate the importance of fossils with reference to earth’s history and economic importance.
Methodolgy
The first step in studying the fossil is to identify the sedimentary rocks which are promising to contain fossils. The carbonate rocks, sandstones and silt are potential sedimentary rocks for observing the fossil fuel content. Once they have identified the suitable sedimentary rocks for their investigation, they have to make traverse all along the terrain in order to observe the fossils. In the beginning the children may find difficulty in identifying the fossils, but in due course they will be tuned to locate them. River beds, road cut hill slopes are suitable for finding the fossils. If they find any resemblance with the present organisms, they can classify the fossils tentatively, otherwise they should collect enough fossils for further studies. The collected fossils are to be classified, labeled and put into proper order.
Materials required
1.
Fossil field guide
2.
Pick Hammer
3.
Chisel Hammer
4.
Collecting bag
5.
Hand lens
6.
Sample storing bag with label
7.
Wrapping material
8.
Adhesive tape
9.
Stiff-bristles
10.
Camera
Observations

The fossils that were collected in the field have to be cleaned properly for identification.
From proper observation, children can be able to understand whether the fossils are marine, continental or deltaic. Accordingly they can draw conclusion about their paleoecology, paleoclimate, etc.
Interpretation
Environmental conditions responsible for the existence of the animals/plant could be learnt by studying the fossils properly. That could give us valid point to understand how the earth was changing from the past.
Project 4
Energy sources - Fossil
Introduction
The first and the earliest form of energy source used by primitive people was the food they ate. Then woo-fueled fire produced energy for cooking, heat, light and protection from predators. Then it became the fossil fuels that eventually met the energy demand of human being for his well being. The term fossil refers to any remains of ancient life.
Energy is stored in the chemical bonds of the organic compounds of living organisms.
The fossil fuels are those energy sources that form from the remains of once living organisms. These includes oil, natural gas, coal and fuels derived from oil shale and tar sand. When we burn them, we are using that stored energy. In this context, young children will find interest to learn about the different kinds of fossil fuels, their occurrence and distribution in the earth as well as usefulness they provide to man.
Objective
1.
To identify sources of fossil fuels
2.
To correlate the impact of fossil fuel on mankind
Methodology
1.
Observing oil drilling and coal mining areas so as to understand the rock types and structures which host the fossil fuels.
2.
Classification of various types of fossil fuels found in their area.
3.
Analyse the advantage and disadvantage of use of fossil fuels.
From the study children may understand how fossil fuels were formed, with which rocks they are occurring and the positive and the negative impacts given by the use of fossil fuels.
Project 5

Introduction
Soil is defined in different ways for different purposes. Soil scientists define the term soil as materials capable of supporting the plant growth. Conventionally the term soil implies little transportation away from the site at which the soil formed. Soil is the outcome of withering processes which encompasses a variety of chemical, physical and biological processes acting to break down to rock. The relative importance of different kind of weathering processes is largely determined by climate. Climate, topography and the composition of the materials from which the soil is formed, the activity of the organisms, and time govern a soil’s final composition. A vertical section through all the constituent horizons of a soil from the surface to the relatively unaltered parent materials is called the soil profile. The soil profile can be divided into top soil, sub-soil, weathered parent material and bed rock. The soil profile varies in different areas due to the land use variation. Due to the biological activities, the top soil contains more humus. When you go down from top soil to bed rock the content of humus decreases and at certain points you may not find any organic matter except disintegrated original bed rock. These sequences can be well documented in the road cuttings and well cuttings. The kind of study will initiate the children to understand how the soil evolved from the barren rocks.
Objectives
1.
To identify and delineate the horizon of different physically distinguished part of the soil using parameters such as the size of the grains, colour, etc.
2.
To mark out the eroded soil horizons
3.
To understand the physical, chemical and biological activities those are responsible for soil erosion.
Methodology
The children can identify the places where the cuttings were made in the subsurface.
Once it is identified children can observe the different soil layering based on physical parameters such as grain size, clay content. Children can measure the thickness of the different layering can be compared with one area profile with another so that they can observe the soil layering is not uniform in all the places. This in turn helps children to understand the land use pattern and soil thickness relationship.
Materials required
1.
Map
2.
Measuring tape
3.
Note book
4.
Spade/shovel
Observation

A tabular column consisting of physical parameters and thickness data can help a children to analyse and conclude his results.
Table : Soil profiles in different land use areas
Area Soil layer Colour Length Thickness Grain size
Area 1 Top soil
Sub soil
Weathered rocks
Bed rocks
Area 2 Top soil
Sub soil
Weathered rocks
Bed rocks
Area 3
6. SOIL COMPACTION – AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
Introduction
Have you ever had to dig a hole in really hard dirt? It is much easier to dig a hole in soft, loose soil. Soil that is hard and dry is compacted, which means that it has been packed down solid, making it difficult to penetrate. It is difficult for soil dwelling organisms, like bugs and worms, to tunnel in compacted soil. You won't usually find many organisms living in compacted soils because they cannot get the air, space and nutrients that they need to survive. Compacted soil makes it difficult for plants with delicate root systems to thrive. Very compacted soil tends to support the growth of weeds, which have thick tap roots which penetrate deeply into compacted soil and out-compete other plants.
Which areas are most susceptible to soil compaction? In this experiment you will make an instrument to test different areas to see where the soil is the most compacted. You should test places like gardens, walkways, turf, sunny areas, shady areas moist and dry areas. Where do you think the most compacted soil will be? Can you think of creative ways to avoid soil compaction in these areas?
Objective

In this experiment you will test the level of compaction of soil at different locations.
Questions
 How does soil become compacted?
 How can soil compaction be measured?
 Which areas have the most and least compacted soil?

Materials and Equipment

 metal knitting needle (size 7 or small enough to fit inside the spool)
 small spool metric ruler
 permanent marker
 rubber band
Experimental Procedure
1.
Place the needle into the spool to see that it fits.
2.
Place the apparatus, pointy side down, onto a table. Mark where the knitting needle sticks out of the top of the spool with your permanent marker. This line will be zero.
3.
Tightly wrap a rubber band around the knitting needle and push it towards the non-pointy, capped end of the needle. You will use this to mark the depth of your soil measurements.
4.
Choose different locations to test the soil for compaction. Describe each location in a data table. Where is it? What type of soil is there? Is it wet or dry? Are there any plants?
5.
At each location place the spool on the ground pointy side down. Push down hard on the knitting needle until it stops moving into the ground. Slide the rubber band down against the top of the spool.

6.
Remove the knitting needle from the ground and measure the distance between the line and the rubber band with your ruler.
7.
Record the measurement in a data table:
Location Description
Measurement
(cm)
1
2
3
4
8.
Where is the soil most compacted? The least compacted? What characteristics did you notice about the most compact soils? What characteristics did you notice about the least compact soils? Think about things like foot traffic, soil type, moisture or plant covering.
Variations
 Try an experiment to investigate the effect of walking on soil and compaction.
Dig up some soil so that it is loose. Measure the compaction of the soil with your spool. Now walk over the site and measure again. How did it change? Will it continue to change if you keep repeating the experiment? Why is it important not to walk in a garden bed?

 Do wet or dry soils become more compacted? Add different amounts of water to dry soil. Use a tamper or water roller to compact the soil in each sample. Measure each sample with your spool. Which soils are the most compacted? What happens if you let them dry out and measure them again afterwards?
Project 7
INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE MINERALS, WATER AND
PREVALENT DISEASE DISTRIBUTION IN A SELECTED AREA
Introduction
Human health is affected by various diseases. The diseases are caused by microorganisms present in water, air and food; by deficiency or enrichment of certain minerals. Exposed in certain geographical locations for longer duration where some of the toxic elemental concentrations exceed more than the prescribed level, people of the location would be affected by the diseases expressed by symptoms such as yellowish coloration of teeth, bending effect of legs and spinal column – due to the excess amount of fluoride content in drinking water. A team children can identify such diseases and collect both primary and secondary data for understanding the spatial distribution and their relationship to the food, water they consume. Analyzing of such data will provide us clues for understanding their source and recommendation of remedial methods.
Objectives
1.
To create a database for prevalent diseases in a selected geographical location
2.
To understand and correlate the type of diseases and their causes and probable sources if caused due to mineral concentration.
3.
To identify the rock formations and their associated water causing such diseases.
4.
To create awareness among the public related to the adverse effect drinking such water.
5.
To develop an indigenous method of removal of toxic elements from water or other source materials.
Methodology
The first step in this kind of study is to develop a questionnaire survey for primary data collection. The secondary data on various diseases prevalent in the selected geographical location can be obtained from primary health centres. The data sheet can be formulates as shown below.

Location:
S.No Name of the diseased person: Male / female
Age Types of diseases
Frequency
/intensity of the disease
Symptoms
External / internal
Observations
Introduction
Soil is one of our most precious natural resources, as it integrates all parts of the ecosystem. Soil filters water, decomposes waste, stores heat, and exchanges gases. Soil is alive- it is the home to billions of micro- and macroscopic organisms. It produces a snapshot of the geologic, climatic, biological, and human history at the place that they are found. There is a limited amount of soil that can be used for growing food, and all of the other uses that we require it for. When improperly managed, soil can become eroded, polluted, or destroyed. The chemical fertilizers and pesticides which are being used in our soils to eradicate the pest population and to help to fertilize the soils. Some of the popular chemical compounds used as pesticide are fatally toxic to humans and their release into streams and rivers cause environmental pollution. The chemical farming popularly known as "conventional agriculture" benefiting farmers time being would cause soil degradation and soil erosion in the long run. Some methods in conventional agriculture have led to the removal of top soil and if we continue with conventional agriculture, there will be no more top soil left in the world soon.
On experiencing ill effects of chemical farming, there is a new, more radical approach to farming- organic farming. The principle behind organic farming is to grow crops completely without using man-made chemicals, and to help to nourish the earth while gaining something from it (namely, strong healthy crops). Organic farming is very beneficial, both to the soil and to us. Using organic farming, the soil maintains its structure, consistence, and diversity of life within the soil (both micro- and macroscopic life), which is considered very important in a healthy soil. It also allows farmers to grow many crops in the same area, which provides diversity for the soil and also is a natural way to keep out pests. By organically treating the soil with compost and with animal manure, the soil stays healthy and also is enriched so that any tillage of the soil will not harm it in the long run. Also, the organic material supplied to soil through organic farming serves as a sponge to water, and helps to store nutrients

By looking at conventionally-treated, organically-treated, and forested soil of the same type, the question of whether different management practices affect the soil will be addressed. This question will be answered by comparing a) the chemical composition of all three soils (i.e.: pH, nitrate nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, etc.), b) the consistence, c) the texture , d) the soil structure, e) the color, f) the macro invertebrate activity, and g) the bulk density.
Objectives

To understand how soil quality is affected by soil management.

Is there a difference in soil quality between the same soil type which has been forested, farmed conventionally, and farmed using compost? If so, what?
Hypothesis
The quality of soil will be affected by the use of conventional farming. Soil properties which control soil quality such as soil structure, organic matter content, earthworm activity, and other properties will be different from the unmanaged soil or the soil treated organically. Fertility may be higher in the conventionally treated soil than in the other types of soils because of the addition of fertilizers.
Materials Required

 unmanaged soil such as a forest (control group) agricultural field to which pesticides and fertilizers have been added

(conventional farming)
 agricultural field to which compost has been added
LaMotte Soil Testing kit (N, P, K)
 PG County Soil Survey Report

 liter-sized plastic bags for each site and marker
 newspaper for drying soil on
250 mL. can for sampling (3 for each site)

 nail and hammer for poking a hole in the bottom of each can
 experts from the Beltsville Agricultural Research Center (BARC) and NASA scale for weighing soils


Munsell soil color book
 pH pen and buffers trowel for gathering samples
 sieve


100 mL beakers
 100 mL graduated cylinder distilled water

Methodology

Find 3 soils of the same soil type of which one has been conventionally farmed, farmed with compost but with the same farming history, and one that has been forested.

Collect 3 surface samples from each site, each filling a 250 mL can.

Carefully observe soil properties (such as structure, consistence, earthworm activity, and color) in the field. Structure, consistence, and earthworm activity is tested by simple observation and by feeling the soil's texture and consistency.
Color is tested by comparing a sample of moist soil to the colors displayed in the
Munsell Soil Color Book.

Take samples back home, and dry them, sieve them, and test them for the following chemical properties: pH, nitrate nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K). pH will be tested using a pH pen , calibrated with buffers. The nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium will be tested using a LaMotte soil testing kit. The LaMotte soil testing kit has materials to extract solution from the soils containing the elements to be tested.

Reagents for each of these are then used to change the color of the extracted solution to compare with color charts that tell the relative amount of each nutrient in the soil. pH will be tested for because acidic soils can be harmful to plants, and controls the presence of other nutrients in the soil. Therefore, the soils can be partially proven harmful or helpful to plant growth by testing pH. Nitrate nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are nutrients that are important for plant growth, and may be affected by different soil properties.
Observations and interpretations
The pH, Chemical elemental (Nitrogen, Phosporous and Potassium) content and bulk density for all three categories of soils viz., forested, composted and cultivated soils have to be observed and measured precisely for meaningful interpretation. Observation of structure, color, consistence, texture, crusting, macro invertebrate activity, and roots in the field would help us to distinguish and characterize these soils respectively.
The first part of the interpretation would be based on the physical properties of the soils such as crusts, color and bulk density among the conventionally managed, composted, and forested soils. The second part of the interpretation would be based on fertilizers used in each of the soils.
Follow – up activities
Children can observe the soil sites over a relatively lengthy period of time (i.e.: years). In order to understand changes in soil chemistry and physical properties. Data can be

generated for these soils on other chemical elements such as sulfur, humus content, etc. to for better control over results. A final thing that could be done to improve on this project is to dig the samples at different depths, as opposed to all at the surface. By gathering samples at different levels, it would show whether or not the results gathered at one level change as the soil deepens, or if the results stay the same.
Project 9
Identification of Basic Patterns and analysis of their significance
Introduction:
The surface of the earth is covered by verities of streams and rivers. The entire area that collects the rainwater and contributes it to a particular channel is called the drainage basin or catchments area. The main or trunk stream and its tributary streams that drain the basin area collectively from the drainage network, which have different patterns called drainage patterns. The basic kinds of drainage pattern are dendritic,parallel, trellis, rectangular, radial,annular,etc., each having its own charecterstic and are either controlled by the rock types or structural elements like fractures,joints,folds etc. The children can observe the different drainage patterns found in their area and investigate the relationship between rock types, structure and drainage patterns.
Objectives:

To identify the types of drainage patterns.

To understand their relationship to rock and structure present.
Methodology
The children can identify the drainage patterns with the help of a toposheet, which can be obtained from a nearby college or university having geology or geography departments.
Further the children may go to the field area as represented by the toposheet under study and identify the rock types, structures such as faults, folds and joints as well as the nature of the bending of the stream lets, streams and rivers. This will help the childrens to know the actual relationship between the various drainage patterns in that area with the rock properties and structures.
Materials Required

Toposheet

Tracing paper

Pen/pencil and Note book
Observation
Presence of one or different drainage patterns in that area and their control either by lithology or structures can be well observed. Apart from the litological or structural association, the drainage patterns have association with erosion, deposition and channel dynamics, through identification such aspects one can prepare a catchment area vulnerability map or channel treatment plan.

Project 10
Soil degradation and conservation
Introduction
Soil does not, at first glance, strike many people as a resource requires special care for its preservation. In most places, even where soil erosion is active, a substantial quantity seems to remain underfoot. Associated problems, such as loss of soil fertility and sediment pollution of surface waters, are even less obvious to the untutored eye and may be too subtle to be noticed readily. Nevertheless, soil is an essential resource on which we depend for the production of the major portion of our food. Soils vary in their suitability not only for agriculture but also for construction and other purposes. Unfortunately, soil erosion is a significant and expensive problem in an increasing number of places as human activities disturb more and more land. Soil erosion is recognized by a number of factors, i.e. aridity, low level of vegetation cover, topography and a set of human induced processes. Maltese farmers have long been aware long been aware of this problem.
Weathering of the bedrock or mineral material in place. Soil erosion is caused by the action of water and wind surface runoff and wind together carry away loosened soil. The faster the wind and water travel, the larger the particles and the greater the load they move. Rates of soil erosion can be estimated in a variety of ways.Over a large area, erosion due to surface runoff may be jugged by estimating the sediment load draining the area. On small plots, runoff may be juged by estimating the sediment load draining the area. On small plots, runoff may be collected and its sediment load measured. On the contrary, the wide variety of approaches for reducing erosion on farmland basically involves either reducing the velocity of an eroding agent or protecting the soil from its effects.
Objectives

To find out the areas which are affected by soil erosion and plot on a topographic map of the area?

To study the agents responsible for the soil erosion in that area.

To find out strategies for reducing erosion.
Methodology

To establish the soil profiles in the proposed area of the study

To analyze the slope and the structural deposition of rock of the area

To study the various factors responsible for the degradation of soil like natural erosion process, human activities like farming, land use, urban constructions, sediment load etc.

Project 11
Identification of Basic Patterns and analysis of their significance
Introduction:
The surface of the earth is covered by verities of streams and rivers. The entire area that collects the rainwater and contributes it to a particular channel is called the drainage basin or catchments area. The main or trunk stream and its tributary streams that drain the basin area collectively from the drainage network, which have different patterns called drainage patterns. The basic kinds of drainage pattern are dendritic,parallel, trellis, rectangular, radial,annular,etc., each having its own charecterstic and are either controlled by the rock types or structural elements like fractures,joints,folds etc. The children can observe the different drainage patterns found in their area and investigate the relationship between rock types, structure and drainage patterns.
Objectives:

To identify the types of drainage patterns.

To understand their relationship to rock and structure present.
Methodology
The children can identify the drainage patterns with the help of a toposheet, which can be obtained from a nearby college or university having geology or geography departments.
Further the childrens may go to the field area as represented by the toposheet under study and identify the rock types, structures such as faults,folds and joints as well as the nature of the bending of the streamslets,streams and rivers. This will help the childrens to know the actual relationship between the various drainage patterns in that area with the rock properties and structures.
Materials Required

Toposheet

Tracing paper

Pen/pencil

Note book
Observation
Presence of one or different drainage patterns in that area and their control either by lithology or structures can be well observed. Apart from the litological or structural association, the drainage patterns have association with erosion, deposition and channel dynamics, through identification such aspects one can prepare a catchment area vulnerability map or channel treatment plan.

Project 12
Soil degradation and conservation
Introduction
Soil does not, at first glance, strike many people as a resource requires special care for its preservation. In most places, even where soil erosion is active, a substantial quantity seems to remain underfoot. Associated problems, such as loss of soil fertility and sediment pollution of surface waters, are even less obvious to the untutored eye and may be too subtle to be noticed readily. Nevertheless, soil is an essential resource on which we depend for the production of the major portion of our food. Soils vary in their suitability not only for agriculture but also for construction and other purposes. Unfortunately, soil erosion is a significant and expensive problem in an increasing number of places as human activities disturb more and more land. Soil erosion is recognized by a number of factors, i.e. aridity, low level of vegetation cover, topography and a set of human induced processes. Maltese farmers have long been aware long been aware of this problem.
Weathering of the bedrock or mineral material in place. Soil erosion is caused by the action of water and wind surface runoff and wind together carry away loosened soil. The faster the wind and water travel, the larger the particles and the greater the load they move. Rates of soil erosion can be estimated in a variety of ways.Over a large area, erosion due to surface runoff may be jugged by estimating the sediment load draining the area. On small plots, runoff may be juged by estimating the sediment load draining the area. On small plots, runoff may be collected and its sediment load measured. On the contrary, the wide variety of approaches for reducing erosion on farmland basically involves either reducing the velocity of an eroding agent or protecting the soil from its effects.
Objectives
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To find out the areas which are affected by soil erosion and plot on a topographic map of the area?
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To study the agents responsible for the soil erosion in that area.
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To find out strategies for reducing erosion.
Methodology
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To establish the soil profiles in the proposed area of the study
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To analyze the slope and the structural deposition of rock of the area
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To study the various factors responsible for the degradation of soil like natural erosion process, human activities like farming, land use, urban constructions, sediment load etc.

A list of additional project Ideas
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Economic value of rocks
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Interrelationship between land, water and prevalent disease – e.g., Fluorosis
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Mineral identification, mapping and economic aspects
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Fossil collection, identification and interpretation
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Land utilization maps and soil characterization
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Micro and macro watershed management
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Soil profiling – physical components
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Soil health card – Earthworm
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Organic farming
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Soil erosion and water conservation
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Urban area soil usage and awareness (brick)
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Land degradation
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Improvisation of watershed management
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Foundation –building base
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Micro and Macro organism making soil fertile
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Vital nutrients for life – plant
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Comparison of irrigated and rainfed land
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Polluted land
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Traditional agricultural practices for land conservation
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Comparison of Chemical farming and organic farming
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Effect of pesticide application on agrobiodiversity.

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Agricultural practices for the soil conservation
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Plate tectonic model
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Interior of earth
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Earth quake modeling
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Model of tsunami inundation
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Crop suitability according to land characteristics