C
=
5
/9
(F
-3
2
)
F
=
9
/5C
+3
2
K
=
2
7
3
.1
6
+
C
1
2
0
1
0
0
8
0
6
0
B
o
ilin
gP
o
in
to
fW
a
te
r
5
8
C
(1
3
6
F
)m
a
x
im
u
m
o
b
s
e
rv
e
ds
u
rfa
c
ete
m
p
e
ra
tu
re
CelsiusScale(C)
4
0
2
0 1
5
C
(5
9
F
)G
lo
b
a
la
v
e
ra
g
ete
m
p
e
ra
tu
re
0
-2
0
-4
0
F
re
e
z
in
gP
o
in
to
fW
a
te
r
-6
0
-8
0
-8
8
C
(-1
2
6
F
)m
in
im
u
m
o
b
s
e
rv
e
ds
u
rfa
c
ete
m
p
e
ra
tu
re
-1
0
0
-1
0
0-8
0-6
0-4
0-2
0 0 2
04
06
08
01
0
01
2
01
4
01
6
01
8
02
0
02
2
0
F
a
h
re
n
h
e
it S
c
a
le(F
)
Figure 2.1 The three scales of temperature in, Fahrenheit (F), Celsius (C), and Kelvin (K) all represent the
temperature of matter. You can convert between scales using a chart, math or tables. (Include Celsius scale
along with Fahrenheit, as in Ahrens. Figure 2.1)
Figure 2.2 Touching objects is an example of heat transfer by conduction. When
something you touch feels hot, heat is being transfered from the object to your body.
a
i
r
f
l
o
w
Figure 2.3 Convection transports heat vertically and occurs in liquids and gases. The
shape of a flame results from convection. Air near the flame heats by conduction,
becomes less dense than the surrounding air and rises. Because of convection, the rising
air carries away waste and supplies fresh air to the flame.
Figure 2.4 Cold air replaces warm air in cold air advection, as shown. Warm air advection
occurs when warm air replaces colder air. (Make this a 3-d picture)
W
a
te
r
v
a
p
o
r
W
a
te
r
v
a
p
o
r
W
a
te
r
v
a
p
o
r
W
a
te
r
v
a
p
o
r
C
o
n
d
e
n
s
a
tio
n
E
v
a
p
o
ra
tio
n
S
u
b
lim
a
tio
n
L
iq
u
id
w
a
te
r
L
iq
u
id
w
a
te
r
D
e
p
o
s
itio
n
F
re
e
z
in
g
M
e
ltin
g
Ic
e
Ic
e
A
tm
o
s
p
h
e
relo
s
e
se
n
e
rg
y
Ic
e
Ic
e
A
tm
o
s
p
h
e
reg
a
in
se
n
e
rg
y
Figure 2.5 Phase changes of water are an extremely important energy transfer process in
the atmosphere. Blue lines represent a phase change that removes energy from the
atmosphere. Phase changes that add energy to the environment are represented by red
lines. Clouds are formed when water vapor is converted to liquid-water or ice--cloud
formation releases energy into the atmosphere. (arrows pointing up should be blue,
those pointing down are red.
Altitude(m)
A
sth
ep
a
rc
e
lris
e
site
x
p
a
n
d
sb
e
c
a
u
s
eth
e
s
u
rro
u
n
d
in
gp
re
s
s
u
red
e
c
re
a
s
e
sw
itha
ltitu
d
e
.
E
n
e
rg
yisre
q
u
ire
dtod
oth
ew
o
rko
fe
x
p
a
n
s
io
n
.
K
in
e
tice
n
e
rg
yisc
o
n
v
e
rte
dtop
o
te
n
tia
le
n
e
rg
y
.
2
0
0
0
T
e
m
p
e
ra
tu
reisp
ro
p
o
rtio
n
a
ltok
in
e
tice
n
e
rg
y
a
n
ds
oth
ep
a
rc
e
lte
m
p
e
ra
tu
red
e
c
re
a
s
e
s
.
W
h
e
nitre
a
c
h
e
sa
na
ltitu
d
e
o
f2
0
0
0m
,itste
m
p
e
ra
tu
re
1
0
0
0
is-1
0
C
0
A
fte
rris
in
gtoa
na
ltitu
d
e
o
f1
0
0
0m
,itsn
e
w
te
m
p
e
ra
tu
reis0
C
.
P
a
rc
e
lin
itia
lte
m
p
e
ra
tu
re
is1
0
C
-1
0
0
1
0
T
e
m
p
e
ra
tu
re(C
)
Figure 2.6 Adiabatic cooling and warming occurs as a parcel of air moves up and down in
the atmosphere. The cooling of ascending air is important in the formation of clouds and
precipitation. (parcels should be centered on 10C, 0C and -10C)
3
0
0
0
T
h
ep
a
rce
l's
te
m
p
e
ra
tu
reis-1
2
C
w
h
e
n
re
a
ch
e
s3
0
0
0m
?
M
o
is
ta
s
c
e
n
t
1
0
0
0
M
o
is
ta
s
c
e
n
t
A
t2
0
0
0m
th
ep
a
rce
l's
te
m
p
e
ra
tu
reis-6
C
D
rya
s
c
e
n
t
A
t1
0
0
0m
th
ep
a
rce
l's
te
m
p
e
ra
tu
reis0
C
P
a
rce
l in
itia
l
te
m
p
e
ra
tu
reis1
0
C
0
-1
4 -1
2 -1
0 -8
PressureDecreases
Altitude(m)
2
0
0
0
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
1
0 1
2
T
e
m
p
e
ra
tu
re(C
)
Figure 2.7 Moist adiabatic cooling and warming occurs when a cloud forms inside the
parcel. (Include water drops in last three (biggest) parcels, with more drops in the
top parcel and fewest in the on at 0C)
Figure 2.8 All waves, no matter what kind, are defined by the distance between crests or
the wavelength and their amplitude.
Type of radiation
Gamma rays
x-rays
Solar
Ultraviolet
Visible
Longwave or infrared
Microwave
Radio
Wavelength range (microns)
0.000001
0.000001-0.001
.001-4
0.001-0.4
.4-.8 (blue-red)
4-100
100-10,000,000
larger than 10,000,000
Figure 2.9 Electromagnetic energy spans a large spectrum of wavelengths. In this course
we are interested in the solar (or shortwave) and terrestrial (or longwave) radiation.
(Need an artist diagram of wavelengths, similar to Aquado Figure 2-6)
Figure 2.10 You can use a flashlight to demonstrate how the amount of visible light, one
type of radiation, per unit area striking an object varies with distance from the object and
the angle the light strikes the object. Notice how the flashlight beam spreads out with
distance and angle.
Autumnal equinox, September 22
Winter solstice
December 21
Perihelion
January 3
Aphelion, July 3
Summer solsitce
June 21
Vernal equinox, March 21
Figure 2.11 The earth’s orbit about the Sun defines the amount of solar energy a given
region of Earth recieves. The northern hemisphere summer occurs when the Earth is
titlted towards the Sun. Earth is further away from the Sun in June than in December.
(Denote in 23.5 degree tilt in small earth's, as in Ahren's figure 2.17 - do not put Sun
in center of ellipse)
A
B
Figure 2.12 The sphericity of a ball results in the incident light spreading over different
sized areas. The same amount of light, represented by the arrows on the right, is entering
each volume. Light striking the ball is spread over a larger area A than the light striking
area B. (Make arrow on the right wave. Make sphere look 3-d. Put the following
phrase in the figure "The same amount of light is distributed over a larger area in A
than in B")
North Pole
Equator
North Pole
Equator
x
Figure 2.13 The distribution of the Sun’s energy on Earth’s surface changes throughout
the year. The Sun’s energy is alway more concentrated in the equatorial regions than the
polar regions. (Make arrow on the right wave. Make sphere a globe. Lable top
figure Equinox and bottom figure "Northern Hemisphere Summer")
Solar
Zenith
Angle
Observer
Figure 2.14 The solar zenith angle is measured from overhead to the position of the Sun.
A solar zenith angle of 90 means the Sun is on the horizon. For a given day and time the
solar zenith angle is a function of latitude. (Put an observer on the earth, where the
vertical line should pass through the center of the earth. Put two observers at
different latitudes.)
Evening
Morning
Highnoon
West
South
North
East
Path of the Sun
West
North
South
East
Figure 2.15 The Sun rises in the east and sets in the west, tracing out a path in the sky
similar to that indicated above. The top case represents conditions at the equator, the
bottom portion represents the Sun’s path in the Northern Hemisphere midlatitudes. The
more northern path represents summer time conditions. (Put an observer on the green
circle. Lable left most arc winter and the right most arc summer)
Figure 2.16 A view of how the sun’s rays strike different regions of the earth on June 21.
The sun’s energy is more concentrated near the equator (Point A) and travels through less
atmosphere than in the polar regionis (Point B). Because of the thicker atmosphere, more
of the Sun’s energy is absorbed before it reaches the surface.
Solar Energy at the Top of Atmosphere
550
500
Equator
-2
Solar Energy (W m )
450
400
350
30N
300
250
200
150
100
50
70N
70S
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Time of Year
Figure 2.17 The amount of solar energy striking the top of the atmosphere for 4 latitudes
as a function of time of year. This energy is an important component of the energy gain of
a given latitude. Zero solar energy means that the sun never rises. (Have an inset with a
globe labeling the latitudes shown in the figure)
Figure 2.18 Different gases absorb different wavelengths of solar radiation. How much
energy a gas will absorb is a function of how much gas is present. Not many gases absorb
in the visible spectrum or in the spectral region with wavelengths between 10 and 12
microns. (Need a figure here, perhaps something like Lutgens, figure 2.15, without
the top part)
Figure 2.19 The annual average energy balance of the planet. The flow of solar (yellow)
and infrared (red) radiative energy through Earth. Each light bulb represents 100 W for
each square meter of surface area. On average 342 W of solar radiation energy reach each
square meter at the top of Earth's atmosphere. Of this, only 168 W of solar radiation
reach each square meter of the surface, or about 50% of that incident at the top of
atmosphere. On average, each square meter of the surface recieves 324 W of downward
infrared radiation emitted by the atmosphere. On average, the atmosphere is losing energy
by radiative processes while the surface of the earth has a surplus of radiation energy.
Energy transfer from the surface to the atmosphere is one reason why the average
temperature in the troposphere decreases with increasing distance from the surface. (Be
creative with this figure. Replace numbers with lightbulbs and fraction of
lightbulbs- each light bulb represent 100 W)
Annual Average
-2
Radiation Flux Density (W m )
340
300
Energy Surplus
260
220
Emission of terrestrial energy
to space - represents an
energy loss by the planet
180
140
100
Energy
Deficit
Incoming solar energy represents an energy gain
for the planet
60
20
-90
Energy
Deficit
-75
-60
-45
-30
-15
0
15
30
45
60
75
90
Latitude
Figure 2.20 The radiation balance of the planet as a function of latitude. Units are Watts
per square meter of area. Atmospheric and oceanic circulations move energy from the
latitudes with a surplus of radiation to regions with a deficit (purple arrows). (Change
units on y-axis to W, and "Annual average net energy budget")