Poduska
Kevin D. Poduska
Professor Strickland
English 378
7 August 2002
Tragicomedy and Problem Plays: The Politics of New Comedy in William Shakespeare’s
Midsummer Nights Dream, Romeo and Juliet, and Merchant of Venice
The New Comedy tradition can be seen in dramatic works dating back to the days
of Ancient Greek and Roman writers such as Aristophanes (Old Comedy) and Menander
(New Comedy). During the early modern period in England, about the time of the
Renaissance, many writers were still creating works in the spirit of New Comedy.
However, several of William Shakespeare’s plays demonstrate a clear influence of the
tradition, but often times challenge and blur the finer nuances that define a work as New
Comedy, creating what is often referred to as a “tragicomedy,” or “problem play.” This
analysis will include two main discussion sections including first, a discussion of new
comedy, and finally, a closer look at the politics of New Comedy in relation to three of
Shakespeare’s plays.
Roman New Comedy
Perhaps one of the most ambiguous literary forms in existence is that of the New
Comedy. In relation to its counterpart, tragedy, New Comedy (and old comedy, for that
matter) bears a uniqueness that is “but slightly marked” (The Drama 6). The New
Comedy form is one born out of the Grecian Old Comedy. In order to discuss the
complex and many times unclear politics of New Comedy, it is necessary to first give a
brief history of the comedy and finally, offer insight into the nuance of New Comedy.
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The genre of comedy has its roots in 5th century Ancient Greece, at which time
comedy emerged as a vehicle for public commentary on social, cultural, and political
issues (Porter, 5). As the name would imply, New Comedy has its roots in 5th century
Ancient Greece. At this time, writers such as Aristophanes wrote comedic plays that
were “fantasy-laden, bawdy,” and “highly topical” (Porte, par. 13). By the 4th century,
the transition had begun from Old Comedy to New Comedy in Greece, at which time
Menander began producing plays.
This New Comedy format flourished and soon made it’s way into the conquering
Roman culture, however in a different manner. Where Menander’s plays were centerpiece productions, aimed at tackling “issues of concern to the polis,” and at educating the
public, the Roman New Comedies of Plautus and Terence were created as mere forms of
entertainment to be included in a much larger public festival (Porter, par. 18).
In early modern England, the Roman New Comedy was a commonplace structure
amongst playwrights of the time, and many key features developed along with it. First,
these plays often follow a typical plot structure where two young lovers are stopped from
uniting by some sort of preventative measure put in place those with more power over
them. Often times, this blockade is broken down by the introduction of a servant or
outsider that attempts to help the lovers. Finally, New Comedy plays often use the
lovers’ conflict to signify a larger social issue that is eventually resolved on positive note.
While these seem to be a simple set of literary guidelines, Shakespeare’s plays present
themselves as challenges to these conventions.
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Shakespeare and the Politics of New Comedy
Many writers during Shakespeare’s time created works that followed the New
Comedy tradition. However, Shakespeare himself seems to have followed this tradition
on a much less strict level than that of his contemporaries. Specifically, Shakespeare
draws upon the conventions of old Greek comedies, and Roman New Comedy, as well as
his own uniquely creative approach. It has been said that Shakespeare’s manipulation
and experimentation with this form has marked him a playwright unmatched in
originality and style. The structure, themes, and nuances of several of his plays leave
critics and readers dancing upon a very thin and ambiguous stylistic line separating
comedic and tragic forms. For the purposes of this analysis, three of Shakespeare’s plays
will be examined in regards to New Comedy: Midsummer Nights Dream, Romeo and
Juliet, and Merchant of Venice.
“Midsummer Night’s Dream”
The first of these plays, Midsummer Nights Dream, follows suit in terms of the
classical New Comedy plot. With lovers turned against authority and a light-hearted look
on love, there are indications of this in both the characters and the plot itself that reveal
this influence. However, evidence also exists within the play that indicates some blurring
of the lines that frame the New Comedy structure. While the play is a good-natured tale
of miscommunication and dopey happenings, there is also a hint of tragedy (at least
potential for it) that one cannot ignore. The significance of these caveats will be
elucidated via discussion of two major areas: characters and thematics.
First, Midsummer Nights Dream clearly maintains some of the conventions of the
New Comedy plot in terms of characterization. The essence of the play rides on the
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struggle between two sets of young lovers and their opposition to authority. The nature
of these two couples is comedic in itself. These couples consist of four young lovers
caught in a seemingly unconquerable destiny that pairs them with their objects of nondesire. Egeus, father of Hermia, has arranged for her to web Demetrius, while Lysander
remains the true object of Hermia’s affections. To add to the mix, Helena (Hermia’s
friend) longs to be with Demetrius (unbeknownst to him at the time). It is at this point
that the first comedic elements begin to arise. The key figure in this conflict is Egeus.
Going back to the discussion of New Comedy, Egeus serves as a blocking mechanism in
the uniting of the young lovers. The situation is made clear to everyone through a ruling
handed down by Theseus: either Hermia marries Demetrius, lest she be forced to join a
convent, effectively barring her from any chance of a marriage debacle recurring.
Additionally, Egeus is plying for the permanent expulsion (either physically, or by death)
of Lysander. In an act of defiance, Hermia and Lysander (with Demetrius and Helena in
tow) escape to the woods near Athens, at which point the basis of the play is firmly
planted, giving way to the introduction of other important comedic characters.
New Comedy dictates that the young lovers unite in the end, which is usually
brought about by some sort of catalyst character, or “sympathetic servant.” Entrance to
the forest reveals these significant comic characters: Oberon, the Fairy King; and Puck,
his servant. Oberon and Puck introduce themselves by devising a plan of revenge against
Titania (Fairy Queen and wife to Oberon). Their interjection into the lives of the mortal
characters comes about through a humorous and complex set of miscommunications and
oversights. The significance of this interjection lies in its relationship to New Comedy.
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Both Puck and Oberon are the catalysts of what ultimately bring the couples together in
the end. In other words, they are “sympathetic servants.”
Second, any discussion of the play’s characters without a discussion of their
connection to thematic and social issues in the context of New Comedy would be
incomplete. The inability of the young lovers to join with whom they choose is
representative of some broader social issues including class, and gender/father-daughter
relations. While the characters are indeed fictional, they were created in the image of
some realistic and cultural truth. Therefore, the social impact of the characters and their
experiences partially transfer into some sort of social reality. By the halting of the young
lovers uniting, issues dealing with class and gender emerge. On the one hand, issues of
class emerge due to Lysander being not of the Athenian aristocracy, and therefore not
being eligible to take Hermia’s hand in marriage. Gender, too, becomes an issue, and
displays itself via Egeus and Hermia. Egeus’ patriarchal command and support from
Athenian law in his quest to thwart any marriage between Hermia and Lysander is
indicative of some clear divisions of power amongst genders. Specifically, Egeus’
control over her daughter is indicative of an ideology that Hermia, as a woman, is “bound
by a weak nature,” which is rooted in a stereotypical belief that “nature determines both
who we are and who we can become” (Pace and Townsend 47).
While the play is technically a comedy, several of its characteristics place parts of
it in the gray and ambiguous area between comedy and tragedy. The events of the play
do not actually play out in a tragic manner, but one could easily surmise the possible
tragic outcomes. Take, for example, the events of Act I Scene I. Here, Hermia and
Lysander are faced with an ultimatum, of which both ends will produce results worthy of
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a tragedy. Clearly, this tragic possibility is never realized. However, the possibility
remains that what began as a light-hearted tale could easily have ended with no uniting of
the young lovers. This tendency is not limited only to the comedy of Midsummer Nights
Dream. It is often revealed in other works where comedy is seemingly out of place.
“Romeo and Juliet”
Romeo and Juliet stands as somewhat of a paradox in regards to attempts at
assigning it to any one dramatic form. A quick glance and the play’s title will reveal the
stated form: tragedy. However, as earlier discussed, the delineations between comedy
and tragedy are fuzzy at best, and Romeo and Juliet is no different. That is, while the
play is a tragedy by title, it is a “tragicomedy” by nature. Elements such as characters
and plot structure
First, Shakespeare has outlined many of the characters in such a way that the play,
at least up until a point, seems more comedic than tragic. As in New Comedy tradition,
the play contains two young lovers: Romeo Montague and Juliet Capulet. Both
characters hail from two separate families joined together only in strife. While the two
young lovers desire marriage they are barred from doing so. Conflicts between the two
families has not only prevented them from uniting, but also pitted them against those that
would seek to prevent their marriage. Much like the couples in Midsummer, Romeo and
Juliet defy the “powers that be,” and devise a plan that will bridge the rift formed by the
familiar quarrel. Additionally, many comic elements exist in the character of Romeo,
such as his tendency to be viewed as a “youthful effeminate” male (Mullenix 23). What
is created here is essentially the New Comic premise of the young couple pitted against
their respective authorities by a blockade: the warring families.
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Furthermore, as in the New Comic tradition, a “sympathetic servant” exists. In
the case of Romeo and Juliet, two manifestations of this character present themselves:
Friar Lawrence and Juliet’s Nurse. The young couple’s desire to defy their elders and
unite drives Romeo to seek the help of the Friar. Similarly, this same drive compels
Juliet to seek the help the Nurse. Both the Friar and the Nurse go to great lengths to
control the situation by ensuring that the conflict between the warring families does not
destroy the ambitions of the young couple. At this point, the play is still adhering (to the
New Comedy structure in terms of the characters and their behavior. The actions of the
Nurse and the Friar are clearly designed with the aim of resolving the greater conflict at
hand.
Second, the efforts of these characters soon turn to futility and the play shifts
gears away from the New Comedy form and toward that of tragedy. From the point that
Mercutio is murdered in a “duel,” the situation promptly begins to spin out of control
with a series of miscommunications that render tragic results. A combination of the
sympathetic servant’s overstepping their authoritative boundaries and the escalating
family conflict, the play is finally divorced from the New Comedy structure.
Thematically, the broader social conflict represented by the young lovers struggle is not
resolved.
“Merchant of Venice”
Perhaps one of the most perplexing of Shakespeare’s play is Merchant of Venice.
On a general level, the play is ambiguous in that it very loosely fits around the structure
of New Comedy. However, in a post-World War II era, many critics argue that the play
tackles some very sensitive issues (anti-Semitism) that do not allow readers/viewers to
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release “a joyous outburst of laughter” or to revel in a “universal celebration of life,” as
one such comedy definition might imply (Preminger and Brogan 224). While characters
and plot structure are equally important in this play as in the others discussed in terms of
New Comedy function, the social issues presented are of a much more kairotic nature.
The conflict presented by Shylock versus the Christian characters is one that
represents a much larger social issue in a post-World War II perspective, and is one that
presents a somewhat antithetical characteristic in terms of New Comedy structure. Such
is what makes Merchant of Venice a “problem play.” This is best illustrated by
examining the play in terms of an early modern perspective and a post-World War II
perspective. First, from an early modern perspective, Shylock might be seen as the
blockade that stands in the way of a greater resolution. However, from a post-World War
II perspective, the roles are often reversed. Where Shylock was once seen as the
blockade, he is now often seen as the one being blocked. In other words, post-WW II
viewpoint defies the New Comedy structure by removing Shylock from his characteristic
place within that structure.
Conclusion
This analysis has examined three Shakespearean plays including Midsummer
Nights Dream, Romeo and Juliet, and Merchant of Venice, in relation to the politics of
New Comedy. A discussion of the evolution of comedy was offered and discussed in the
context of Shakespeare’s work. Reading Shakespeare’s plays in the context of New
Comedy conventions, they ways in which his work agrees with the format are somewhat
clear. However, one cannot ignore the ways in which these tragicomedies challenge this
approach and reveal the ambiguous nature of the comedy in relation to the tragedy.
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Evidence of this reveals itself in the characters, plot structure, and in the broader social
themes represented by the conflicts within. From each play, it can be seen just how much
Shakespeare’s plays deviate from this fairly standard format to produce works that are
unparalleled in their individuality and exclusivity.
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Works Cited
“Comedy.” The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics. Ed. A. Preminger
and T.V.F. Brogan. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1993.
The Drama: Its History, Literature and Influence on Civilization, vol. 14. ed. Alfred
Bates. London: Historical Publishing Company, 1906.
Mullenix, Elizabeth R. “Acting Between the Apheres: Charlotte Cushman as
Androgyne.” Theatre Survey 37 (1996): 22-65.
Pace, Barbara G., and Jane S. Townsend. “Gender Roles: Listening to Classroom Talk
About Literary Characters.” English Journal 88 (1999): 43-49.
Porter, John. “Roman New Comedy.” Usask.ca. Retrieved 21 July 2002
<http://www.usask.ca/antharch/cnea/CourseNotes/RomNewCom.html#romnewco
m>.
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