Hazardous Materials for First Responders (2nd Edition)
Study Notes
HazMat for First Responders (2nd Edition)
Chapter 2 - Properties of HazMat
Test Review
 HazMat may be elements, compounds, or mixtures found in gaseous, liquid, or solid states or in a
combination of states.
 An exposure may be acute (single occurence) or chronic (long-term, re-occuring) and may have
health effects that are immediate or delayed.
 Threats/harmful effects of HazMat include: thermal, mechanical, poisonous, corrosive,
asphyxiation, radiation, and etiological.
 Living microorganisms that cause diseases, such as hepatitis and tuberculosis, are etiological agents.
 Mechanical exposures from direct contact or fragments can result in blisters, bruises, and lacerations.
 Thermal effects (related to temperature extremes) can cause heat stress, heat cramps, heat
exhaustion, heat rash, heat stroke, and frostbite.
 Cold exposure from cryogenic substances such as refrigerated liquids and liquified gases can cause
serious tissue damage.
 The core temperature of an individual is the deep temperature of the body, not the skin/extremity
temperature.
Heat Exposure Facts
CONDITION
SIGNS/SYMPTOMS
CAUSES
NO perspiration, SHALLOW breathing, RAPID
pulse, Headache, Weakness, Temp 105oF or higher, Occurs after heat exhaustion stage, true
Heat Stroke
Hot/Dry/Red skin, Confusion, Convulsion, Loss of emergency
Consciousness
Occurs after heavy exertion and
Muscle Cramps, HEAVY perspiration, Physical
exposure to high temperatures as a result
Heat Cramps
weakness, MOIST skin
of excessive salt loss
Occurs with prolonged physical work in
MILDLY elevated temperature, WEAK pulse,
a hot environment, Causes a mild form
Heat
Dizziness, PROFUSE sweating, Cool/Moist/Pale
of traumatic shock due to body not being
Exhaustion
skin
able to release excessive heat
Occurs when continuous heat/humid air
Heat Rash Intolerance to heat, mainly an annoyance
contacts skin.
 Carbonated drinks should be avoided to replenish body fluids.
 Balanced diets usually provide enough salts to prevent cramping.
 Long cotton undergarments provide natural body ventilation.
 Mobile showers/misting facilities can be used to reduce body temperature and cool protective
clothing.
 Alcohol, coffee, and caffeinated drinks contribute to dehydration and heat stress.
 Liquid oxygen (LOX), nitrogen, helium, hydrogen, and liquid natural gas (LNG) are examples of
cryogenic materials.
 Cryogens can freeze materials, including human tissue, instantly.
 Fluorine is an example of a cryogen that is also a corrosive, oxidizer, and poison hazard.
 Cryogenic/liquified gases vaporize quickly when released from their containers.
 Frost Nip/Incipient Frostbite consists of whitening or blanching of skin.
 Superficial frostbite consists of waxy or white skin, outer layers of skin firm to touch, and underlying
layers of tissue being flexible.
 Deep frostbite consists of cold, pale, skin that is solid to touch.
 Systemic hypothermia consists of shivering, sleepiness, apathy, listlessness, core temperature <95oF,
SLOW pulse and breathing, glassy eyes, unconsciousness, freezing of extremities, and death.
 Damage from direct contact with an object is termed Mechanical Trauma.
 Two common types of mechanical damage are striking and friction.
 Striking injuries can be seen with pressurized container failures and can result in bruises, lacerations
and punctures (sharp objects), and even avulsions.
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Hazardous Materials for First Responders (2nd Edition)
Study Notes

Friction injuries are less common with HazMat (most common occurrence is PPE rubbing against
skin).
 Friction injuries result from rubbing against abrasive/irritating surfaces and cause raw skin, blisters,
and brush burns.
POISONOUS EFFECTS
Type
Examples
Body part affected
Nephrotoxic Agents
Halogenated hydrocarbons
Kidneys
Hematotoxic Agents Benzene, nitrites, naphthalene, and arsine
Blood
Neurotoxic Agents
Organophosphates, such as parathion (a pesticide) Nervous System
Hepatotoxic Agents
Ammonia, carbon tetrachloride, and phenols
Liver
 Poisonous irritants and asphyxiants interfere with oxygen flow to the lungs and blood.
 Nerve poisons act on the body's central nervous system by blocking nerve impulses that control
circulatory and respiratory systems.
 Chemical exposures involving corrosives, destroy or burn living tissue.
 Corrosives in contact with flammables can result in fire or explosion.
 Common acids include hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, and sulfuric acid.
 Acids can cause pain on contact.
 Bases break down fatty tissues and can penetrate deep into the body.
 Examples of bases include caustic soda, potassium hydroxide, and alkaline materials.
 A sign of exposure to a base is a greasy or slick feeling of the skin.
 General symptoms of external corrosive exposure include burning around eyes, nose, and mouth,
nausea, vomiting, difficulty breathing, swallowing, or coughing, and localized burning or skin
irritation.
 Simple asphyxiants are generally inert gases (acetylene, CO2, helium, hydrogen, nitrogen, methane,
ethane) that displace oxygen.
 Chemical asphyxiants, also called blood poisons (CO, hydrazine, benzene, toluene), prohibit the
body from using oxygen.
 Compounds such as carbon monoxide (CO) reacts more readily with blood, creating CO2 which is
transported to cells, causing oxygen starvation.
 Hydrazine is a compound that liberates hemoglobin from red blood cells which disables transport of
oxygen.
 Compounds such as benzene and toluene cause malfunction of the oxygen-carrying capability of red
blood cells.
 Examples of chemical asphyxiants include hydrogen cyanide, aniline, acetonitrile, and hydrogen
sulfide.
 Acetylene is classified as an aspyxiant.
 Radiation can cause somatic effects (to individuals) and genetic effects (to future generations).
 Internal radiation occurs when radioactive materials enter the body through respiration, ingestion, or
skin penetration.
 Severity of radiation injury depends on type of radiation, dose rate, body part exposed, and total dose
received.
 Radiation sickness is caused by exposure to large amounts of radiation and includes symptoms such
as nausea, vomiting, and malaise.
 Radiation injury occurs from high amounts of less-penetrating types of radiation with most common
symptoms being burns, usually to hands (from improper handling).
 Internal radiation can cause anemia or cancer..
 The most common cause of radiation poisoning is internal exposure from alpha particles.
 Radiation sickness, injury, and poisoning are NOT contagious.
 Victims can be contaminated with radioactive material but can NOT become radioactive themselves.
 Potential for radiation exposure can be found in facilities such as medical centers, industrial
operations, power plants, and research facilities.
 Standard firefighting PPE shields against Alpha and LOW-energy Beta radiation ONLY.
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Study Notes
Radiation Characteristics
Type
Make Up
Hazards
Shielding
Protective
Equipment
Regular PPE with
SCBA
Ingestion,
Alpha
Large mass, positive charge
Sheet of paper
inhalation
(particles)
Entrance through
1/7000th the size of alpha damaged skin,
Heavy plastic, wood,
Regular PPE with
Beta
particle,
negative
charge
inhalation,
thin
metal
SCBA
(particles)
ingestion
No charge, arises from
Somatic and
Very dense materials
PPE provides NO
X-Ray
complete atom
genetic effects
such as lead
protection
No charge, arises from
Somatic and
Very dense materials
PPE provides NO
Gamma
nucleus of an atom
genetic effects
such as lead
protection
Can cause release
No charge, highly
Distance and dense
PPE provides NO
of secondary
Neutrons
penetrating
materials
protection
radiation
 Gamma and X-ray radiation are the 2 most dangerous forms of radiation when uncontrolled.
 Uncontrolled radiation produces neutrons along with gamma radiation.
 Neutron radiation is difficult to measure in the field so it is estimated based on gamma
measurements.
 Neutron radiation is most likely encountered in research laboratories.
 Radiation protection strategies include time (shorter exposure time=smaller dose), distance (farther
from source=smaller dose), and shielding (lead, earth, concrete, etc.).
 Thickness of shielding used to protect against radiation should take into account the type of material,
type of radiation, and distance from source.
 Examples of diseases associated with etiological event include hepatitis, AIDS, tuberculosis, and
typhoid.
 Most etiological agents (diseases) are carried in bodily fluids.
 Irritants (toxins) primarily affect the respiratory system.
 Irritants give off vapors that attack mucous membranes such as eyes, nose, mouth, throat, and lungs
and can cause severe inflammation (usually temporary).
 Sensitizers and allergens cause an allergic reaction after repeated exposure (2nd exposure or later).
 Convulsants (strychnine, organophosphate, carbamates, picrotoxin) cause seizures along with a sense
of suffocation, dyspnea, and muscular rigidity.
 Convulsants can cause death from asphyxiation or exhaustion.
 Carcinogens, mutagens, and teratogens cause permanent, irreversible conditions.
 Carcinogens are cancer-causing agents such as polyvinyl chloride, asbestos, some chlorinated
hydrocarbons, arsenic, nickel, some pesticides, and many plastics.
 Mutagens (ie.-benzene, ethyl oxide) cause change in the genetic system of a cell and can be
transmitted during cell division (affecting offspring).
 Teratogens (ie.-ionizing radiation, ethyl alcohol, methyl mercury, thalidomide, dioxins, rubella)
cause congenital malformation of a developing fetus.
 Mutagens may be hereditary, teratogens are NOT.
 Hazardous materials may enter the body through inhalation, ingestion, injection, or absorption.
 Examples of inhalation hazards include vapors, gases, liquid aerosols, fumes, and suspended dusts.
 Eating, drinking, and smoking can provide a way for hazardous materials to enter the body.
 The process of taking in hazardous materials through the mouth by other than normal inhalation is
called ingestion.
 Tobacco, food, and drinks should be prohibited in a HazMat area.
 When hazardous materials enter the body through a puncture or stick (needle), the entry is termed
injection.
 When hazardous materials are taken into the body through the skin or eyes, it is termed absorption.
 Absorption can occur with eyes, neck, hands, groin, underarms, and breaks of the skin.
 Asbestos, mercury, silica, and heavy metals attack the body internally, but have NO external effect.
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Study Notes
Chlorine, sulfuric acid, anhydrous ammonia, and isopropyl alcohol affect the body internally and
externally.
General symptoms of HazMat exposure include: confusion, light-headedness, anxiety, dizziness,
blurred/double vision, coughing/painful respiration, skin color changes/blushing, tingling/numbness
of extremities, loss of coordination, nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramping, diarrhea, changes in
behavior/mannerisms, and unconsciousness.
Gases have neither independent shape nor volume and tend to expand indefintely.
Steam is the gaseous form of water, ice is the solid form of water.
Liquids have no independent shape but do have a specific volume.
Solids have a specific shape (without a container) and volume.
Solids pose the least amount of danger of any state of matter.
Principal dangers of HazMat include: health risks, flammability, and reactivity characteristics.
Nitric acid produces a colored vapor cloud.
Cyanides are colorless and odorless.
Never rely on sight, smell, touch, or taste to detect HazMat.
Threshold Limit Values (TLV) are established by the American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygenists (ACGIH) and are published in the Threshold Limit Value and Biological
Exposure Indices.
TLVs are adjusted on an annual basis.
TLV-TWAs are expressed in parts per million (ppm) and milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m3) with
lower numbers being more toxic.
TLV-TWAs are for use in the workplace and are not applicable to exposure in HazMat emergencies.
A TLV-STEL is an exposure that can be tolerated without suffering irritation or chronic/irreversible
tissue damage.
A TLV-STEL limit should NOT cause an individual to experience narcosis to a degree that causes
accidental injury, impairment of self-rescue, or reduction of worker efficiency.
The Threshold Limit Value/Ceiling (TLV-C) is the maximum concentration that should NEVER be
exceeded and workers must wear PPE including respiratory protection.
A PEL is the same as a TLV-TWA except that PELs are adopted by the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA) upon recommendation of ACGIH or the National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
The lower the Lethal Dose (LD) or Lethal Concentration (LC) number, the more toxic it is.
An atmospheric concentration of any toxic, corrosive, or asphyxiating substance that poses an
immediate threat to life is termed, Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health (IDLH).
Respiratory protection is required at IDLH levels.
The flammability of a material depends on flash point, autoignition, temperature, and flammable
(explosive) range.
Vital property information when dealing with flammables are specific gravity, vapor density, boiling
point, and water solubility.
The minimum temperature at which a liquid fuel gives off sufficient vapors to form an ignitable
mixture in air near its surface is termed Flash Point.
At the Flash Point temperature, vapors will "flash" (in the presence of ignition source) but will NOT
continue to burn.
Flammable liquids do not burn, the vapors they produce do.
Flammable gases have NO flash point because they are already in a gaseous state.
A Fire Point is usually slightly higher than the flash point and is the point at which enough vapors
are present to support continuous combustion.
Self-sustained combustion without the initiation of an independent ignition source is a substance's
Autoignition Temperature (usually significantly higher than the flash/fire points).
The percentage of the gas or vapor concentration in air that will burn if ignited is called Flammable
(explosive) Range.
Below the flammable range (also termed Lower Explosive Limit-LEL), the vapor concentration is
too lean to burn, meaning too little fuel and too much oxygen.
Above the flammable range (also termed Upper Explosive Limit-UEL), the vapor concentration is
too rich to burn, meaning too much fuel and too little oxygen.
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Study Notes
Ventilating concentrations above the UEL will cause an explosive mixture.
Specific gravity is the weight of a substance compared to the weight of an equal amount of water at a
given temperature.
Vapor density compares gases to the density of air.
The spread of vapors can NOT be predicted exactly from vapor density because other factors such as
topography, weather conditions, and vapor mixture in air must be taken into account.
Boiling Point is the temperature at which a substance rapidly changes from a liquid to a gas or when
the rate of evaporation exceeds the rate of condensation.
Below the Boiling Point, liquids change to a gas, slowly, through evaporation.
Vapor Pressure is when a gas in a closed container condenses at the same rate as evaporation.
Water Solubility (miscibility) is a liquid's ability to mix with water.
Diluting a flammable liquid with water that is miscible (soluble) in water can raise the flash point
and therefore be a method of control.
Polar solvents are water-soluble flammable liquids, while hydrocarbons are NON water-soluble
flammable liquids.
Hydrogen cyanide is produced when nitrogen-containing materials burn.
Hydrogen chloride is produced when polyvinyl chloride burns.
Acrolein, a potent irritant, is produced when polyethylene burns.
The ability to undergo chemical reaction with another substance is called Reactivity.
Examples of unstable materials that crystallize or deteriorate are picric acid, ether, dynamite, organic
peroxides, and nitroglycerin.
Hypergolic materials ignite when coming in contact with each other.
Hypergolic reactions involve mixing of a fuel and an oxidizer.
Liquid Oxygen (LOX) can violently react if spilled on asphalt, macadam, or blacktop.
Rocket fuel, which is a mixture of either nitric acid or nitrogen tetroxide with hydrazine, is an
extensively used hypergolic material.
Pyrophoric materials ignite on contact with air and are usually packed in inert substances or stored
under pressure in sealed containers.
Examples of pyrophoric materials include: white phosphorus, molten sodium, cesium, potassium,
aluminum alkyls, rubidium, powdered titanium, and powdered uranium.
Water-reactive materials, usually flammable solids, react in varying degrees when in contact with
water or humid air.
Lithium and finely divided magnesium are water-reactive materials that decompose into separate
hydrogen and oxygen (fuel/oxidizer) molecules when in contact with water, producing extreme
reactions.
Sodium and cesium react explosively when in contact with water.
Nonburning magnesium powder, potassium, and rubidium decomposes in water and can create
enough heat to ignite the hydrogen in water.
Water coming in contact with calcium carbide can produce acetylene gas (highly flammable).
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