Skill Acquisition
At many points in our lives we learn to do different things. In learning or
developing physical skills we progress through three stages of skill
development. Recognising what is peculiar to the cognitive, associative
and autonomous stages of skill development will help us to acquire the
motor skills more quickly and with greater effect.
It is important to consider each stage separately if the intention is to go
from a novice to an expert in the chosen skill.
Novice and expert performance
Student
task

Define the terms "novice" and "expert" in relation to a skilled
movement.
In this tutorial we describe the 3 stages of skill acquisition using
examples from the game of tennis. You will be asked to do tasks along
the way. Think of another sport or activity that you will use in completing
these tasks.
The cognitive stage
This is the first experience the learner has with a skill. At this stage the
learner needs one or two simple instructions to concentrate on and plenty
of demonstrations of the correct skill. Too much instruction causes the
learner frustration due to information overload. For example, in tennis,
what they need to do is concentrate on getting the body side on at impact
and keeping the racquet head parallel to the ground. Demonstrations give
the learner an overall view of the skill (the big picture) and this is very
important. Visual cues allow them to transfer what they are seeing into
what they want to do. This as well gives them a "mind's eye" to revert
back to and rehearse.
Most people do not stay in the cognitive stage for very long. To begin
with they make many errors and have few successes ( e.g. missing the
ball altogether followed by hitting the next one in the desired direction).
When the error count begins to drop and a more consistent shot is being
played, they have started to move into the associative stage.
Types of practice at the cognitive stage
Speed v accuracy - At the cognitive stage, performing skill with accuracy
is more important than trying to perform it quickly because the skill is
generally slowed down in order to be learnt. A slow accurate skill learnt
well can then be practiced at the correct speed.
Whole v part - A learner in the cognitive stage benefits more from seeing
the skill performed as a whole first, and then broken down into parts. The
part method allows more refined concentration on a particular aspect. For
example, parts of the tennis serve such as the ball toss, the take away, the
impact and follow through can be taught and practised separately once
the learner has seen the whole skill demonstrated.
Massed v distributed - Massed practice is when the same skill is practised
in one session. Distributed practice involves practising different aspects
(e.g. spending 10 minutes on serve, then 10 minutes on the forehand in
one practice session.). A distributed method is preferable for the novice
due to fatigue and boredom. Learners at this stage will tire easily because
of the extra effort they place on mastering the skill. They will also
become bored and frustrated with the repeated lack of success. This
creates a negative learning environment. Short sessions with plenty of
rest periods and variety are required.
Mental rehearsal - Already mentioned is the learner's need to think about
a good demonstration of the skill. This in itself is the beginnings of
mental rehearsal. This practice can be utilised throughout the learning
process. Learners at all stages should be encouraged to visualise
themselves performing the skill successfully.
Practice at the cognitive stage
 For the sport you have chosen, develop a suitable practice drill
which best reflects the needs of the learner at the cognitive stage
for each of the types of practice described above.
Feedback
Choices about which type of feedback is more important at different
stages involve deciding between:
- knowledge of results versus knowledge of performance feedback
- concurrent versus terminal feedback
- extrinsic versus intrinsic feedback.
Knowledge of results gives the individual immediate feedback at the end
of a skill. Seeing the ball go over the net tells learners that their
performance of the skill was correct and they begin to "feel" what this is
like. This is an important type of feedback for learners in the cognitive
stage.
Knowledge of performance relates to feedback about the patterns of
movement produced by the athlete. This may come from external sources
such as a teacher or a coach. Knowledge of performance is emphased in
later learning.
Concurrent v terminal feedback - Learners in the cognitive stage needs to
concentrate on the execution of the skill and not be distracted by a coach
or teacher during the performance. Terminal or delayed feedback (after
the skill) allows learners to think back about what they did right or
wrong. A practice swing can be implemented at which time this feedback
can be highlighted.
Extrinsic v intrinsic - In the cognitive stage, learners will experience
intrinsic feedback but will not be experienced enough to act upon the
information e.g.hitting the ball without timing, the sound of a miscued
shot. They will almost solely rely on extrinsic feedback given by a coach,
teacher, observer or video camera. This will result in instruction on how
to improve their performance.
Feedback at the cognitive stage
 For each of the different forms of feedback give an example which
is consistent with the cognitive stage of learning for your chosen
sport.
Associative stage
At the associative stage the learner has begun to grasp the nature of the
skill. Errors have become less frequent and the skill more refined. An
example of this is the person who can hit the tennis ball over the net but
not always with desired accuracy, speed or height. This is a progression
from large (gross) errors typical of the cognitive stage to smaller (fine)
errors typical of the associative stage. Another name for this level is the
practice stage because practice has now become integral to progressing to
the next level - the autonomous stage. The learner will typically
concentrate on correct procedures required to hit the tennis ball with
consistency: knees bent, correct grip, head still, body side on and smooth
movement of racquet head through impact.
Types of practice at the associative stage
Speed v accuracy - As the skill is improving, the practice can now assume
a greater blend of speed and accuracy. The individual uses tennis service
drills which attempt to land in the desired service square (accuracy) and
are approaching speeds typical of those seen at the level of the player.
Whole v part - The learner is more prone to want to practise the skill in
whole which is necessary in its development. The part method can still be
used to correct errors or to reinforce a particular aspect of a skill. For
example, practising the tennis serve using drills, the coach may notice an
error in the ball.The serve can then be broken down into parts, and the
ball toss practised as a part skill.
Massed v distributed - Massed practice may be useful in one lesson at this
stage to reinforce a particular skill (eg the backhand.) The coach may
concentrate on a number of drills over and over to improve the player's
backhand. Fatigue and boredom can still occur so it is useful to offer
distributed practice as well.
Mental rehearsal - As the skill becomes more familiar, players can now
refine their mental rehearsal. They can be trained to visualise the
execution of the skill more accurately. This is possible because they have
now experienced what they consider is a perfect shot. They can remember
the feel of hitting the ball, the sound it made and the coordination of the
body parts.
Practice at the associative stage
 For the sport that you have chosen, develop a suitable drill which
best reflects the needs of the learner at the associative stage for
each type of practice.
Feedback at the associative stage
Knowledge of performance feedback becomes more important at this
stage than knowledge of results. Learners are still struggling to
understand why they are making mistakes and require advice about how
they executed the skill, but know they have a better kinaesthetic sense of
what the performance should feel like.
Concurrent v terminal - The nature of the skill still has a big influence on
when feedback occurs. Learners are beginning to pick up particular cues
on their performance. There is still some reliance on terminal feedback
such as coaches or teachers however, concurrent feedback is becoming
more important as the learner becomes more skilled.
Extrinsic v intrinsic - Learners have now begun to understand internal
cues they receive whilst performing a skill. They can feel a lack of
balance when hitting a ball out and consequently can use this to remind
themselves to bend their knees more on the next shot. The intrinsic
feedback can be expressed to the coach, who can then provide advice
(extrinsic feedback) as to why they felt that way.
Feedback at the associative stage
 For each of the different forms of feedback give an example which
is consistent with the associative stage of learning related to your
chosen sport.
The autonomous stage
The autonomous stage is the highest level of skill acquisition and is
characterised by consistent achievement of desired results. It is called
"autonomous" because the player can perform the skill without
consciously thinking about the processes needed in order to gain the
result. Players at this stage will make highly specific and refined errors.
These errors are now not only restricted to skill execution but also to shot
selection, player tactics and responses to environmental factors. An
example of this is playing a top spin forehand rather than a flat forehand
when the opposing player was out of position is an error more typical of
this stage. Players at this stage are looking to maximise their skill
execution in game situations.
Types of practice at the autonomous stage
Speed v accuracy - Players are now looking to play shots with the highest
degree of accuracy at the most optimum speed. Practice at this stage will
resemble many different game situations e.g. using a ball machine to eject
balls at a higher speed than normal.
Whole v part - At this stage, players will concentrate on practising the
whole skill. On occasion the part method will be used in order to work on
a very specific part of a skill or any error that has been identified in skill
performance. The part method is still necessary because the skill has
become so automated and breaking it down is the only way to rectify an
error.
Massed v distributed - Practice of the massed type now becomes
beneficial because of the fatigue factor. Players have the necessary skill
and may, during the course of competition, be required to execute these
skills in a fatigued state. The more familiar they are with this state and
understand its constraints the better they can perform.
Mental rehearsal - Players will now be trying to mentally rehearse every
aspect of their game perfectly. Mentally they will be able to feel the fur
on the tennis balls, see the sun in their eyes when serving from one end
and hear the crowd. Mental rehearsal is one of the major factors which
can set players apart at this highest level of skill execution.
Practice at the autonomous stage
 For each of the types of practice, develop a suitable drill which
best reflects the needs of the player at the autonomous stage in
relation to your chosen sport.
Feedback at the autonomous stage
Performance v results - Players now becomes aware that better execution
(knowledge of performance) leads to better results. They will enlist the
aid of high quality coaches and frame by frame video analysis
(augmented feedback) of their performance in order to improve the
execution. Knowledge of performance therefore becomes very important
at this stage.
Concurrent v terminal - At this stage, players have a good understanding
of their skill levels and are able to use concurrent feedback themselves.
For example, when serving, the player may throw the ball slightly askew
of normal and so will adjust their swing based on visual, concurrent
feedback enabling successful contact with the ball.
Extrinsic v intrinsic - In the autonomous stage players rely mostly on
intrinsic feedback. They are aware of what feels right or wrong and where
adjustments need be made. They are capable of better spatial coordination
so that even unbalanced adjustments can be made to affect the required
shot.
Feedback at the autonomous stage
 For each of the different forms of feedback give an example which
is consistent with the autonomous stage of learning related to your
chosen sport.