A GIS Analysis of Marine Debris in the North Pacific Gyre and Occurrence of Plastic
Debris in the Stomachs of Longnose Lancetfish (Alepisaurus ferox)
Lesley Jantz
M.S. Plan B Thesis Proposal
Advisor: Dr. Greg Bruland
Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Management
Abstract:
Marine debris is collected, distributed and deposited by the currents and drifts of the North
Pacific gyre. Debris, composed mainly of plastics and derelict fishing gear, accumulates in the
North Pacific Subtropical Convergence Zone, a region near the Hawaiian Archipelago, where
winds and currents diminish. This plastic debris is slow to decay and has become a persistent
threat to the marine biota. Consequently, the degradation of these marine ecosystems in the
Pacific is widespread and impacts all trophic levels. This project proposes to (1) analyze spatial
and temporal variability of marine debris in relation to positional data for endangered sea turtles
and protected seabirds; (2) investigate the association of marine debris and the surface
chlorophyll concentrations; (3) examine the stomach contents of longnose lancetfish
(Alepisaurus ferox) for presence of plastic debris; (4) quantify plastic in the longnose lancetfish
gut contents and; (5) investigate relationships between weight and length of longnose lancetfish
and their plastic content. Positional data and fish specimens will be collected by the National
Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Fishery Observer Program. Airborne
Technologies will provide positional data on marine debris tagged with transmitters and surface
chlorophyll concentrations will be downloaded from the NOAA website Ocean Watch, Bloom
Watch 180. The longnose lancetfish sampling will involve fishery observers to systematically
sample every third lancetfish captured on the longline. Each fish will be measured and weighed
before stomach contents are removed and inspected. A pilot study will be underway in May to
evaluate the efficiency of the sampling design and analysis. To achieve optimal variability, I
will sample 20 to 30 trips from May 2010 to December 2010. The following hypotheses will be
tested: (1) the marine debris will exhibit overlap in space and time with the positional data of
recorded sea turtle and seabird longline fishing interactions. Marine debris will be associated
with a chlorophyll front (a zone between waters of extreme surface chlorophyll concentrations);
(2) plastic will be present in the stomachs of the longnose lancetfish sampled; (3) longnose
lancetfish longer in length and greater in weight will have more plastic present in their stomachs
than shorter and smaller fish.
Introduction:
The aggregation of marine debris in the North Pacific gyre has been estimated to be the size
of Texas. It has been vividly described as the Pacific trash vortex, a swirling sewer in the North
Pacific, a garbage patch and a plastic soup (Moore, 2003). Marine debris is a problem of global
significance that affects oceans, coastlines, beaches and seafloors at all depths (Williams et al.,
2005). According to Coe and Rogers, “marine debris is any manufactured or processed solid
waste material (typically inert) that enters the marine environment from any source” (1997).
Atmospheric, oceanographic and cosmic influences in concurrence with geostrophic currents of
the North Pacific gyre generate a mechanism that accumulates and transfers marine debris from
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the greater North Pacific and the coastlines of North America and Japan (Kubota 1994). Within
the gyre, an area of convergence with high atmospheric pressure forces debris to accrue and
multiply in quantity (Moore et al. 2001).
Early on, the threat of marine debris as a potential hazard was considered trivial due to the
perceived abundance of marine life and vastness of the oceans (Laist 1987). It was not until the
1970’s, that plastic was perceived as a widespread marine pollutant or recognized as a threat to
marine species (Azzarello and Van Vleet 1987). Increased knowledge of the mechanical effects
debris has on marine life justifies recognition of marine debris as a significant form of ocean
pollution (Laist 1987). Marine animals can become entangled in openings or loops of drifting
debris and ingest fragments of man-made materials. Once ingested, plastic debris may block the
digestive tract or remain in the stomach and reduce the drive to forage, cause ulcerations to the
stomach lining and become a source of toxic chemicals (Day et al. 1985). Any animal weakened
by loss of nutrients or toxic inputs become susceptible to predators and disease.
Hoss and Settle explain, “For marine fishes, the ingestion of plastic debris and its subsequent
effect is not well documented, but it is assumed that they, like other marine animals, will be
unable to distinguish between normal prey and small pieces of plastics.” Most literature that
describes plastic found in the stomach of fish is incidental to the main objective of the study. For
example, in a food habit study of longnose lancetfish by Kubota and Uyeno (1969), 78 pieces of
plastic and rubber were found in the stomachs of 36 specimens. Jackson et al. (2000) studied the
diet of the southern opah (Lampri immaculatus) and discovered a high occurrence of plastic in
the stomachs of 10 specimens, 14% of the total of stomachs analyzed. In a comparative food
study of yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) and blackfin tuna (T. atlanticus), Manooch and
Mason (1983), found a 31.6% frequency of non-food items (plants, feathers, lobs of tar and
plastics) in the stomachs of yellowfin tuna compared to 15.7% in blackfin tuna.
The stomach analysis component of my research will help to fill a void in research on the
incidental ingestion of plastics by marine fish. This analysis will create baseline data on the
occurrence of plastic in stomachs of pelagic fish, specifically longnose lancetfish. This study
may serve as a basis for future research on the affects of ingested debris; blocking and damage to
the digestive tract and depending on its chemical composition, toxic effects, bioaccumulation and
biomagnification. This study will assist resource managers in their exploration of marine debris
and the extensive consequences.
The Hawaii longline deep-set fishery is an ideal source for the collection of longnose
lancetfish for stomach analysis. The fishing grounds are vast, covering 15 million km2 of the
Central North Pacific. Although, the deep-set fishery targets bigeye tuna (Thunnus obeseus),
non-target species also referred to as by-catch, are captured and discarded or kept and sold.
Longnose lancetfish are frequently encountered by-catch, generally discarded and only
occasionally consumed on the vessel but not sold at the auction.
Literature Review:
Plastics- Plastics are synthetic, petroleum based, organic polymers that have made a steadfast
hold in our society based on their ability to resist bacterial and oxidative decay (Moore 2003). It
is these properties that make plastic so desirable as well as a menace when they become a
component of marine debris. Plastics are problematic because they float, are non-biodegradable,
and only breakdown upon exposure to ultraviolet radiation. Photodegradation is a slow process
that begins with surficial cracking and embrittlement of plastic into fragmented remains
(Williams et al. 2005). Studies have shown that the rates of degradation and weathering of
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plastics are less when floating in the marine environment (Williams et al. 2005). Although, some
plastics are being treated with additives to enhance photosensitive degradability upon ultraviolet
exposure, this effort may be easily discounted due to an increase of plastic production and
discards (Azzarello and Van Vleet 1987). When plastics finally do degrade, the fragmented
pieces may potentially absorb toxic chemicals, disperse into the water column and may be
ingested by jellyfish and salps possibly transmitting toxins throughout the food web (Moore
2003).
Production of plastic resin in the United States has dramatically increased since the 1960’s
from 2.9 million tons to 21.7 million tons in 1985 (Pruter 1987). Polyethylene, polystyrene,
polyvinyl chloride and polypropylene are the most common types of plastic marine debris
(Pruter 1987). Examples of plastic pollutants collected in the North Pacific subtropical gyre
includes: lighters, bottle caps, cups, bags, plastic sheets (Fig. 1a) and pre-production plastic
pellets. The pre-production pellets, which resemble small cylindrical disk shapes less than 4mm
in size, are the bulk material used to formulate plastic materials (Azzarello and Van Vleet 1987).
In general, plastic marine pollution can be characterized as packaging material, convenience
items and raw plastics. Sources of these plastics are attributed to ship generated litter, debris in
rivers and city drainage systems and trash left behind by beachgoers (Derraik 2002).
Derelict Fishing Gear- Donohue et al. explains, “Characterized by distinct bathymetry,
relative geography, and critical habitat for endangered species, debris having maritime origins
may pose the greatest threat to ecosystem health” (2001). Maritime debris may consist of trawl,
seine, cargo and gill nets constructed of monofilament and multifilament as well as longline
monofilament and hawser. These nets vary in stretch mesh, twine diameter, number of strands
and types of construction such as: twisted knotted, twisted-knotless, braided knotted, braided
knotless and double-stranded (Timmers et al. 2005).
The use of synthetic materials initiated a major revolution in the fishing industry.
Twine originally used to fabricate netting consisted of natural fibers such as cotton, flax, linen,
manila, sisal and hemp have been replaced by synthetic materials like polypropylene,
polyethylene and nylon (Timmers, et al. 2005). Nets constructed of synthetic material eventually
loose their strength; however they do not rot like materials of natural fiber (Uchida 1985). In
1949, the Japanese were the first fisherman to incorporate synthetic fibers into the construction
of gill and surrounding nets (Uchida 1985). Fifteen years later, synthetic fiber nets accounted for
100% of all netting material manufactured in Japan (Uchida 1985).
Derelict fishing gear (DFG) is intentionally discarded or unintentionally lost due to storms or
active fishing activities (Ingraham and Ebbesmeyer 2001). This accumulation of derelict fishing
gear is attributed to the trawl, gillnet, and seine fisheries of the greater North Pacific Ocean.
Potential sources of derelict trawl gear (Fig. 1b) include: domestic and foreign fishing in the Gulf
of Alaska, Bering Sea, the western coast of North America, Japanese, Russian, Chinese, Korean
and Taiwanese waters (Donohue et al. 2001). Potential sources for monofilament gillnet include:
California, Oregon and Mexico driftnet fisheries (Donohue et al. 2001).
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Figure 1a. Plastic tarp retrieved from
the ocean on to a longline vessel.
Figure 1b. Derelict fishing gear hauled
aboard a longline vessel.
North Pacific Gyre- Ocean currents are a directed movement of atmospheric, oceanographic
and cosmic influences: wind, temperature, salinity, the rotation of the earth and the cycle of the
moon (Gradwohl and Feldman 2009). The horizontal movements of ocean surface waters mirror
the wind circulation of the atmosphere. Large scale, elliptical current systems stretching from
east to west are called gyres. There are four large currents in the Pacific Ocean: North Pacific,
California, North Equatorial and Kuroshio (Fig. 2). These currents move in a clockwise
direction and create the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre.
Within in the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre, is the North Pacific Transition Zone (TZ).
This TZ is located between the subtropical gyre with an estimated surface chlorophyll
concentration of <0.15 mg m-3 and the subarctic gyre with an estimated surface chlorophyll
concentration >0.25 mg m-3 (Pollovina et al. 2001). Separating the two gyres is a sharp
chlorophyll front that shifts seasonally from 30N in the winter to 45N in the summer
(Pollovina et al. 2001). The zone between the two chlorophyll extremes is referred to as the
Transition Zone Chlorophyll Front (TZCF) (Polovina et al. 2001). The Subtropical Convergence
Zone (STCZ) is the boundary between the nutrient-rich waters in the northern TZ and the
nutrient-poor waters in the southern olgiotrophic zone (Pichel et al. 2007). The location of the
Transition Zone and the associated Subtropical Convergence Zone has spatial and temporal
variations that are more obvious during El Niño years (Donohue and Foley 2007).
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Figure 2. Location of the Hawaiian Archipelago relative to the
main Pacific Ocean currents and the North Pacific Subtropical Convergence
Zone.
Marine Debris Accumulation- The accumulation mechanism for marine debris in the North
Pacific gyre can be divided into three steps: the convergence of floating matter in the mid
latitudes due to Ekman transport, the transport of this mater from western Pacific to the eastern
Pacific due to the North Pacific current, and the accumulation of debris north of Hawaii due to
the Ekman convergence in relation to the Subtropical Transition Zone (Kubota 1994). The
STCZ is known has the “horse latitudes,” a region of variable to low wind stress avoided by
sailors due to the lack of wind necessary to sail (Moore 2003). Marine debris may reside in this
area for extended periods because of the weak Ekman drifts and weak geostrophic currents
(Kubota 1994).
NOAA Marine Debris Program- To research and mitigate the accumulation of marine debris
and monitor debris behavior, the NOAA Marine Debris Program (MDP) was established in 2006
with a primary mission of identifying, reducing, and preventing debris from entering into the
marine environment (NOAA MDP, 2009). Debris management programs within NOAA began
to surface in the mid 1980’s with the Marine Entanglement Research Program. The MDP was
not officially launched until 2005 and legally established by President Bush in 2006 under the
Research, Prevention and Reduction Act (NOAA MDP, 2009). The NOAA MDP program
utilizes an ecosystem-based approach and co-chairs with the EPA on the Marine Debris
Coordinating Committee (MDCC). The MDCC is an interagency collaboration of federal and
state agencies tasked with developing multi-disciplinary strategies to reduce sources and impacts
of marine debris. The strategic goals of the NOAA MDP include: mapping debris, assessing
debris impacts, removing and disposing debris and increasing public awareness of marine debris
in the marine environment (NOAA MDP, 2009).
Sea turtles- Turtles such as the Loggerhead sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), migrate great
distances during their lives in the oceans from the shores of Australia and Japan to their foraging
habitat in the eastern Pacific (Polovina et al. 2000). During this migration the probability of an
encounter with marine debris is likely especially when these turtles seem to be attracted to
similar gyres known to transport marine debris near the Hawaiian archipelago. In 1997 and
1998, nine loggerhead sea turtles were tagged with satellite telemetry by NOAA observers in the
central North Pacific and paired with satellite remote sensing data for environmental parameters
(Polovina et al. 2000). The turtles were tracked travelling against prevailing currents along two
convergent fronts within the North Pacific Transition Zone, located between the subtropical gyre
in the south and the subarctic gyre in the north (Polovina et al. 2000). These turtles are attracted
to these waters due to the large amount of preferred prey.
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Figure 3. Green sea turtle (chelonian
mydas) entangled in DFG. Photo
courtesy of Greg Schorr, NOAA,
CRED.
Figure 4. Hawksbill sea turtle (Eretmochelys
imbricata) shell remains in DFG. Photo
courtesy of Heath Larner, NOAA observer.
Unfortunately, turtles foraging for food may ingest floating plastic mistaking it for buoyant prey
such as the jellyfish. A necropsy of an adult Leatherback sea turtle incidentally killed by a
swordfish longline off Terceira Island in the Azores, revealed six pieces of soft plastic together
with a hard plastic belt and small plastic cap in the anterior part of the intestine (Barreiros and
Barcelos 2001). Although, this turtle was in good health and the plastic did not cause any
apparent harm, had it lived longer the plastic may have caused sever ulcerate processes and
possibly tissue necrosis (Barreiros and Barcelos 2001). According to Balaz, even if the plastic
debris does not cause mechanical blockage the turtle is still adversely affected due to loss of
nutrients, and absorption of toxic plasticizers (1985). Turtles are also likely to become entangled
in marine debris, which may prohibit normal feeding, diving, breathing or other basic behaviors
(Balaz 1985). Netting or line that is constricting may even create lesions on the animal and
constrict blood flow to limbs resulting in necrosis (Balaz 1985).
Seabirds- Like sea turtles, seabirds tend to mistake plastic debris as food. The type of
foraging behavior and characteristics of prey play a key role in the amount of plastic ingested for
particular species (Laist 1987). Bird species in the order, Procellariiforms, such as the blackfooted albatross (Phoebastria nigripes) and laysan albatross (P. immutabilis), who forage by
surface-seizing or pursuit–diving and primarily feed on crustacean and cephalopods, have the
highest tendencies to ingest plastic (Day at el. 1985). In a study in Alaska on stomach contents
of seabirds, 85% of the plastics ingested were small in size and of the light brown color range
and 8% were in the light pastel range (Day 1980). The size and color of these plastic items are
similar to fish eggs and larvae, common prey of seabirds. The small pieces of plastics found in
the gizzard of seabirds in several studies appear to be raw polyethylene pellets, from plastic
production plants and small fragments from disintegrating plastic of maritime or terrestrial origin
(Laist 1987).Plastic debris collected by adult seabirds and fed to their chicks may not be a direct
cause of death but may affect health during the nesting period and survival after fledging (Sievert
and Sileo 1993).
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Figure 5. Shearwaters (Puffinus
spp.) entangled in netting, retrieved
by NOAA Observer.
Figure 6. Stomach contents of
an albatross, NOAA, MDP.
Once ingested, plastic debris may block the digestive tract or remain in the stomach (Fig. 6) and
reduce the drive to forage, cause ulcerations to the stomach lining and become a source of toxic
chemicals (Day et al 1985). Mistaken for prey, ingested plastics can block digestive tracts, tear
stomach linings and lessen the feeding drive (Laist 1987). Any animal weakened by loss of
nutrients or toxic inputs become susceptible to predators and disease. Seabirds are also
vulnerable to entanglement in marine debris (Fig. 5). Seabirds that dive for food are at risk of
drowning in set nets found near the surface or in shallow water (Taylor 1992). Ghost nets, in
particular, are prone to seabird entanglement due to their attraction of seabirds from the large
amount of fish visibly entangled in these floating nets.
Figure 7. Longnose Lancetfish
Figure 8. Plastic debris found in
the stomach of longnose lancetfish
Pelagic fish- Studies of pelagic fish and plastic debris ingestion are sparse. The adverse
affects of debris ingestion are suspected to be similar to those of seabirds and sea turtles. Large
amounts of plastic ingestion may block the digestive tract and reduce the feeding drive (Hoss and
Settle 1990). Specific types and sizes of plastic may hinder digestion. Jackson et al. (2000),
found that some ingested prey found in an opah stomach which were surrounded by plastic, were
hard, dried and undigested. The types of ingested plastic found in 14% of opah studied included
food-associated packaging, cigarette box wrapping, plastic strips, and plastic sheets (Jackson et
al. 2000).
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Foraging behaviors and characteristics of prey may attribute to a fishes incidental ingestion
of plastic debris. I chose to study the presence of plastics in the stomach contents of longnose
lancetfish (Fig. 7) because of their morphology and feeding behavior. The longnose lancetfish
has an elongate (anguilliform) body with flabby, watery muscles, which suggest its inability to
swim at high cruising speed for extended lengths of time (Romanov and Zamorov 2002).
Muscle tissue consisting of mostly white muscle responsible for short-term bursts, a high dorsal
fin and the large area of the caudal fin implicate the maneuverability of longnose lancetfish to
swim and forage for short distances (Romanov and Zamorov 2002). The morphology of the
longnose lancetfish is favorable to ambush predator hunting tactics. This type of foraging is
energy cost efficient compared to an active chase of prey.
Common prey items found in the stomachs of longnose lancetfish are slow swimming
species and passive drifters (Romanov and Zamorov 2002). Kubota and Uyteno found in their
food habit study of longnose lancetfish, a lack of food selection due to the various types of prey
that inhabit the surface, middle, and bottom ocean layers, evidence of vertical migration (1970).
The wide variation of sizes, textures, colors, and shapes of stomach contents (Fig. 8) demonstrate
the absence of selectivity and resemble an opportunistic feeding behavior (Kubota and Uyeno
1970).
Objectives and Hypotheses:
The main objectives of this research are as follows:
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Analyze the temporal and spatial variability of marine debris in proximity to positional
data for longline fishing interactions with protected seabirds and endangered sea turtles in
the Central North Pacific. Explore the correlation of marine debris and the surface
chlorophyll concentrations in the North Pacific gyre.
2
Examine whether longnose lancetfish captured in the Hawaii longline fishery have
plastics present in their stomachs. If plastic is present, quantify how much plastic is
present and identify prey items found with plastic debris in the stomach.
3
Investigate weight and length relationships with fish found to have plastic present.
This research will also involve testing the following 3 hypotheses:
(1) Marine debris will be correlated with a chlorophyll front (a zone between waters
of extreme surface chlorophyll concentrations) due to the variable low winds,
weak drifts and diminishing currents associated with this zone, responsible for
collecting debris. Marine debris will exhibit overlap in space and time with the
positional data on sea turtle and seabird interactions given the established
background data on nutrient-rich waters associated with chlorophyll fronts.
(2) Plastic will be present in the stomachs of the longnose lancetfish sampled due to
due to their ambush-rushing type of hunting, opportunistic selection of slow
moving prey and abundance of marine debris in this region.
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(3) Longnose lancetfish longer in length and greater in weight will have more plastic
present in their stomachs than shorter, smaller longnose lancetfish as the larger
the lancetfish become, the more plastic they will consume in their feeding
activities.
Materials and Methods:
GIS analysis: Positional data of seabird and sea turtle interactions, from 2006 to the present, will
be obtained from the Pacific Islands Regional Observer Program (PIROP), Longline Observer
Data System (LODS). An interaction constitutes an event during a longline fishing operation in
which a seabird or sea turtle is incidentally hooked or entangled. Observers use a global
positioning system (GPS) to record the interaction position and time. Upon completion of each
trip, the observer reports to the PIROP office and enters this data into LODS. Laysan and blackfooted albatross and shearwater species are common seabirds incidentally interacting with the
Hawaii longline deep and shallow set fishery. Commonly encountered sea turtles include;
Loggerhead, Leatherback, Green and Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) sea turtles.
In support of the MDP, in 2006, PIROP began recording coordinates of marine debris
interactions and sightings. The observers are tasked, outside traditional protocols, to document
positional data of marine debris sightings or interactions. A sighting is a visual observation of
floating debris at sea while an interaction constitutes retrieval of debris by the vessel or the
unfortunate entanglement of the debris in the vessel’s propeller.
Ghost nets and aggregated debris were tagged by the Oceanographic Research Vessel Alguita
with transmitters from Tim Vennstra with Airborne Technologies, Inc. Positional data from this
debris will be downloaded from the Airborne Technologies, Inc. database website. Surface
chlorophyll concentrations will be downloaded from the NOAA website Ocean Watch, Bloom
Watch 180. The NOAA satellites record surface currents, wind currents, sea surface
temperatures, and chlorophyll densities.
Fish Sampling: Selected observers from the NOAA PIROP will collect the stomach samples.
The Magnuson Stevenson’s Act mandates the observer program to provide 20% coverage on
deep-set tuna directed vessels. Observed trips are selected using two sampling schemes. These
schemes allow for flexibility necessary for varying coverage levels due to the fleets’ activity
level, the demands of the 100% shallow set coverage requirement, and an influx of observers
after completion of observer training (McCracken 2010). The two sampling schemes try to
obtain a probability sample while being cost effective.
Before departing, each fishing vessel is required to call in to the observer contractor,
Saltwater Inc., within 72 hours of their intended departure date to request clearance. Saltwater
Inc. retrieves the calls from an answering machine and numbers each call sequentially in the
order it is received. Based on a systematic sample of call numbers drawn by Marti McCracken,
Ph.D., Mathematical Statistician at the NOAA PIFSC, trips associated with these selected call
numbers are designated to be sampled and carry an observer. If an observer was not available to
depart on a selected trip, additional trips needed to reach the 20% target were selected using a
secondary sampling scheme. The secondary sampling scheme allows for vessels to be selected
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with equal probability from calls received that day that had not already been selected
(McCracken 2010).
The nature of longline fishing is haphazard, but to ensure randomness and control the number
of specimens collected, I will request the observers to systematically sample every third
lancetfish. To ensure the efficiency and applicability of this sampling design and lab analysis, I
will begin a pilot study in May 20
Stomach Content Analysis: Each fish collected will have a fork length measurement in
centimeters. The observers will collect the whole fish in a bag labeled with a specimen
description including species name, trip number, set and line number. These bags will be stored
in the vessel’s bait freezer or if not applicable, the vessel’s ice hold. The data on the specimen
tag will be linked to set environment information relating each specimen to begin haul
coordinates.
When the vessel returns to Honolulu, the samples will be collected and stored in available
freezers until stomach analysis can be done. Prior to analysis, stomach specimens will be
defrosted and weighed to the nearest gram. The stomachs will be sliced open carefully not to
damage any prey items. To be sure all contents are accounted for; internal stomach folds will be
rinsed with water to dislodge any items wedged between the folds. Once the stomach is emptied,
it will be weighed again to determine the total weight of all contents.
If plastic debris is present, all stomach contents will be indentified to species, to the lowest
taxon possible. In addition, a sub-sample of prey items in stomach contents lacking plastic
debris will be identified. Prey items and plastic debris will be weighed and categorized by phase
of digestion.
Statistical Analysis: Weight, length, presence of plastic and associated prey items of each
longnose lancetfish sampled will be recorded in both a hardcopy format and in Microsoft Excel.
I will use a t-test to analyze the presence or absence of plastic and the relationship between
length and weight of longnose lancetfish and the amount of plastic present will be tested using a
variety of regression methods (linear, nonlinear). I will be attending a Wildlife Management
Techniques course in the fall in which I intend to learn more rigorous statistical analysis
applicable to my study.
Expected Outcomes:
A study by Polovina et al., tracked sea turtles tagged with transmitters traveling along two
convergent fronts within the North Pacific Transition Zone. This zone, recognized as a
biological hot spot, attracts not only sea turtles, but also seabirds and marine fish (Polovina et al.
2001). The Subtropical Convergence Zone, positioned between this nutrient rich zone and a
nutrient-poor zone to the south, accrues marine debris due to variable low wind stress, weak
Ekman drifts and weak geostrophic currents (Kubota 1994). Given the established background
data, I hypothesize that the GIS analysis will exhibit the relation of surface chlorophyll
concentrations with marine debris and the propinquity of this debris with protected species and
marine fishes, validating the potential threat of increased entanglements and debris ingestion.
Although ingestion of debris by marine fishes is not well documented, it is assumed that fish
may not be able to distinguish between plastics and their normal prey (Hoss and Settle 1990).
Limited literature regarding marine fish and debris ingestion, albeit supplemental data for food
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habit studies, describes the different types and amounts of plastic debris discovered. I
hypothesize a high occurrence of incidental ingestion of plastic by longnose lancetfish I believe
longnose lancetfish may not have time to accurately identify their prey before ambush and
because plastic moves slowly on the surface and throughout the water column, it may be an easy
misidentified target. I expect to find the following prey items in the stomach contents:
crustaceans (Hyperiidea), fish (Sternoptyx, Alepisaurus, Paralepis, Omosudis) and cephalopods
(Onychoteuthis, Heteroteuthis, Loligo, Octopoteuthis, Chiroteuthis, Octopoda, and Argonauta
sp.) (Romanov and Zamorov 2007).
Upon completion of my sampling, I intend to have over 20 longline trips with hundreds of
fish sampled accompanied with weight and length measurements. Due to the fragile nature of the
longnose lancetfish, all fish sampled may not be collected whole, thus lacking accurate
measurements. I have queried the LODS database and found that over the past six months, 432
longline trips were observed and over 16,000 longnose lancetfish were measured with an
attainable fork length. I anticipate collecting an average of 12 longnose lancetfish with
attainable measurements for each trip.
Proposed Thesis Outline:
Chapter 1: Introduction, Literature Review and Objectives
Chapter 2: GIS Analysis of Marine Debris, Chlorophyll, Sea Turtle and Seabird
Distributions
Chapter 3: Longnose lancetfish Stomach Content Analysis
Chapter 4: Conclusions
Literature Cited:
Azzarello, M.Y., Van Vleet, E.S. (1987) Marine birds and plastic pollution. Marine
Ecology 37, 295-303.
Balaz, George H. (1985) Impact of Ocean Debris on Marine Turtles: Entanglement and
Ingestion. In Proceedings of the Workshop on the Fate and Impact of Marine Debris,
1984, ed. R.S. Shomura and H.O. Yoshida, pp. 387-425, US Department of
Commerce, NOAA Technical Memorandum, NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-154.
Barreiros, J.P. and Barcelos, J. (2001) Plastic Ingestion by a Leatherback Turtle
Dermochelys coriacea from the Azpres (NE Atlantic). Marine Pollution Bulletin 42,
1196-1197.
Boland, R. C. and Donohue, M. (2003) Marine debris accumulation in the nearshore
marine habitat of the endangered Hawaiian monk seal, Monachus schauinslandi
1999-2001. Marine Pollution Bulletin 46, 1385-1394.
Coe, J.M., and Rogers, D.B., (eds.), (1997). Marine Debris: Sources, Impacts and
Solutions. New York: Springer-Verlag.
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Day, R.H. (1980). The occurrence and characteristics of plastic pollution in Alaska’s
marine birds. M.S. thesis, University of Alaska.
Day, R.H., Wehle, D.H.S., Coleman, F.C. (1985) Ingestion of plastic pollutants by
marine birds. In Proceedings of the Workshop on the Fate and Impact of Marine
Debris,1984, ed. R.S. Shomura and H.O. Yoshida, pp. 387-425, US Department of
Commerce, NOAA Technical Memorandum, NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-154.
Derraik, J.G.B. (2002) The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a
review. Maine Pollution Bulletin 44, 842-852.
Donohue, M.J., Boland, R.C., Sramek, C.M., Antonelis, G.A. (2001) Derelict Fishing
Gear in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands: Diving Surveys and Debris Removal in
1999 Confirm Threat to Coral Reef Ecosystems. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42, 13011312.
Donohue, M. and Foley, D.G. (2007) Remote Sensing Reveals Links Among the
Endangered Hawaiian Monk Seal, Marine Debris, and El Nino. Marine Mammal
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