Chapter Summary/Lecture Organizer
I.
STUDYING PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
A. Identifying Abnormal Behavior – Five common myths about mental illness introduce the
study of abnormal behavior. Abnormal behavior is identified as patterns of emotion,
thought, and action considered pathological for one or more of the following criteria:
statistical infrequency, disability or dysfunction, personal distress, or violation of
norms.(Process Diagram 14.1) The limitations of each criteria are reviewed.
Gender and Cultural Diversity: Avoiding Ethnocentrism - Culture-bound disorders
(such as "windigo psychosis") are unique and found only in specific cultures. This section
compares several culture-bound and culture-general disorders.
B. Explaining Abnormality - The belief that demons cause abnormal behavior was common in
ancient times. The medical model, which emphasizes disease and illness, replaced this
demonological model. During the Middle Ages, demonology returned and exorcisms were
used to treat abnormal behavior. Asylums began to appear toward the close of the Middle Ages
as Pinel’s medical model gave rise to the modern specialty of psychiatry.
One out-spoken critic of the medical model, Thomas Szasz, views mental illness as a myth
which encourages people to believe that they have no responsibility for their actions. Abnormal
behavior is explained using seven psychological perspectives, which emphasize unconscious
conflicts, inappropriate learning, faulty cognitive processes, and negative self-concepts in the
development of abnormal behavior. Modern biological theories emphasize physiological
causes for problem behaviors. (Concept Diagram 14.1)
C. Classifying Abnormal Behavior - The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM-IV-TR) categorizes disorders and provides detailed descriptions useful for
communication among professionals. The current DSM-IV-TR is organized according to five
major dimensions, called axes, which are guidelines for making decisions about symptoms and
over 200 diagnostic categories grouped into 17 subcategories. The term insanity is a legal term
applied when people can not be held responsible for their actions or is incompetent to handle
his or her affairs due to mental illness. Although the DSM offers a comprehensive system
intended for the diagnosis and classification of psychological disorders, it has been criticized
for possible cultural bias and for continuing to support the medical model.
II.
ANXIETY DISORDER
A. Five Major Anxiety Disorders - People with anxiety disorders have persistent feelings of
threat that are unreasonable and often paralyzing. In generalized anxiety disorders (GAD),
there is a persistent free-floating anxiety. In panic disorder, fear or discomfort arises abruptly
and peaks in 10 minutes or less. Phobias are exaggerated fears of specific objects or situations,
such as agoraphobia, a fear of being in open spaces. In obsessive-compulsive disorder,
persistent anxiety-arousing thoughts (obsessions) are relieved by ritualistic actions
(compulsions) such as hand-washing. In posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a person who
has experienced an overwhelming trauma, such as rape, has recurrent maladaptive emotional
reactions, such as exaggerated startle responses, sleep disturbances, and flashbacks.
B. Explaining Anxiety Disorders - Research on the causes of anxiety disorders have focused on
cognitive processes, learning, biology, and sociocultural influences. The cognitive approach
emphasizes thinking styles, such as, hypervigilance, hypersensitivity, and self-preoccupation
that magnifies ordinary threats and failures, resulting in anxiety disorders. Learning theorists
suggest anxiety disorders result from classical and operant conditioning, as well as modeling
and imitation. The biological perspective suggests that genetic pre-dispositions, disrupted
biochemistry, or unusual brain activity influence the development of anxiety disorders.
III. MOOD DISORDERS
A. Understanding Mood Disorders - Mood disorders are characterized by extreme disturbances
of emotional states. The hallmark of major depressive disorder is a pervasive feeling of deep
sadness which interferes with basic ability to function, feel pleasure, or maintain interest in life.
Bipolar disorder is characterized by episodes similar to major depressive disorder alternating
with episodes of mania in which speech and thinking are rapid, and the person may experience
delusions of grandeur and engage in impulsive behaviors.
Gender and Cultural Diversity: How They Affect Depression – Research
shows certain symptoms of depression are cross-cultural. Women are more likely
than men to suffer depressive symptoms in many countries. Some researchers
explain this in terms of hormonal differences, while others propose that cultural
factors (such as poverty and discrimination) and socialization toward certain
behaviors (such as passivity and dependence may predispose women toward
depression.
B. Explaining Mood Disorders - Biological theories of mood disorders indicate areas of the left
frontal cortex lobe may be involved. Other research emphasizes disruptions in
neurotransmitters (especially serotonin, norepinephrine and dopamine). Antidepressants are
often effective in relieving major depression. Bipolar disorders are generally treated with
lithium carbonate. Recent research has also implicated certain brain areas that may trigger
episodes of mood disorder. There is also evidence for a genetic predisposition for both major
depression and bipolar disorder. The evolutionary perspective suggests moderate depression
may be an adaptive response to a loss. Psychoanalytic theories of mood disorders emphasize
anger and loss, humanistic theories focus on poor self-concept, and learning theory suggest
theories, such as, learned helplessness. Learned helplessness theory suggests that depression
results from repeated failures at attempted escape from the source of stress.
Research Highlight: Suicide and Its Prevention - Suicide is a serious problem
associated with mood disorders. Students are asked to respond to a questionnaire
containing ten true/false statement regarding suicide. Major warning signs of
suicide are reviewed.
Critical Thinking/Active Learning: How Your Thoughts Can Make
You Depressed – Students are presented with two situations which provide an
opportunity to think about how thoughts may cause mild to serious depression.
IV. SCHIZOPHRENIA - Schizophrenia is a serious psychotic mental disorder that afflicts
approximately one out of every 100 people.
A. Symptoms of Schizophrenia - The major symptoms are disturbances in perception (impaired
filtering and selection, and hallucinations); language and thought disturbances (impaired
logic, word salads, neologisms, and delusions); emotional disturbances (either exaggerated or
blunted emotions); and behavioral disturbances (social withdrawal, bizarre mannerisms,
catalepsy, waxy flexibility).
B. Types of Schizophrenia – For many years researchers have divided the schizophrenias into
paranoid, catatonic, disorganized, undifferentiated, and residual subtypes. An alternative
classification system has been proposed. Schizophrenic symptoms involving distorted or
excessive mental activity (e.g., delusions and hallucinations) would be classified as positive
symptoms, whereas symptoms involving behavioral deficits (e.g., toneless voice, flattened
emotions) would be classified as negative symptoms.
C. Explaining Schizophrenia - Biological theories of the causes of schizophrenia emphasize
genetics (people inherit a predisposition), disruptions in neurotransmitters (primarily
dopamine), and abnormalities in brain structure or function (such as enlarged ventricles or low
levels of activity in the frontal and temporal lobes).
Psychosocial theories of schizophrenia focus on two possible psychosocial contributors. The
diathesis-stress model suggests that stress is a trigger for initial episodes and for relapse. Family
communication deviance also has been suggested. Studies of family environments suggest that
critical and hostile home environments may be linked to a worsening and relapse of
schizophrenic symptoms.
An evaluation of the theories of the causes of schizophrenia get mixed research support.
Both biological and psychosocial theories cannot necessarily determine the direction of cause
and effect relationships and each theory does not fit all cases. Overall, schizophrenia is
probably best explained with the biopsychosocial model.(Process Diagram 14.2)
Gender and Cultural Diversity: Schizophrenia Around the World - Schizophrenia is
the most culturally universal mental disorder in the world. There are numerous culturally
general symptoms (such as delusions), but also four major differences across cultures:
prevalence, form, onset, and prognosis.
V.
OTHER DISORDERS
Substance-Related Disorders – The critieria for substance use and substance abuse are
explored. Alcohol Use Disorders (AUDs) are at a greater risk of also experiencing at least
one or more other mental disorders known as comorbidity, or dual diagnosis. Genetic
predisposition, modeling by the parent, and/or emotional disturbances are cited as
possible causes of substance-related disorders that interact.
A. Dissociative Disorders - In dissociative disorders, critical elements of personality split apart
from significant aspects of experience, memory, or consciousness. This split is manifested by
failing to recall or identify past experiences (dissociative amnesia), by leaving home and
wandering off (dissociative fugue), or by developing completely separate personalities
(dissociative identity disorder DID or multiple personality disorder). There is considerable
debate over this diagnosis.
B. Personality Disorders - Personality disorders involve inflexible, maladaptive personality
traits. The best known type is the antisocial personality, characterized by egocentrism, lack of
conscience, impulsivity, and superficial charm. Some research has suggested this disorder may
be related to defect in brain waves and arousal patterns, genetic inheritance, and disturbed
family relationships. The most commonly diagnosed personality disorder is the Borderline
Personality Disorder. The core features include impulsivity, instability in mood, relationships,
and self-image. A childhood history of neglect, emotional deprivation, and physical, sexual, or
emotional abuse are frequently associated with BPD.
Applying Psychology to Student Life: Testing Your Knowledge of Abnormal
Behavior – The student is asked test their recognition of five psychological disorders and
match with a brief description.