Boundaries to Freedom of Expression
The aim of this course is to confront the ethical question of the constraints of speech. Focus is
put on the harm or the offence caused by the speech in question: Can we say that sometimes,
the harm or the offence brought about by a certain speech constitutes such an injury that it
cannot be tolerated? More specifically, the question is: Under what conditions preventing
offence can provide adequate grounds for limiting freedom of expression.
The plan for confronting these issues is the following. The discussion is divided into four
major parts. The first part deals with the question of why speech enjoys special status. Here
we consider the absolutist school versus the consequentialist school and reflect on the major
arguments frequently heard in defence of free expression. These arguments explain that
speech is important for the development of our autonomy and to enable us to realize
ourselves; because of its contribution to our democratic lives; and in order to advance truth.
The second part is concerned with the issue of prescribing boundaries to freedom of
expression. It highlights the Millian Harm to Others Principle as well as the Offence
Principle. In addition, attention is given to the Respect for Others Argument and to legal tests
adopted by the courts of the United States, Britain, Canada and Israel. Specifically the Clear
& Present Danger Test and the Bad Tendency Test are being considered.
Part three touches upon controversial expressions such as the fighting words doctrine; the
issue of defamation and libel; pornography; symbolic Speech; and freedom of assembly and
demonstration ('speech plus' in Douglas J.'s terminology).
Finally, part four addresses several case studies that aroused much controversy, evaluating
the court decisions in the light of the Harm and Offence Principles and the other theoretical
principles discussed in the former parts of the seminar. Among the controversies which are
being tackled are the Skokie affair; racism in England and Germany; cultural hostilities in
Canada; decisions of the European Commission on Human Rights on racism and regarding
the right of racist lists to participate in elections; and the Kahanist phenomenon in Israel.
PART A: THEORY
1. General
Emerson, Thomas I. 1966. Toward a General Theory of the First Amendment. N.Y.: Random
House.
Emerson, Thomas I. 1970. The System of Freedom of Expression. N.Y.: Random House.
Emerson, Thomas I. 1980. "First Amendment Doctrine and the Burger Court". 68. California
Law Review. No. 3. pp 422-481.
2. Why Speech Enjoys Special Status?
2.1 The Absolutist School
Black, Hugo L. 1960. "The Bill of Rights". 35. N.Y. University Law Review. pp 865-881.
Meiklejohn, Alexander. 1953. "What Does the First Amendment Mean?" 20. The University
of Chicago Law Review. No. 2. pp 461-479.
Meiklejohn, Alexander. 1961. "The First Amendment Is an Absolute". Supreme Court
Review. pp 245-266.
Meiklejohn, Alexander. 1961. "The Balancing of Self-Preservation against Political
Freedom". 49. California Law Review. No. 1. pp 5-14.
Meiklejohn, Alexander. 1965. Political Freedom. N.Y.: Oxford University Press. ch. 1.
Meiklejohn, Alexander. 1966. "Freedom of Speech", in P. Radcliff (ed.) Limits of Liberty.
Belmont, California: Wadsworth. pp 19-26.
2.2 The Consequentialist School
Bollinger, Lee C. 1986. The Tolerant Society. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Dorsen, Norman. 1988. "Is There A Right to Stop Offensive Speech? The Case of the Nazis
at Skokie", in Larry Gostin (ed.) Civil Liberties in Conflict. London and N.Y.: Routledge.
Skillen, Anthony. 1982. "Freedom of Speech", in Keith Graham (ed.) Contemporary Political
Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp 139-159.
2.3 Autonomy and Self-Realization
Schauer, Frederick. 1982. Free Speech: A Philosophical Enquiry. N.Y.:
University Press.
Cambridge
Schauer, Frederick. 1983. "Must Speech Be Special?" 78. Northwestern University Law
Review. No. 5. pp 1284-1306.
Scanlon, T.M. 1977. "A Theory of Freedom of Expression", in R.M. Dworkin (ed.) The
Philosophy of Law. pp 161-162. Reprinted from Philosophy & Public Affairs. Vol. 1, no. 2
(Winter 1972). pp 204-226.
Scanlon, T.M. 1979. "Freedom of Expression and Categories of Expression". 40. University
of Pittsburgh Law Review. No. 3. pp 519-550.
2.4 The Search for Truth Argument
Milton, John. 1875. Areopagitica: A Speech for the Liberty of Unlicensed Printing. London:
Oxford University Press.
Mill, J.S. 1948. Utilitarianism, Liberty and Representative Government. London: J.M. Dent.
Everyman's edition (ch. 2 of On Liberty).
Mill, J.S. 1976. "Law and Libel and Liberty of the Press", in Geraint L. Williams (ed.) John
Stuart Mill on Politics and Society. Glasgow: Fontana. pp 143-169.
Barendt, Eric. 1985. Freedom of Speech. Oxford: Clarendon Press, pp 8-14.
3. Boundaries of Freedom of Expression
Greenawalt, Kent. 1989. Speech, Crime and the Uses of Language. N.Y.: Oxford University
Press. pp 40-76.
Rawls, John. 1971. A Theory of Justice. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp 216-221.
3.1 The Millian Harm to Others Principle
Mill, J.S. On Liberty. chs. 1, 3, 4, 5.
Raz, Joseph. 1988. "Autonomy, Toleration, and the Harm Principle", in S. Mendus (ed.)
Justifying Toleration. pp 155-175.
Feinberg, Joel. 1984. Harm to Others. N.Y.: Oxford University Press. chs. 2, 3.
3.2 The Offence Principle: Mill to Feinberg
Feinberg, Joel. Offense to Others. N.Y.: Oxford University Press. 1985. ch. 9.
Bayles, Michael. "Offensive Conduct and the Law", in Care, Norman S., and T.K. Trelogan
(eds.) Issues in Law and Morality. Cleveland: Western Reserve University. 1973.
Feinberg, Joel. "Reply". Ibid.
Vandeveer, Donald. 1979. "Coercive Restraint of Offensive Actions". 8. Philosophy & Public
Affairs. No. 2. pp 175-193.
3.3 The Respect for Others Argument: Kant to Dworkin and Kymlicka
Kant, Immanuel. 1969. Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals. Trans: Lewis White Beck,
with critical essays. Indianapolis, Ind.: Bobbs-Merrill Educational Publishers.
Dworkin, Ronald M. 1977. "Introduction". Taking Rights Seriously. London: Duckworth.
Dworkin, Ronald M. 1985. "Liberalism". A Matter of Principle. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Griffin, James. 1986. Well Being. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ch. 9.
Kymlicka, Will. 1989. Liberalism, Community, and Culture. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Kymlicka, Will. 1992. "The Rights of Minority Cultures, Reply to Kukathas," Political
Theory, 20;1, pp. 140-146.
Kymlicka, Will. 1991. "Liberalism and the Politicization of Ethnicity". The Canadian Journal
of Law and Jurisprudence, IV:2, pp 239-256.
PART B: JURISPRUDENCE
4. Boundaries of Freedom of Expression: Legal Tests
4.1 Clear and Present Test
Schenck v. U.S. 249 U.S. 47 (1919).
Abrams v. U.S. 250 U.S. 616 (1919).
Whitney v. California 274 U.S. 357 (1927).
U.S. v. Dennis 183 F. 2d 201 (1950).
4.2 Advocacy and Incitement
Gitlow v N.Y 268 U.S. 652 (1925).
Yates v. U.S. 354 U.S. 298 (1957).
Brandenburg v. Ohio 395 U.S. 444 (1969).
Rex v. Aldred (1909) 22 Cox C.C. 1 per Colredge J.
4.3 Bad Tendency Test
Pierce v U.S. 252 U.S. 239 (1920).
Schaefer v. U.S. 251 U.S. 466 (1920).
Herndon v. Lowry 301 U.S. 242 (1937).
PART C: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS
5. Controversial Expressions
5.1 The Fighting Words Doctrine
Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire 315 U.S. 568 (1942).
Cohen v. California 403 U.S. 15 (1971).
Rosenfeld v. New Jersey 408 U.S. 901 (1972).
Jordan v. Burgoyne (1963) 2 QB 744 (DC).
5.2 Defamation and Libel
Schauer, Frederick. 1982. Free Speech: A Philosophical Enquiry. N.Y.: Cambridge
University Press. ch. 11.
Feinberg, Joel. 1975. "Limits to the Free Expression of Opinion", in J. Feinberg and H. Gross
(eds.) Philosophy of Law. Encino, Cal.: Dickenson. pp 135-151.
N.Y. Times v. Sullivan 376 U.S. 254 (1964).
Beauharnais v. Illinois 343 U.S. 250 (1952).
5.3 Pornography
Williams Committee Report on Obs (1979) London. Commd. 7772. pp 1-21, 50-60, 103-111.
Dworkin, Ronald M. 1985. "Do We Have A Right to Pornography?" A Matter of Principle.
Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp 335-372.
Barendt, Eric. 1985. Freedom of Speech. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp 244-279.
Roth v. U.S. 354 U.S. 476 (1957).
Ginzburg v. U.S. 383 U.S. 463 (1966).
Miller v. California 413 U.S. 15 (1973).
Obscene Publication Act (1959). London. Sec. 1.
5.4 Symbolic Speech
Tinker v. Des Moines 393 U.S. 503 (1969).
Street v. N.Y. 394 U.S. 576 (1969).
Collin v. Smith 447 F. Supp. 676 (1978).
5.5 Freedom of Assembly and demonstration
Feiner v. New York 340 U.S. 315 (1951).
Cox v. Louisiana 379 U.S. 536 (1965).
Terminiello v. Chicago 337 U.S. 1 (1949).
Edwards v. South Carolina 372 U.S. 229 (1963).
Bachellar v. Maryland 397 U.S. 564 (1970).
PART D: CASE STUDIES
6. Skokie
Village of Skokie v. NSPA. 366 N.E. 2d 347 (1977).
Collin v. Smith 447 F. Supp. 676 (1978).
Village of Skokie v. The National Socialist Party of America 373 N.E. 2d 21 (1978).
Downs, Donald Alexander. 1985. Nazis in Skokie. Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre
Dame Press.
Gibson, James L., and Richard D. Bingham. 1985. Civil Liberties and Nazis. N.Y.: Praeger.
Neier, Aryeh. 1979. Defending My Enemy. N.Y.: E.P. Dutton.
7. Racism in England
Solomos, John. 1989. Race and Racism in Contemporary Britain. Basingstoke: Macmillan.
Jenkins, R., and John. Solomos. (eds.) Racism and Equal Opportunity Policies in the 1980s.
8. Germany
2 Bverfge 1 Sozialistische Reichspartei (23 October 1952).
5 BverfGE 85 KPD (17 August 1956).
9. European Commission on Human Rights
Glimmerveen and Hagenbeek v/the Netherlands (1980).
10. The Kahanist Phenomenon in Israel
U.S.A. v. Meir Kahane 396 F. Supp. 687 (1975).
U.S.A. v. Meir Kahane 527 F. 2d 491 (1975).
People of the State of California v. Rubin 96 Cal. App. 3d 968 (1980).
H.C. 344/1981. Negbi v. Central Committee for the Elections to the 10th Knesset. P.D. 35
(iv), 837.
E.A. 2/1984. Neiman and Avneri v. Chairman of the Central Committee for the Elections to
the 11th Knesset. P.D. 39 (ii), 225.
H.C. 587/1984. Kahane v. Minister of Police and the Inspector General (was not published).
H.C. 742/1984. Kahane v. the Presidium of the Knesset. P.D. 39 (iv), 85.
H.C. 43/1985. Kahane v. Knesset House Committee (was not published).
H.C. 73/1985. Kach v. Speaker of the Knesset. P.D. 39 (iii), 141.
H.C. 306/1985. Kahane v. the Presidium of the Knesset. P.D. 39 (iv), 485.
H.C. 399/1985. Kahane v. Board of Directors of the Broadcasting Authority. P.D. 41 (iii),
255.
H.C. 669/1985; 24/1986; 131/1986. Kahane v. the Presidium of the Knesset. P.D. 40 (iv),
393.
H.C. 400/1987. Kahane v. Speaker of the Knesset. P.D. 41 (ii), 729.
E.A. 1/1988. Neiman and Kach v. Chairman of the Central Committee for the Elections to the
12th Knesset. P.D. 42 (iv), 177.
E.A. 2/1988. Ben-Shalom and Others v. the Central Committee for the Elections to the 12th
Knesset. P.D. 43 (iv), 221.
E.A. 2805/1992. Kach v Chairman of the Central Committee for the Elections to the 13th
Knesset.
E.A. 2858/1992. 'Kahane Is Alive' Movement v. Chairman of the Central Committee for the
Elections to the 13th Knesset.
Raphael Cohen-Almagor