Course: Philosophy
Level: Higher
May 2014
This advice and guidance has been produced for teachers and other staff who
provide learning, teaching and support as learners work towards qualifications.
These materials have been designed to assist teachers and others with the
delivery of programmes of learning within the new qualifications framework.
These support materials, which are neither prescriptive nor exhaustive,
provide suggestions on approaches to teaching and learning which will
promote development of the necessary knowledge, understanding and skills.
Staff are encouraged to draw on these materials, and existing materials, to
develop their own programmes of learning which are appropriate to the needs
of learners within their own context.
Staff should also refer to the course and unit specifications and support notes
which have been issued by the Scottish Qualifications Authority.
http://www.sqa.org.uk
Acknowledgement
© Crown copyright 2014. You may re-use this information (excluding logos) free of
charge in any format or medium, under the terms of the Open Government Licence.
To view this licence, visit http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-governmentlicence/ or e-mail: psi@nationalarchives.gsi.gov.uk.
Where we have identified any third party copyright information you will need to obtain
permission from the copyright holders concerned.
Any enquiries regarding this document/publication should be sent to us at
enquiries@educationscotland.gov.uk.
This document is also available from our website at www.educationscotland.gov.uk.
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PHILOSOPHY (HIGHER)
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Contents
The purpose and aims of the course
Introduction
Aims, knowledge and skills development
Course structure
Points of stability and areas of change
Course assessment
4
4
6
6
7
9
Examples of effective learning in philosophy
Activities: Arguments in Action
Activities: Knowledge and Doubt
Activities: Moral Philosophy
10
11
21
27
Appendices
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THE PURPOSE AND AIMS OF THE COURSE
The purpose and aims of the course
Introduction
The aim of these notes is to provide guidance on the new Higher Philosophy
course. Included are suggested teaching ideas for each unit, with comments
on the knowledge and skills being developed within the activity. Where
possible links across units will also be highlighted. There will be an emphasis
on the new Arguments in Action unit as this contains most new course
content.
The SQA has published a number of important Course documents that
describe the aims, purposes and detailed requirements of the new Higher
Philosophy course. These should be used as the bases for ensuring learners
are fully prepared for achieving success in the course.
Key SQA documentation
The key documents published by the SQA that should form that basis of
preparation for the development of new courses can be accessed through the
following web link:
http://www.sqa.org.uk/sqa/47900.html
They are:
Special Curriculum for Excellence update: Higher Philosophy
(September 2013)
http://www.sqa.org.uk/files_ccc/Philosophy_Sept_Update_letter.pdf
This letter provides important information concerning revisions to the key
documents listed below.
Higher Philosophy Course Specification
http://www.sqa.org.uk/files_ccc/CfE_CourseSpecification_Higher_HealthandW
ellbeing_Philosophy.pdf
This explains the overall structure of the course, including its purpose and
aims. It also provides information on the knowledge and skills that will be
developed through studying philosophy.
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THE PURPOSE AND AIMS OF THE COURSE
Higher Philosophy Course Assessment Specification
http://www.sqa.org.uk/files_ccc/CfE_CourseAssessSpec_Higher_HealthandW
ellbeing_Philosophy.pdf
This explains the structure of the course assessment including the type and
method of assessment. It also includes information on course coverage.
Higher Philosophy Unit Specifications (Arguments in Action, Knowledge
and Doubt, Moral Philosophy)
http://www.sqa.org.uk/files_ccc/CfE_Unit_H_Philosophy_ArgumentsinAction.p
df
http://www.sqa.org.uk/files_ccc/CfE_Unit_H_Philosophy_KnowledgeandDoubt
.pdf
http://www.sqa.org.uk/files_ccc/CfE_Unit_H_Philosophy_MoralPhilosophy.pdf
These provide an outline of what each unit will cover within the course and
detail of the outcomes and assessment standards.
Higher Philosophy Unit Assessment Support Packs (Arguments in
Action, Knowledge and Doubt, Moral Philosophy)
https://secure.sqa.org.uk/secure/CFE/Philosophy (SQA secure link)
These provide detailed advice and guidance on approaches to assessing each
Unit and the conditions associated with Unit assessment.
The Specimen Question Paper
http://www.sqa.org.uk/files_ccc/PhilosophySQPH.pdf (published 28 February
2014) and Coursework Information
http://www.sqa.org.uk/files_ccc/GAInfoHigherPhilosophy.pdf (published 31
March 2014), provide detailed advice on Course assessment and marking
instructions.
Course and unit support notes
The SQA has also produced materials designed to support centres. They
provide advice and guidance for staff on learning, teaching and assessment
within the course and its units.
Personalisation and choice
The main focus of personalisation and choice is found in the assignment,
where learners can choose to study any philosophical question of personal
interest. All the course content specified in the course assessment
specification is mandatory for learners wishing to complete the course.
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THE PURPOSE AND AIMS OF THE COURSE
Aims, knowledge and skills development
The main purpose of the Higher Philosophy course is to challenge learners to
develop their own reasoning skills by thinking about problems, exploring
philosophical ideas and developing the ability to use philosophical thinking
skills and terminology.1
The aims, subject skills and knowledge and understanding developed in the
Higher Philosophy course are detailed in the course specification (pages 3–6).
The skills, knowledge and understanding developed through the Course are:
 the ability to analyse and evaluate arguments, theories of knowledge and
moral theories
 the ability to understand and explain the implications and consequences of
arguments and theories
 the ability to express reasoned views
 knowledge and understanding of argument structure, philosophical
techniques and errors in reasoning
 knowledge and understanding of key theories of knowledge
 knowledge and understanding of key moral philosophical theories.
Course structure
There are three units in the course: Arguments in Action, Knowledge and
Doubt and Moral Philosophy.
It’s important to recognise that the unit specifications only provide clarification
for achieving success in the unit. For example, Outcome 1.1 in the Moral
Philosophy unit specifies that learners will need to explain ‘the underlying
philosophical principles involved in a moral theory, with reference to an
appropriate philosopher’. Success in the unit requires the learners to provide
evidence in relation to only one moral theory. To achieve success in the
overall course, however, learners will need to have studied two moral theories,
utilitarianism and Kantianism. Care should be taken to understand that the unit
specification only highlights the requirement for passing the unit and not the
whole course.
1
6
Course specification pages 3–5.
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THE PURPOSE AND AIMS OF THE COURSE
Points of stability and areas of change
The September update letter explains that since the draft course and unit
specifications were published further revisions to the course were made
following the development of National 5 and feedback from staff. These are
designed to:
 improve progression and differentiation from National 5, offering
appropriate learner pathways
 clarify mandatory content for those taking course assessment
 improve coherence and consistency across unit outcomes and
assessments standards.2
Areas of significant change: Arguments in Action
There were a number of reasons for changing the content and emphasis in the
teaching of critical thinking skills in the new Arguments in Action unit. For
example, the addition of argument diagrams allows for progression from
National 5 where learners are just required to present arguments in standard
form. Also there was a need to increase content to support the change from a
half to a full credit unit.
The revised Arguments in Action unit has been designed to develop a number
of key skills. The course assessment specification emphasises that learners
should be able to apply the knowledge and skills identified in the Arguments in
Action unit. Application of knowledge and skills allows learners to analyse and
evaluate the success of arguments in given sources.
The skills being developed in the new Arguments in Action unit could be
reinforced by providing learners with opportunities to identify and apply them
across the other units. For example, when studying Descartes, knowledge of
thought experiments will be reinforced through the study of the dream and the
evil demon hypothesis. Also, an understanding of analogical arguments could
be developed when studying Hume.
Areas of significant change: Knowledge and Doubt
There is also considerable change with regard to the study of the
epistemological content of the Higher Philosophy course. The old
epistemology unit allowed a choice between the study of either Hume or
Descartes. The new Knowledge and Doubt unit requires learners to study both
Hume and Descartes.
2
September update letter.
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THE PURPOSE AND AIMS OF THE COURSE
The mandatory nature of teaching Hume allows learners to engage with a
significant and influential Scottish philosopher. The requirement to study both
Hume and Descartes also allows for greater depth in the skills of analysis and
evaluation as learners contrast the two approaches and evaluate their success
in the light of this comparison. The introductory content of the new Knowledge
and Doubt unit should be taught as a context for the deeper study of both
texts.
Areas of significant change: Moral Philosophy
The Moral Philosophy unit continues to be based around a comparison
between a consequentialist approach and a deontological approach. The
study of utilitarianism and Kantian ethics is, therefore, still mandatory.
However, there are some subtle changes to the course requirements. For
example, there are now no prescribed extracts that learners need to be
familiar with. They may be useful as a teaching tool, but could not form the
basis of any direct questions in the paper. There are also no prescribed
criticisms of each theory listed, as was the case before. In order to ‘assess the
adequacy’ of each approach centres are free to continue to use the common
responses to either theory if they wish. Learners should also be encouraged to
consider the strengths of each theory so that they can give both positive and
negative evaluative points.
Areas of significant change: Assignment
The most significant area of change in the new Higher is the inclusion of an
assignment.
The assignment has a word limit between 800 and 1200 words. The
assignment will be worth 30 marks (the question paper will be worth 60
marks).
The SQA Coursework Information (published 31 March 2014) will provide
detailed advice on the conditions and marking instructions for the Assignment.
This document will also provide guidance for candidates/assessors on how to
complete the assignment. It will be published on the SQA website.
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THE PURPOSE AND AIMS OF THE COURSE
Course assessment
Assessment should be an ongoing process that permeates effective learning
and teaching. Centres are encouraged throughout the Curriculum for
Excellence documentation to adopt imaginative and creative approaches to
assessment that take account of their learners’ experience in terms of
challenge, breadth and application. Centres should refer to the principles of
assessment as laid out in Building the Curriculum 5:
http://www.educationscotland.gov.uk/thecurriculum/howdoyoubuildyourcurricul
um/curriculumplanning/whatisbuildingyourcurriculum/btc/btc5.asp
For unit assessment purposes, a variety of methods of assessment can be
used to gather evidence such as oral presentation, written display, contribution
to a debate, question paper or contribution to a group investigation.
Centres should share learning and assessment criteria with learners, provide
effective feedback, encourage peer and self-assessment and use effective
questioning techniques.
The requirements for a qualification in Higher Philosophy are laid out in the
SQA documentation, which can be accessed from:
http://www.sqa.org.uk/sqa/45748.html
To gain a course award at Higher, a learner must pass all units as well as the
course assessment. The course assessment will contain the added value
element of the course. This will take the form of a question paper, which
samples all areas of the course, and an assignment.
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EXAMPLES OF EFFECTIVE LEARNING IN PHILOSOPHY
Examples of effective learning in philosophy
A significant aim of the new Higher Philosophy course is to ensure that
learners develop relevant skills, and can integrate these with their knowledge
and understanding of the subject. The following activities are examples of
teaching approaches that will help learners to develop the skills that are
central to the new Higher Philosophy Course.
The activities are grouped by unit. However, many of the activities could be
adapted for use within the other units. Some also combine content from
across the units.
There are examples of:




active and co-operative learning techniques
the use of ICT
interdisciplinary learning
skills development
The activities below are designed to develop the following knowledge and
skills which learners will need to demonstrate in the question paper.3
Knowledge and
understanding of
arguments and
argument structure
fallacies errors in
reasoning
Analysis and evaluation
of moral theories
Knowledge and
understanding of key
theories of knowledge
Knowledge and
understanding of key
moral philosophical
theories
Analysis and evaluation
of arguments
Analysis and evaluation
of theories of knowledge
Understand and explain
the implications and
consequences of
arguments and theories
The ability to express
reasoned views
The support notes produced for Philosophy National 5 also contain a
significant number of activates that are applicable to the Higher course,
particularly in regard to the Knowledge and Doubt and Moral Philosophy units.
3
Draft course assessment specification page 5.
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EXAMPLES OF EFFECTIVE LEARNING IN PHILOSOPHY
These can be accessed through the following website
http://www.educationscotland.gov.uk/nqcoursematerials/subjects/philosophy/c
oursematerials.asp
The specific knowledge and skills developed in each activity will be identified.
Some of the activities include suggested consolidation questions and possible
learner answers. Care should be taken to compare these with the standards
for explained in the information on judging evidence provided in the Unit
Assessment Support Packs published by SQA (October 2013, February 2014
and March 2014).
Activities: Arguments in Action
This unit develops learners’ ability to think philosophically. It is designed to
develop the skills of analysis, evaluation and expressing reasoned views.
These skills can be developed through their application within either every day
or philosophical arguments.
The change of emphasis within the new Arguments in Action unit encourages
the development of specific skills and knowledge that are applicable in the
Knowledge and Doubt and Moral Philosophy units. The knowledge and skills
developed in the Arguments in Action unit could provide a framework to
develop analytical and evaluative skills across the other areas of the course.
For example, in the Knowledge and Doubt and Moral Philosophy units
learners could consider:
 the plausibility of an idea (Does the view being represented express a
credible and believable truth or does it just take on the appearance of being
true based on a superficial and well-spoken argument? How might the
character and personality of the arguer affect your response to the truth of
the view being expressed?)
 the role of ad hominem, emotion and authority (How might the status of the
arguer affect your acceptance of its truth? How can you avoid rejecting an
idea because you have a negative reaction to the arguer? How can you
avoid accepting an idea because you like the arguer or have been affected
emotionally by something that has been said? Has the argument been
presented in such a way in order to affect your emotional response to it?
When should you trust an expert?)
 counter-examples (Can you think of an example or situation that
undermines the truth of an idea?)
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EXAMPLES OF EFFECTIVE LEARNING IN PHILOSOPHY
 consistency/inconsistency (Can you spot a contradiction in someone’s
argument? Is your view justified by coherent or incoherent reasons?)
 ambiguity (Are there any words being expressed in an argument that could
have a different meaning?)
 confirmation bias (How can you avoid accepting an idea because it fits in
with something else that you already accept and believe?)
Activity: Applying knowledge and skills from the Arguments in Action
unit
A useful way to develop knowledge of the philosophical techniques and
factors affecting the credibility of arguments is to encourage learners to
identify examples where they are applied in everyday examples.
The skills, knowledge and understanding developed in this task are:
Knowledge and
understanding of
arguments and
argument structure
philosophical techniques
and fallacies
Analysis and evaluation
of arguments
The ability to express
reasoned views
Understand and explain
the implications and
consequences of
arguments and theories
The film Sicko by Michael Moore contains many examples where learners
could identify philosophical techniques being employed and possible errors in
reasoning.
The section from 18 minutes to 40 minutes is particularly useful. Learners
could be asked to either identify any of the techniques or errors employed in
the specified sections.
Appendix 1 contains a significant collection of comment on the film that could
be used as a basis for discussion.
The following worksheet could be completed individually or as a group
challenge. If it’s completed collaboratively (e.g. in groups of 4) then group
members could be asked to take responsibility to identify 2 techniques or
errors in reasoning. They would then share their answers in the group and so
work together to complete worksheet in full.
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EXAMPLES OF EFFECTIVE LEARNING IN PHILOSOPHY
Sicko
Watch from 18 minutes 46 seconds to 40 minutes.
Slippery slope arguments
Appeals to authority
Appeals to emotion
ad hominems
Try to identify examples from the documentary where the following techniques
and errors in reasoning are employed. Make notes in the space provided.
Are there any examples
where the character of
someone is attacked rather
than their argument?
Were there any other ad
hominem strategies
employed?
Can you spot examples
where people have
deliberately used emotion to
further their argument?
What people in the
documentary have authority
to present an argument?
What people don’t have
authority to present an
argument?
What arguments did you spot
that implied that ‘once you
make a move in one direction
it will necessarily be the case
that you will continue in that
direction to unpleasant
results’?
Were these arguments
reasonable?
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Counter-examples
EXAMPLES OF EFFECTIVE LEARNING IN PHILOSOPHY
How does Michael Moore
employ counter-examples to
add weight to his argument?
The plausibility of an idea
Confirmation bias
Consistency/
inconsistency
Did you spot any
contradictions in someone’s
argument?
14
Think about whether the
arguments being employed
are justified by coherent or
incoherent reasons.
Were there any examples
where evidence or arguments
could have been accepted
because they fit in with
something else that the
arguer already believes?
Is the argument expressed by
Michael Moore built on
credible and believable truths
or does it just take on the
appearance of being true
based on a superficial and
well-spoken argument?
How might the character,
style of the documentary and
personality of Michael Moore
affect your response to the
truth of the view being
expressed?
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EXAMPLES OF EFFECTIVE LEARNING IN PHILOSOPHY
Activity: What philosophical techniques do you employ to win
arguments?
This activity is designed to encourage learners to reflect on techniques that
they may have been employing without realising it. Learners will also be
encouraged to apply their knowledge by discussing each other’s approaches
to ‘getting what they want’. Common examples of techniques used by
teenagers include using emotion and slippery slope arguments.
The knowledge and skills developed in this task are:
Knowledge and understanding
of arguments and argument
structure, philosophical
techniques and fallacies
Analysis and evaluation of arguments
The ability to express reasoned views
Instructions
Imagine or remember a time when you wanted something, e.g. maybe you
were after the latest Xbox game or some new clothes. How did you go about
getting what you wanted? The conclusion of your argument should be
something like, ‘So, I need __________’.
Write out the strategy you used to persuade your parents.
Discuss your strategies with someone else.
Can you present their argument using an argument diagram?
Was there any evidence of the use of any philosophical techniques being
employed?
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EXAMPLES OF EFFECTIVE LEARNING IN PHILOSOPHY
Activity: Application of critical thinking to metaphysical issues
The following activities will give examples of how the concepts of the
Arguments in Action unit could be applied to an area of philosophy beyond the
mandatory content. This will give learners opportunities to broaden their
knowledge of philosophy and develop their critical-thinking skills.
This exercise will reinforce knowledge and understanding of key concepts,
introduce learners to knowledge and understanding of another area of
philosophy beyond morality and epistemology, and develop learners’
analytical and evaluative skills. It will also help learners to make connections
between units, and consolidate and apply particular knowledge and skills from
the moral philosophy unit. These examples also provide learners with possible
ideas for their assignment task.
The new assessment approach for the Higher question paper may also
require learners to develop skills where they can look at an unseen argument
and evaluate it in more depth than was required in the old Higher. The
specimen question paper provides detailed guidance on the new approach.
These activities also show how learners could evaluate the arguments and
suggest possible learner responses.
The knowledge and skills developed in this task are:
Knowledge and
understanding of
arguments and
argument structure,
philosophical techniques
and fallacies
Analysis and evaluation
of arguments
Knowledge and
understanding of key
moral philosophical
theories
Analysis and evaluation
of moral theories
The ability to express
reasoned views
Understand and explain the implications and consequences of arguments and
theories
Example 1: Freewill vs determinism
Hard determinism is the view that all actions, including human actions, are
determined by prior causes.
Watch the clip from the film Minority Report and look out for the following
quotes:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q2bmImPNKbM
‘We should not kid ourselves. We are arresting individuals who have broken
no law.’
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EXAMPLES OF EFFECTIVE LEARNING IN PHILOSOPHY
‘But they will. The commission of the crime itself is absolute metaphysics. The
pre-cogs see the future and they’re never wrong.’
‘The fact that you prevented it from happening doesn’t change the fact that it
was going to happen.’
The film presents a future where it could be possible to punish people before
they commit a crime. However unlikely it is that one day there will be pre-cogs
who can tell the future, the film does raise a more common view in philosophy,
the view that all our actions are pre-determined. If this is true, then in theory at
least we might be able to predict the future. A more common view that is
connected to this debate is as follows.
Argument
Everything in nature is controlled by the laws of cause and effect. Therefore,
human actions are controlled by the laws of cause and effect. So, humans are
not free to make decisions about what they do. If we are not free then clearly we
cannot be held responsible for our actions. It’s clearly not right to punish
someone if they are not responsible for what they do. So, we should stop
punishing criminals.
Learners could be asked to analyse this argument by presenting it in an
argument diagram. They could then be asked to evaluate the argument by
considering whether there is an error in reasoning taking place.
For example:
1 [Everything in nature, is controlled by the laws of cause and effect].
Therefore, 2 [human actions are controlled by the laws of cause and effect.]
So, 3 [humans are not free to make decisions about what they do.] 4[If we are
not free then clearly we cannot be held responsible for our actions.] 5 [It’s
clearly not right to punish someone if they are not responsible for what they
do.] So, 6 [we should stop punishing criminals.]
1
2
3+4+5
6
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EXAMPLES OF EFFECTIVE LEARNING IN PHILOSOPHY
The argument takes the form:
If p then q
p
_______
q
This argument has a valid form, affirming the antecedent. However, there are
strong arguments against hard determinism (the truth pf ‘p’ can be
challenged), so maybe we can’t necessarily conclude the argument is sound.
Making links with other units
Given the moral nature of the argument, learners could then be asked to apply
their understanding of Kantian ethics and Utilitarianism to the argument. For
example, learners could be asked to discuss what Utilitarianism and
Kantianism may conclude about the truth of the premise ‘It’s clearly not right to
punish someone if they are not responsible for what they do.’ Learners would
be unlikely to be asked to make these types of deep connections in the
question paper, but making links across units will help them develop depth in
their analysis of the moral theories.
For example:
A Utilitarian may reject the premise because they may take the view that there
are many other reasons why it’s acceptable to punish people. For example,
punishing someone in order to protect society or deter others is justifiable on
utilitarian grounds. Kant may agree with the premise because he would argue
that humans are autonomous, free agents so are responsible for their actions.
Kant may accept the idea that it’s only morally right to punish someone
because they deserve to be punished. He would reject the utilitarian purposes
of punishment because they’d fail the categorical imperative.
Example 2: The mind-body problem
The following link may provide a useful stimulus for discussing this
philosophical issue:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9CqbO_5FKRc
Karl Pilkington asks the question, ‘Does your brain control you or do you
control your brain?’ He seems to be wondering whether your mind might be
distinct from your body.
Ricky Gervais, on the other hand, suggests that your mind is not distinct from
your body, ‘You are your brain … there’s not a duality …’
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EXAMPLES OF EFFECTIVE LEARNING IN PHILOSOPHY
Here is an argument that tries to suggest that the mind is distinct from the
body.
Argument
It’s clear that the human mind is distinct from the body. If my mind and my brain
were just the same then I’d be nothing more than a very complicated computer.
I’m pretty sure that I’m more than just a complicated computer since I can think
in a way that is impossible for a computer no matter how complex it is. For
example, computers can’t appreciate beauty and make free choices the way we
Learners
be asked
to attempt
re-write
themind
argument
using
anare not the
can. So,could
it appears
to make
sense to
then
that my
and my
brain
same.
Analysis
1 [It’s clear that [the human mind is distinct from the body]. 2 [If my mind and
my brain were just the same then I’d be nothing more than a very complicated
computer]. 3 [I’m pretty sure that I’m more than just a complicated computer]
since 4 [I can think in a way that is impossible for a computer no matter how
complex it is.] 5 [For example, computers can’t appreciate beauty and make
free choices the way we can.] So, it appears to make sense then that 1 [my
mind and my brain are not the same.]
4+5
2+3
1
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EXAMPLES OF EFFECTIVE LEARNING IN PHILOSOPHY
Making links with other units
Connections could also be made here by referring to Descartes’ view that the
mind and body are separate.
You are your brain. There’s not
a duality.
Ricky Gervais
The mind is a nonphysical thing that is
distinct from the
body. So, there is a
duality.
Descartes
Learners could also make connections with Hume by considering his rejection
of knowledge claims that are ‘metaphysical’.
Could an empiricist ever know whether or not your mind is distinct from your
body?
How would these ideas fit in with Hume’s empiricism?
What do you think Hume would say about the origin of the idea that our mind
is distinct from our body?
What simple ideas could the complex idea of mind body dualism be built from?
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EXAMPLES OF EFFECTIVE LEARNING IN PHILOSOPHY
Activities: Knowledge and Doubt
This unit equips learners with the knowledge and skills necessary to evaluate
theories of knowledge.
Learners who complete this unit will be able to:
 apply knowledge and understanding of epistemology
 evaluate rationalist or empiricist arguments.
There are two outcomes in the Knowledge and Doubt unit:
Activity: Can you build a solid argument?4
This activity is designed to help learners develop the skill of providing good
justification for their views. It will highlight the importance philosophers place
on justifying a claim and emphasises the depth of justification that is required
to give weight to a claim.
The skills, knowledge and understanding developed in this task are:
Analysis and evaluation
of arguments
Analysis and evaluation
of theories of knowledge
The ability to express
reasoned views
Instructions
The aim of this activity is to complete an ‘argument wall’. This activity works
very well as a group challenge. Start by writing a claim that your group
believes to be true in the first box and write two reasons that justify your view.
Then ask another group to identify three objections to your claim/reasons.
These are written into the next three bricks on the wall. To complete the
challenge your group must try to find three counter-arguments and write them
in the three bricks at the top of your wall.
A format for doing this is shown on the next page.
After attempting this with everyday knowledge claims, learners could then
attempt to justify a view they have about either Descartes or Hume. The use of
an argument wall as a context for building a good argument also allows the
opportunity to reinforce Descartes’ attempt to build on a solid foundation of
4
Truth Seekers: Thinking about Truth, RMEP page 40.
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EXAMPLES OF EFFECTIVE LEARNING IN PHILOSOPHY
knowledge. For example, learners could be asked to consider whether or not
reason should be the foundation of all knowledge claims. Learners could try to
imagine they were Descartes and attempt to build his argument wall.
Descartes’ arguments, criticisms and possible counter-arguments could be
summarised on an argument wall (see Appendix 2).
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Argument walls
Counterargument
Objection
Original
claim
Justification
for claim
Counterargument
Objection
Justification
for claim
Counterargument
Objection
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EXAMPLES OF EFFECTIVE LEARNING IN PHILOSOPHY
Activity: Analysis and evaluation of a primary source
This activity provides learners with the opportunity to communicate their
understanding of a primary source. By converting the text into a new format,
learners will have to successfully show that they have understood the ideas
and can communicate their meaning in a new format. This will help them
analyse and evaluate ideas as well as simply reinforcing their knowledge and
understanding.
The following activity also allows for the development of skills from the
Arguments in Action unit. This activity works well as a paired exercise.
The skills, knowledge and understanding developed in this task are:
Knowledge and
understanding of
arguments and
argument structure,
philosophical techniques
and fallacies
Knowledge and
understanding of key
theories of knowledge
The ability to express
reasoned views
Analysis and evaluation
of theories of knowledge
Instructions
1.
Learners are encouraged to read the opening paragraph of Section 2 of
The Enquiries. They should be told that their challenge is to convert the
text into everyday language.
2.
Learners are helped in the process by being given the text after it has
been broken into sections. See the example given on the next page.
3.
Learners are then encouraged to attempt to convert the text into
everyday language.
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Original text
Everyday speech
There is a considerable difference
between the perceptions of the mind
when a man feels the pain of
excessive heat, or the pleasure of
moderate warmth, and when he
afterwards recalls to his memory this
sensation, or anticipates it by his
imagination.
These faculties may mimic or copy the
perceptions of the senses; but they
never can entirely reach the force and
vivacity of the original sentiment.
The utmost we say of them, even
when they operate with greatest
vigour, is that they represent their
object in so lively a manner, that we
could almost say we feel or see it; But
except the mind be discorded by
disease or madness, they never can
arrive at such a pitch of vivacity, as to
render these perceptions altogether
undistinguishable.
All the colours of poetry, however
splendid, can never paint natural
objects in such a manner as to make
the description be taken for a real
landskip.
The most lively thought is still inferior
to the dullest sensation.
Appendix 3 gives an example of how this might be completed.
Making links with other units
Connection across units could be made by encouraging learners to consider
the following evaluative response, which makes use of a counter-example.
Learners could be asked to consider the following comment made about the
conclusion of Hume’s argument.
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EXAMPLES OF EFFECTIVE LEARNING IN PHILOSOPHY
Evaluation
1.
What philosophical technique is being employed in an attempt to
evaluate
Evaluative response
It does appear reasonable to conclude that in most cases ‘the most lively
thought is still inferior to the dullest sensation’. However, what about people who
have suffered a trauma of some kind? In these cases the trauma creates a
situation where later there are memories that appear more lively than the
original sensation.
Hume’s conclusion?
2.
Read your translation of Hume’s original text again. Can you think of
how Hume may respond to this criticism?
Possible pupil response could be:
1.
This response appears to use a philosophical technique where he/she
uses a counter-example in an attempt to show that Hume’s conclusion
isn’t always the case. He/she appears to have come up with an example
where it isn’t the case that the ‘most lively thought is still inferior to the
dullest sensation’.
2.
Hume may respond to this challenge by pointing out that maybe trauma
isn’t a good counter-example because, as he’s already said, if you’re
mentally disturbed you won’t be able to tell the difference. Maybe trauma
should be considered an example where someone has become
‘mentally disturbed’? So maybe trauma isn’t a successful counterexample.
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Activities: Moral Philosophy
This unit equips learners with the knowledge and thinking skills necessary to
examine and debate specific philosophical issues in moral philosophy.
Activity: Evaluation of utilitarianism
Pupils are required to use their knowledge to develop higher-order evaluative
skills. The following activity provides a useful context for developing a deeper
understanding of utilitarianism.
The aim of the activity is to deepen learners’ appreciation of how utilitarianism
is applied and so avoid simplistic responses.
The skills, knowledge and understanding developed in this task are:
Knowledge and understanding of key
moral philosophical theories
Understand and explain the
implications and consequences of
arguments and theories
Analysis and evaluation of moral
theories
The ability to express reasoned views
The activity has two stages:
1.
2.
Applying utilitarianism to made-up scenarios.
Considering whether these scenarios successfully illustrate utilitarian
ideas.
Stage 1
Applying utilitarianism to made-up scenarios
Learners should be given examples of typical thought experiments often used
to encourage an understanding of a utilitarian response to moral dilemmas.
For example, learners could be given the following three scenarios to discuss
in groups. It would be helpful to give different groups one scenario only to
discuss. Ideas and responses can then be compared.
In Fyodor Dostoevsky’s novel Crime and Punishment Raskolnikov asks the
following question:
Would it be justified to torture and kill an innocent child to ensure human
happiness for all time?
What would your group say about this scenario? What would a utilitarian
philosophy say?
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EXAMPLES OF EFFECTIVE LEARNING IN PHILOSOPHY
If your house was burning down, would you save your disabled father or the
person who has just worked out the cure for cancer but has still to write it
down?
What would your group say about this scenario? What would a utilitarian
philosophy say?
If you captured a terrorist who has planted a nuclear bomb in a Manhattan
basement and you only have a few hours to find out where it is would you
torture him?
What would your group say about this scenario? What would a utilitarian
philosophy say?
Stage 2
Considering whether these scenarios successfully illustrate utilitarian
ideas
Peter Singer was asked his views on Dostoevsky’s scenario when he was
interviewed by Mark Franklin (Australian Jewish News 30 October 2006):
http://www.utilitarianism.net/singer/interviews-debates/20061030.htm
He argues that if it could be shown to be true that the torture and killing of an
innocent child will ensure human happiness for all time then a utilitarian would
have to say that this act is justified. However, he points out that this example
appears to suggest an extremely unlikely situation. Can you really imagine a
situation where torturing a child will bring about human happiness for all time?
Do you think the other scenarios you looked at present similarly unrealistic
situations? If so, should they be used to illicit an accurate account of utilitarian
ideas? If not, why not?
Singer’s response is useful because it encourages learners to go deeper when
presented with a scenario. His response is to evaluate the scenario itself,
rather than just saying how a utilitarian would respond to the presented
scenario. Singer seems to be saying that the scenario presents an unrealistic
situation, so maybe cannot be used to show successfully that utilitarianism
would justify torture.
The following article, ‘The Logic of Torture’, could also be used to show how
Peter Singer argues that in an unlikely, made-up scenario, then yes, a
utilitarian perspective could defend the use of torture. However, he then
argues that the real world is much more complex.
http://www.upenn.edu/gazette/0307/gaz08.html
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Singer concludes that ‘we should have strict rules saying that the US
government and its employees, whether in the Army, or in the CIA or FBI or
whatever, do not engage in torture.’
Learners could consider the following questions.
What is Singer’s criticism of the ‘nuclear bomb in Manhattan’ scenario?
How does he justify this view that governments should not engage in torture?
Do you agree with Singer’s conclusion?
Use this example to illustrate the difference between act and rule
utilitarianism.
Activity: Applying knowledge of Utilitarianism and Kantianism to real life
complex situations
Learners need to develop the skill of applying their knowledge of moral
theories. The following activity provides a useful context for developing a
deeper understanding of moral theories.
The aim of the activity is to develop skills that allow learners to apply their
knowledge within unseen scenarios.
The skills, knowledge and understanding developed in this task are:
Knowledge and
understanding of
arguments and
argument structure,
philosophical techniques
and fallacies
Knowledge and
understanding of key
moral philosophical
theories
Understand and explain
the implications and
consequences of
arguments and theories
Analysis and evaluation
of moral theories
The ability to express
reasoned views
Discussing how Utilitarianism and Kantian ethics can be applied in a
real-life situation
Analysis
The film Zero Dark Thirty tells the story of the hunt for Osama bin Laden. It
shows how the CIA justified the use of torture in the immediate years after
9/11. Some of the methods used were water boarding, putting prisoners in
small boxes for long periods of time and keeping prisoners awake for days on
end. The need to extract information from prisoners is portrayed as vital in
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EXAMPLES OF EFFECTIVE LEARNING IN PHILOSOPHY
order to prevent further terrorist attacks and eventually to track down Bin
Laden. After Barack Obama was elected President he made a public
statement that the USA doesn’t torture prisoners.
Highlight some key differences in how a Utilitarian and a Kantian may respond
to this real-life scenario
The US government was initially happy to interview prisoners ‘under duress’.
Do you think this view was more likely to be based on Utilitarian or Kantian
ideas?
Do you think Barack Obama’s change of policy was based on Utilitarian or
Kantian principles?
Evaluation
Learners’ evaluation skills could be developed further by asking them to
discuss the following section of the film.
CIA operative Maya is trying to find out information about Bin Laden’s
personal courier Abu Ahmed. She has gathered much of her information about
the courier from a number of sources, most of who were tortured over a
number of years. This appears to be her only real lead of significance
concerning the location of Bin Laden. When another prisoner doesn’t confirm
the lead, even under more torture Maya refuses to change her mind over the
importance of the original lead. She assumes that the prisoner must have lied
because his testimony didn’t match what she believed to be true. In a
discussion with her colleague she is advised to drop the lead and move onto
something else. It is suggested to her that confirmation bias is affecting her
reasoning skills. However, Maya argues that in fact the prisoner’s conflicting
story actually confirms her lead as it shows that Abu Ahmed must be very
important in order for a prisoner to withhold information about him, even under
torture.
Why does Maya’s colleague suggest that confirmation bias might be affecting
her reasoning skills?
Kant suggests that the impossibility of being able to know future
consequences rules out utilitarianism as an adequate moral theory. Does the
possibility of confirmation bias add further weight to this criticism? After all
maybe our guesses about what will happen in the future will be affected by
strongly held beliefs?
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In the film confirmation bias turned out to be an unfair criticism. Maya was
right. How can we avoid confirmation bias when reaching conclusions about
views on moral or other ideas?
How might a utilitarian respond to the problem of calculating consequences?
Can you think of counter arguments that Peter Singer may use?
Which approach, Utilitarianism or Kantianism, is best suited to provide an
answer to whether governments should torture prisoners?
Activity: Analysis of different forms of utilitarianism
The following activity provides learners with the opportunity to develop their
analytical skills by encouraging them to identify similarities and differences
between classical and modern forms of utilitarianism.
The activity below is designed to develop the following knowledge and skills
which learners will need to demonstrate in the question paper.
Analysis and evaluation
of moral theories
The ability to express
reasoned views
Understand and explain
the implications and
consequences of
arguments and theories
Knowledge and
understanding of key
moral philosophical
theories
This activity could be completed individually. However, some learners may
find it challenging so may benefit from a collaborative approach. The
completion of the worksheet will give the group a clear focus and aim.
The completion of a Venn diagram works by encouraging learners to consider
similarities and differences between theories. The sections that cross are
areas of similarity. The sections on their own are areas of difference.
1.
Produce a Venn diagram to analysis the similarities and differences
between classical hedonistic utilitarianism and modern variations of
utilitarianism.
2.
Repeat this by using a Venn diagram to compare the similarities and
differences between ideal utilitarianism and preference satisfaction
utilitarianism.
Possible student responses are shown on the next two pages.
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EXAMPLES OF EFFECTIVE LEARNING IN PHILOSOPHY
1.
Using a Venn diagram to compare similarities and differences
between classical and modern variations of utilitarianism
Modern
variations of
utilitarianism
Classical hedonistic
utilitarianism
Aesthetic
experiences
have intrinsic
Hedonistic
values
principle
G.E. Moore
Consequences
Higher and
define morality
lower
Relations of friendships have
intrinsic values
pleasures
Mill
The good consists in the
satisfaction of people’s
preferences
Hedonic
calculus
Peter Singer
Bentham
Can allow for a
focus on animal
rights
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EXAMPLES OF EFFECTIVE LEARNING IN PHILOSOPHY
2.
Using a Venn diagram to compare similarities and differences
between Ideal and preference-satisfaction utilitarianism
Preference,
satisfaction
utilitarianism
Ideal
utilitarianism
G.E. Moore
Consequences
Peter Singer
define morality
The good
Aesthetic
consists of the
experiences
satisfaction of
have intrinsic
people’s
No reference
values
preferences
to hedonistic
principles
Relations of
Can allow for a
friendships have
focus on animal
intrinsic values
rights
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APPENDICES
Appendices
Appendix 1
Sicko: Extracts from the film that could be used to enhance the learning of
philosophical techniques and cognitive errors.
Discussion about the role of appeals to authority
‘There was one person in the healthcare industry who did have a conscience,
Dr Linda Peeno, former medical reviewer at Humana.
‘I am here primarily today to make a public confession. In the Spring of 1987
… I denied a man a necessary operation that would have saved his life and
thus caused his death. No person and no group has ever held me accountable
for this because in fact what I did was I saved the company half a million
dollars for this. And furthermore this particular act secured my reputation as a
good medical director and it ensured my continued advancement in the
healthcare field. I went from making a few hundred dollars a week as a
medical reviewer to an escalating six figure as a physician executive. In all my
work I had one primary duty and that was to use my medical expertise for the
financial benefit of the organisation for which I worked. And I was told
repeatedly that I was not denying care, I was simply denying payment. I know
how Managed Care maims and kills patients. So I am here to tell you about
the dirty work of Managed Care. And, I’m haunted by the thousands of pieces
of paper on which I have written that deadly word ‘denied’.
Dr Linda Peeno said at the beginning of her statement that ‘In the Spring of
1987 … I denied a man a necessary operation that would have saved his life
and thus caused his death.’
This sentence could be re-written into the following argument.
HP
If I had authorised a man a necessary operation he would have lived.
P
I denied a man a necessary operation.
_________________________
C
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I caused his death.
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APPENDICES
Is this a justifiable interpretation of the argument? What cognitive error is
evident in this interpretation of the opening argument?
Does the possibility of there being a cognitive error present undermine the rest
of the argument?
List of statements used as part of an argument against universal
healthcare
Mrs Clinton is getting a free ride because she’s the President’s wife.
Do you really want the federal government to control your health care?
You won’t have a choice of who your own doctor will be.
If we create a universal healthcare system then we are ensuring that there will
be more government control and less control for you and your family.
If your mama gets sick she might need to talk to a bureaucrat rather than a
doctor.
If we create a universal healthcare system then there will be a bureaucratic,
socialist takeover.
The argument presented by the doctors of the American Medical
association
‘This [universal health care] will put the government smack into the middle of
your hospital: defining services, setting standards, establishing committees,
calling for reports, deciding who gets in and who gets out. After all, the
government wants to treat everyone fair and equal don’t you know? It will take
us all the way down the road to a new system of medicine for everybody.’
The purpose of a slippery slope argument: An argument by Ronald
Reagan concerning the evils of socialised medicine
‘My name is Ronald Reagan. One of the traditional methods of imposing
statism or socialism on a people has been by way of medicine. The doctor
begins to lose freedoms. It’s like telling a lie and one lie leads to another. The
doctor decides he wants to practice in one town and the government has to
say to him you can’t live in that town because they already have enough
doctors you have to go someplace else. All of us can see what happens once
you establish the precedent that the government can determine a man’s
working place, his working methods. And behind it will come other federal
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APPENDICES
programmes that will invade every area of freedom as we have known it in this
country until one day we will awake to find that we have socialism.’
Identifying consistency/inconsistency
Michael Moore: ‘100 million dollars was spent arguing against universal health
care. The USA dropped to 37th in the list of healthcare league, one place
above Slovenia.’
Cuba was 39th in this list but not mentioned by Michael Moore in this section
of the film. Does his visit to Cuba towards the end of the documentary create
an inconsistency in his argument or is he justified in comparing the USA’s
healthcare provision to that provided by Cuba?
The role of ad hominem in an argument
Is Michel Moore justified in his use of the following ad hominem argument?
‘There are a lot of really willing shareholders out there, are they willing to
actually share some of that wealth? These profits turned their CEOs into
billionaires. Their biggest accomplishment was “buying the United States
Congress”. There are four times as many lobbyists as there are members of
congress (including Hilary Clinton, who received 854,462 dollars).’
The role of appeals to emotion: The Act to modernise choice for senior
citizens’ prescriptions (see section 37:45)
‘Let there be no mistake about it, Republicans love their mothers and their
fathers and their grandparents as much as anybody else and we’re going to
take care of them
There’s no-one in this House who loves their mother more than I love my
mother … there’s no one who loves their mother any more or any less than
any one of us … I love that woman … Do you think for a second you love your
mums and dads any more than we love ours? Do you think Republicans and
Democrats who will vote for you really believe that?’
Michael Moore: ‘Oh they all loved their mothers … it’s just they didn’t love our
mothers just as much.’
The use of counter-examples
Michael Moore visited a number of countries (the UK, France and Cuba) in an
attempt to present counter-examples that undermine arguments presented
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APPENDICES
against healthcare reform. The following quotes are taken from scenes in the
documentary where Michael Moore visits the UK.
“Do bureaucrats decide on your health care or is it doctors?”
“An American living in the UK thought that the NHS would be dingy and
horrible and become like the Soviet Union. Did Britain become a socialist
state?”
“In America we’ve ‘socialised’ a lot of things, e.g. the fire brigade, schools,
postal service, library, police. Americans like these free ‘socialised’ things.”
“Brits are far healthier than Americans … Even the poorest people in England
can expect to live longer than the wealthiest people in America.”
“Before the patient comes to see you do you have to call the government
health insurance company before you treat them?”
Doctor’s response, ‘I don’t deal with money in my day-to-day job’.
“Have you ever had to say no to someone who was sick and needed your
help?” Doctor’s response ‘No never’.
“UK doctors have nice cars, live in million dollar homes, have salaries of at
least £100,000 a year … UK doctors get paid more if they successfully
encourage better, healthier living.”
A UK doctor was quoted saying, ‘If you want a two or three million dollar home
or three or four nice cars then maybe you need to practice somewhere where
you can earn that but I think we live comfortably here.’
Tony Benn: ‘Choice depends on the freedom to choose and if you’re shackled
by debt then you can’t choose.’
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APPENDICES
Appendix 2
Descartes’ argument wall
Reason
should be
the
foundation
of all
knowledge
claims
Sense
experience
can’t survive
the evil
genius
hypothesis
The cogito
is known to
be true a
priori
Objection
Cartesian
doubt is
‘entirely
incurable’
Hume
Objection
The cogito
might be
certain, but
no other
knowledge
claims can
be built
upon it
Objection
Maybe the
evil genius
tricks us into
thinking that
the hidden
premise
‘thoughts
require a
thinker’ is
selfevident?
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Counterargument
My method
of doubt is
an essential
part of
science and
philosophy
Counterargument
Even if the
evil genius
is tricking us
into
believing
that
‘thoughts
require a
thinker’ we
must exist in
order for ‘us’
to be tricked
APPENDICES
Appendix 3
Converting Hume’s text
Original text
Everyday speech
There is a considerable difference
between the perceptions of the mind
when a man feels the pain of
excessive heat, or the pleasure of
moderate warmth, and when he
afterwards recalls to his memory this
sensation, or anticipates it by his
imagination.
Have you ever noticed that your
memory of an actual moment of pain
or pleasure is different from the
actual original experience? There is
also a difference between the real
experience and when you imagine
that it might happen again later on.
These faculties may mimic or copy the
perceptions of the senses; but they
never can entirely reach the force and
vivacity of the original sentiment.
The imagination and memory are just
copies of the original experiences of
your senses. They aren’t as powerful
an experience as the actual sense
experience you first had.
The utmost we say of them, even
when they operate with greatest
vigour, is that they represent their
object in so lively a manner, that we
could almost say we feel or see it; But
except the mind be discorded by
disease or madness, they never can
arrive at such a pitch of vivacity, as to
render these perceptions altogether
undistinguishable.
Sometimes our memory or
imagination is really strong.
Sometimes we might even say that
we can almost feel or see it.
However, only someone who is
mentally disturbed wouldn’t be able
to tell the difference between the
actual sense experience and our
imagination of it.
All the colours of poetry, however
splendid, can never paint natural
objects in such a manner as to make
the description be taken for a real
landskip.
Even the best artist could never paint
a picture that might fool us into
thinking that we are looking at the
real thing.
The most lively thought is still inferior
to the dullest sensation.
So, it seems obvious that even the
clearest thought (memory or
imagination) is still inferior to the
weakest sense experience.
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