Diversity, Distribution and Conservation of Fodder Resources of West
Himalaya, India
S. S. Samant
G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment & Development, Kosi-Katarmal, Almora
(U. P.) – 263 643, India.
Introduction
Indian Himalaya ( 27O 50' – 37O 06' N and 72O 30' – 97O 25' E ) includes the parts of
trans, northwest, west, central and east Himalaya and covers approximately an area of 4,19,873
Km2 with 2500 Km length and 240 Km width. The unique physiography, climatic conditions and
soil characteristics of the area has resulted in a variety of habitats and a significant biological and
cultural diversity. Along the altitudinal gradient ( 300 – 800 m.a.s.l) the vegetation varies from
subtropical, temperate, subalpine to alpine types. It supports about 8000 species (47.06 % of the
total flowering plants of India) of which 30 % are endemics, 10.2 % trees, 8.44 % wild edibles
and over 15 % medicinal. The dependence of humans and livestock on this rich plant diversity is
well known phenomenon since time immemorial. (Samant and Dhar,1997).
Livestock is an integral part of environment and economy especially in the rural part of the
Himalaya. A large livestock population can not be maintained on the fodder produced on arable
land alone. Therefore, to maintain healthy livestock farmers have to largely depend on the forest
resources (Purohit and Samant, 1995).
As far as the state of knowledge on inventory, usage patterns, nutritive value etc; of Himalayan
forage resources is concerned, it is scattered and diffused. There are many biogeographical
regions of the Himalaya, which are under explored. Therefore, to update the information on the
fodder resources extensive and intensive surveys are required. The present study highlights the
diversity, distribution, feeding season, nativity, potential value and endemism of some of the
fodder trees, shrubs, climbers, forbes and grasses of west Himalaya.
Study area
West Himalaya (28O 05' – 31O 25' N and 77O 45' – 45' – 81O E) includes the parts of Kumaun and
Garhwal regions. It covers an area of approximately 51,125 km2. In the east, it is bound by
Nepal, in west by Himachal Pradesh, in north by Tibet and south by plains of U.P. The major
part of the area is mountainous with undulating topography and is characterised mainly by snow
capped mountains, hills, deep and vast valleys. It has large altitudinal range (300 – 7,817 m
a.s.l.) and vegetation along the altitudinal gradient.
The human and livestock population of the area is about 59,26,146 and 42,35,668 respectively
(Anonymous, 1988, 1991). The present trend shows a regular increase in human and livestock
109
population. This clearly indicates the increased dependence on forest resources. In remote areas
of west Himalaya, livestock is the major source of income generation. The fodder obtained from
arable land is not sufficient to maintain the livestock in sound health. Therefore, the inhabitants
largely depend upon the forest based fodder resource. The major part (62.2%) of the fodder is
extracted from forests (tree/ shrub/ leaves and herbaceous ground flora). The remaining fodder
(37.8%) is derived from agroforestry systems, low altitude grasslands, degraded lands, high
altitude grasslands and crop residues ( Singh et al., 1988).
Methods
The present study is based on the extensive survey of the literature and studies carried out by the
author in the area. Information on altitudinal range, feeding season, nature and use values was
collected from the secondary sources. Nativity of the species was identified following
Anonymous (1883 – 1970) and endemism was recognized on the basis of phytogeographical
distribution of the species. Altitudinal distribution indicated in the text refers to the upper limit of
the range. Multiple utility of the species is based on the use of the species.
Results and Discussion
Diversity
The present study records 279 fodder species from west Himalaya belonging to 185 genera. Of
the recorded species, 112 are trees, 67 shrubs, 37 climbers/lianas and 63 Forbes and grasses. The
species richness among the genera indicated that the maximum number of species (i.e. 13) of the
genus Ficus are used as fodder, followed by Quercus (6 spp.), Berberis (6 spp.), Acer (5 spp.),
Bauhinia (5 spp.), Rosa (5 spp.), Pyrus (4 spp.), Indigofera (4 spp.), Rubus (4 spp.) and Smilax (
4 spp.) respectively. In remaining genera < 4 species are used as fodder. The diversity of the
fodder species is presented in Table 1. Majority of the woody species is lopped for fodder except
some spiny shrubs such as species of Rosa, Rubus, Pyracantha etc., which are usually browsed
by sheep and goat, rarely by cattle. The Forbes and grasses form the major part of fodder
collection during rainy and autumn seasons.
Among the woody species (216), 82 are evergreen, 126 deciduous and 8 semideciduous. The
evergreen nature of species suggests their availability throughout the year. The high demand of
such species may cause increased pressure. On the contrary, the deciduous nature of species
suggests their availability in particular season/s.
Utilization Pattern
Considering the altitude as a gradient, the use pattern of fodder species in all the life forms varies
to great extent (Table 2). Maximum number of species (i.e. 228) in all the life forms are used as
fodder in subtropical zone (< 1800m). This may be due to the large human and livestock
population dependent on the forest resources for fodder and availability of a wide range of
species as fodder. With the increase in altitude, the species richness as well as the human and
livestock population decreases (Samant and Dhar, 1997). The utilization pattern of fodder
species varies from season to season. Of the total species, 59 are used in summer, 40 in rainy
110
season, 16 in winter, 36 throughout the year and 136 in combination of these season viz.
winter/summer, summer/rainy/autumn, summer/rainy seasons. The variation in the use of species
is due to availability of species in respective seasons (Table 2).
Table 2. Altitudinal distribution of fodder species in west Himalaya
Altitudinal
Species
T
Life Sh
Foms Cl
number
228
99
52
35
142
47
48
16
61
12
22
2
17
2
1
Abbreviations used:
F&G
42
31
25
14
T = Trees; Sh = Shrubs; Cl = Climbers; F & G = Forbs Grasses.
Altitudinal distribution
The distribution pattern of forage species along an altitudinal gradient is presented in Table 2.
The maximum number of species in all the life forms are distributed in subtropical zone followed
by temperate and subtropical zones respectively. The minimum number of species is distributed
in alpine zone. Majority of woody species is distributed in forest habitat. Few of them are
distributed in agroforestry systems. The Forbes and grasses are distributed in forests, grasslands,
meadows and also in agroforestry system.
Nativity
The nativity of a species reflects the origin/ place of first reports of the species. Of the total
recorded species, 113 are native to Himalaya and 22 have originated in the Himalaya and other
biogeograpical regions together. The nativity of the species is presented in Table 3. The high
number of Himalaya natives is the indication of high percentage of endemic species in the area.
Similarly, occurrence of non natives viz. species representing biogeorgraphical regions like
Irano-Turanian, Mediterranean, Indo-Chinese, Indian, Malaysian, Eastern Asiatic, Circumboreal,
Australian, Brazilian, North American, and others reflect the richness of the plant diversity
(Samant and Dhar, 1997).
Table 3. Nativity of fodder species of west Himalaya
Region
Total taxa
Himalayan region
113
Himalaya and other regions 22
Indian oriental
37
Others
111
%
40.50
7.89
13.26
39.78
111
Endemism
Inspite of the influence of non-native (exotic) species, the flora of Indian Himalaya includes
about 46.20% of the total endemics reported from India (Chatterjee, 1939). In the present study,
the taxa restricted to Indian Himalaya are considered as endemics and those extending their
distribution to adjacent countries viz. Nepal, Bhutan, Tibet, Pakistan and Afghanistan are
considered as near endemics. Of the total species, four (Chimonobambusa jaunsarensis,
Strobilanthes atropurpureus, Goldfussia dalhousiana and Cobresia duthiei) are restricted to
Indian Himalaya, hence, considered as endemics. On the other hand, 54 species showed their
range extension to adjacent countries/ states are consider as near endemics (Table 1). In a
broader sense (Sensu lato), these near endemics represent the endemics of whole Himalayan
region. The notable near endemics are Acer caesium, Bauhinia retusa, Boehmeria rugulosa,
Dalbergia sericeas, Brassaiopsis aculeata, Ficus nemoralis, Mours serrata, Persea duthiei,
Pyrus lanata, Pyrus vestita, Ulmus wallichiana, Deutzia staminea, Cotoneaster obtusa, Osbeckia
stellata, Leptodermis lanceolata, Abelia triflora, Premna interrupta, Taphidophora glauca etc.
The restricted spatial distribution of endemics reflects their recent arrival in the area and or their
poor regeneration and dispersal capacity (Dhar and Samant, 1993).
Nutritive value:
The nutritive value of a fodder species is determined by its ability to
provide a range of nutrients required by the animals for maintenance, growth, production and
reproduction. It is related to intake, chemical composition, digestibility and the presence or
absence of anti nutritional factors (Gutteridge, 1995). The nutritive value of some of the common
species of west Himalaya is known. Leaves of Bauhinia variegata contain (% of dry matter) 28%
dry matter, 19.03% ash, 3.39% calcium, phosphorus etc.; Celtis australis 14.9% crude protein,
45.8% nitrogen free extract, 4.1% ether extract, 20.2% crude fiber, 14.25% calcium, phosphorus
etc.; Castanopsis tribuloieds nitrogen free extract 43%, ether extract, 2.5%, crude fibre, 30.6%,
ash 3.6%; Ficus nemoralis dry matter 30%, crude protein 13.36%, nitrogen free extract 51.14%,
ether extract 4.26%, crude fiber 19.04%, ash 12.20% and Persea sp. dry matter 35%, crude
protein 10.90%, nitrogen free extract 55.43%, ether extract 2.89%, crude fiber 26.92%, ash
3.86%. Chemical composition, nutritive constituents and digestibility coefficients known for
Bauhinia vahlii, Cordia obliqua, Desmodium elegans, Ficus benghalensis, Ficus religiosa, Ficus
virens, F. religiosa, F. glomerata, Grewia oppositifolia, Indigofera gerardiana, Morus serrata,
Prunus cerasoides, Quercus glauca, Q. leucotrichophora, Q. floribunda, Quercus semecarpifolia
etc. suggests that these taxa are of a high value as fodder trees. However, there are still many
other potential species whose nutritive values are not known and these merit detailed
investigations.
Economic Value:
Apart from the use of the Himalayan plant species as fodder, the various
parts of these species are also used as food for humans medicine, fuel, timber and various other
purposes (Table 1). Of the total species, 53 are used as medicine, 105 as food, 46 as fuel, 16 as
timber and few species for other purposes. 74 species have more than two uses including their
use as fodder. These species are classified as multipurpose species (Table 1). For example, the
flowers of Bauhinia variegata are edible, petals have medicinal property and dry wood is used as
fuel; Diploknema butyracea provides edible fruits, vegetable fat and fuel; Castanopsis
tribuloides provides edible seeds, timber, and fuel. Similarly, species of Quercus provide
excellent fuel and timber. Seeds of Corylus jacqenmotii, fruits of Zanthoxylum armatum,
112
Terminalia chebula, Embica officinalis, Myrica esulenta; roots of Aparagus racemosus and
flowers of Bauhinia variegata are traded and are source of income generation in the area
(Samant and Dhar, 1997). Wood of Boehmeria rugulosa and Ougeinia oojeinensis is used for
making various types of utensils and culms of Thamnocalamus spatheflorus for making mats
(Locally known as Mosta) and other items and add to the income generation. The over
exploitation of such species has caused decrease in local population size. Acer caesium is well
known example. The over exploitation of this species for house building and fuel has placed this
species in the Red Data Book of Indian Plants (Nayar and Sastry, 1987). Similarly, there are
many other species whose regeneration potential is lost due to habitat degradation and their
population is decreasing fast. Such species need proper conservation and management strategies.
Conservation and management perspectives
To maintain the population and increase the production of fodder species, the following
measures seem appropriate for the conservation and management of fodder resource of west
Himalaya:1. Extensive and intensive surveys to prepare a comprehensive inventory/ database of fodder
resources of west Himalaya. Information on annual quantum of collection, species
preference, probability of use, resource use index, multiple utility and chemical composition
of fodder species.
2. Chemical analysis of plants used as fodder to identity the nutritive status.
3. Surveys and research on local/ indigenous knowledge of fodder species and forests and their
uses to improve planning and implementation of sustainable forest management.
4. Surveys, development and implementation of land use plans for appropriate planting,
afforestation, reforestation and forest rehabilitation.
5. Promote ex-situ and in-situ conservation of fodder resource.
6. Large scale propagation of highly preferred fodder species and dissemination of packages to
local inhabitants.
7. Identify biotechnological means to improve germination/ propagation of fodder species.
8. Impart training on lopping, nursery, propagation and plantation techniques.
9. Ensure people's participation and create awareness through training and extension
programmes and by means of mass media.
References
Anonymous 1883-1970. Index Kewensis Plantarum Phanerogamarum Vol. I-II (1883-1885 and
15 Suppl. (1886-1970), Clarendon press, Oxford..
Anonymous 1988. Animal Census of Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow.
113
Anonymous 1991. Census of Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow.
Chatterjee, D., 1939. Studies on the endemic flora of India and Burma. J. Royal Asiatic Soc.
Bengal, 5: 19 –67.
Dhar, U. and S.S. Sammant, 1993. Endemic plant diversity of Indian Himalaya I.
Ranunculacease and Paeoniaceae. J. Biogeography, 20 : 659- 668.
Gutteridge, R.C., 1995. The potential of nitrogen fixing tress in livestock production systems.
Paper presented in International Workshop on Nitrogen Fixing Trees for Fodder held in
Pune, India, March 20-25, 1995.
Nayar, M.P. and A.R.K. Sastry, 1987. Red Data Book of Indian Plants. Vol. I. Botanical
Survey of India, Howrah.
Purohit, K. and S.S.Samant, 1995. Fodder trees and shrubs of Central Himalaya. Gyanodaya
Prakashan, Naintal.
Samant S.S. and U.Dhar, 1997. Diversity, Endemism and Economic Potential of Wild Edible
Plants of Indian Himalaya. Intern. J. Sustain. Dev. & World Ecology, 4: 179-191.
Singh, J.S., S.P. Singh and Jeet Ram, 1998. Fodder and Fuelwood Resources of Central
Himalaya: Problems and Solutions. Report Submitted for Study Group on Fuel and
Fodder, Planning Commission, Government of India, New Delhi.
Table 1: Diversity, distribution, feeding season, nature, nativity, endemism and use values of
fodder species in West Himalaya
Taxa
Altitudinal
range (m)
Feeding
season
Nature
Nativity
Endemism
Other
uses
Acer
2400-3600
W, S
D
Reg. Himal.
NE
-
A. caesium
1500-3000
W, S
D
Reg. Himal.
NE
Fl, Hb
A. cappadocium
1800-2700
S
D
Japan
-
Fl, Hb
A. oblongum
500-2100
W, S
E
Reg. Himal.
-
-
A. villosum
2100-2700
S, R
D
Reg. Himal.
NE
Fl, Hb
Adina cordifolia Upto 1000
S
D
Ind. Or.
-
Fl, Hb
Aesculus indica
1500-2800
W, S
D
Reg. Himal.
NE
M,Ed
Alangium
900-1800
S
D
Ind.
Tress
Or., -
114
salviifolium
China, Japan
Albizia
chinensis
300-1500
S
D
Ind. Or.
-
Fl, Hb
A. lebeck
Upto 1000
S
D
Geront. Trop. -
Fl, Hb
A. procera
Upto 900
S
D
As. Trop.,
-
Fl, Hb
Alnus
nepalensis
1200-2700
W
D
Austr.
-
Fl,
Misc
Anogeissus
latifolia
Upto 1200
S
D
Reg. Himal.
-
Ed
Bauhinia
purpurea
300-800
S
D
Ind. Or.
-
M
B. racemosa
300-600
S
D
Ind.
Or., Burma,
China
M
B. retusa
300-1200
S
D
Reg. Himal.
M,Ed
B. variegata
300-1800
S, R, A
D
Ind.
Or., Burma,
China
M,Ed,
Fl
Betula alnoides
1500-2700
S, R, A
D
Reg. Himal.
-
B. utilis
2800-4000
S, R, A
D
Reg. Himal., Japan
M, Fl,
Misc
Boehmeria
rugulosa
500-1600
W,S
E
Reg. Himal
-
Ed,
Misc
Bridelia
montana
300-1500
W
E
Ind. Or.
-
Ed
B. retusa
Upto 900
W,S
E
Ind.
Malaya
Or. -
-
Bischoffia
javanica
Upto 1100
S
D
Ind.
Or., Malaya Ins.
Pacif.
-
Bombax ceiba
800-1500
S
D
Amer.,
Austr.
M, Ed
NE
-
-
115
Brassaiopsis
aculeata
1200-1400
S
E
Reg. Himal.
NE
-
Casearia
glomerata
Upto 1500
S
D
Ind. Or.
-
Fl
Callicarpa
arborea
Upto 1500
W,S
E
As. Trop.
-
AT
Carpinus
viminea
1800-2600
S
D
Reg. Himal.
-
Hb
Castanopsis
tribulodies
900-2000
W,S
E
Reg. Himal., Burma
Ed, AT,
Fl
Celtis australis
1600-2700
S
D
Europe, As. Trop.
Ed, Fl
C. eriocarpa
900-1800
S
D
Ind. Or.
-
Ed, Fl
C. tetrandra
300-1800
W,S
D
Ind.
Or., Malaya
Ed, Fl
Cordia vestita
300-1200
W,S
D
Reg. Himal.
-
Ed, Fl
C. obliqua
Upto 1500
W,S
D
Ind. Or.
-
Ed, Fl
Cornus capitata
1500-2200
W,S
E
Reg. Himal.
-
Ed, Fl
Corylus
jacquemontii
2200-2700
S
D
Europe .Or., As. Minor,
Reg. Himal.
Ed, Fl
Dalbergia
sericea
600-1500
S
D
Reg. Himal.
NE
Misc
Debregeasia
longifolia
600-1500
W,S
E
Ind. Or.
-
Ed
D. salicifolia
800-2100
W,S
E
Ind. Or.
-
Ed
Dendrocalamus
strictus
300-1500
W
E
Ind. Or.
-
Ed
,
Misc
Diploknema
butyracea
Upto 1200
W
D
Ind. Or.
-
Ed , Fl
Dodecadenia
grandiflira
2100-2600
Th
E
Reg. Himal
-
-
116
Ethetia
acuminata
Upto 1800
W
D
AS. Et austr. Trop
Ed , Fl
E. Laevis
Upto 1200
W
D
AS. Et austr. Trop
Ed , Fl
Emblica
officinalis
Upto 1500
S
D
As. Trop.
M , ed,
Fl, Rel
Eurya
acuminata
1200-2600
W
E
Reg. Himal., Malaya
Fl,
Misc
Ficus
benghalensis
Upto 1200
S
E
Ind.
Or., Afr. Trop
M, Ed,
Rel
F. glomerata
Upto 900
S,W
D
Ind.
Burma
Or., -
Ed
Ficus hispida
Upto 1200
W,S
E
As.et Austr. Trop
Ed
F. nemoralis
1200- 2000
W,S
SD
Reg. Himal
Ed
F. palmata
Upto 1800
W
D
Afr. Trop., Arab., Ind.
Or.
M, Ed
F.religiosa
Upto 1500
W,S
D
Indo. Or.
Ed, Rel
F.roxburghii
500-1700
W,S
D
Reg. Himal Burma
Ed,
Misc
F.rumphii
Upto 1200
W,S
D
Reg. Himal Malaya
Ed
F. semicordata
Upto 1500
Th
E
Ins. Selebes
-
Ed
F. subincisa
500-1500
Th
E
As. Trop.
-
Ed
F. virens
300-1800
W
D
Indo. Occ.
-
Ed
Glochidion
velutinum
300-1800
S
SD
Indo. Or.
-
Fl,
Misc
Grewia elastica
Upto 1500
W,R
E
Indo. Or.
-
Ed, Fl,
Fb
G. oppositifolia
300-1200
W
E
Reg. Himal
NE
Ed, Fl,
Fb
-
NE
-
117
Ilex dipyrena
1500-3000
W
E
Reg. Himal
-
Fl
Leucomeris
spectabilis
Upto 1500
S
E
Nepal
NE
-
Litsea
monpetala
Upto 1500
Th
E
Indo.
Or., Malaya
-
Litsea umbrosa
1500-2700
S
E
Reg. Himal
-
Ed
Madhuca indica
Upto 1000
S
D
Indo. Or.
-
Ed, Fl
Mallotus
philippensis
Upto 1500
S
E
As.et Austr.
-
FL,
Misc
Melia azedarach
Upto 1500
S
D
Reg. Himal
-
Hb,
Misc
Meliosma
dilleniaefolia
1800-2700
W,S
D
Reg. Himal
-
-
M. pungens
2000-2700
W,S
D
Reg. Himal., Japan
-
Morus laevigata
300-600
W,S
D
Indo. Or.
-
Ed
M. serrata
1000-2700
W,S
D
Reg. Himal
NE
Ed,
Misc
Myrica
esculenta
1500-2100
W
E
As. Trop. Et. Subtrop.
M, Ed
Ougeinia
oojeinensis
300-1500
Th
SD
Indo. Or.
-
Ed,
Misc
Persea duthiei
1500-2700
W,S
E
Reg. Himal.
NE
Fl
P. gamblei
500-1500
W,S
E
Reg. Himal.
NE
Fl
P. odoratissima
800-2100
W,S
E
Indo.
Or., Malaya
China
Fl
Phoebe
lanceolata
300-1400
W,S
E
Indo.
Burma
Fl
Phoenix humilis
300-1800
W,S
E
Indo. Or. , Burma,
China
Or., -
M, Ed
118
Pistacea
integerrima
600-1800
S,R,A
D
Reg. Himal., aegypt
,
Persea
M, Fl
Kydia calycina
Upto 1200
S
D
Indo.
China
-
Populus ciliata
1800-3000
S
D
Reg. Himal.
-
Hb
Prunus
cerasoides
600-2100
S
D
Reg. Himal.
-
Ed, Rel
P. cornuta
2000-3600
S
D
-
Ed ,Fl
P. undulata
1400-2700
S
D
Reg. Himal.
-
Ed ,Fl
Pyrus foliolosa
2700-3900
S
D
Reg. Himal.
NE
Ed ,Fl
P. Lanata
2400-3000
S
D
Reg. Himal.
NE
Ed ,Fl
P. pashia
800-2400
W,S
D
Reg. Himal.
-
M, Ed,
Fl, Rel
P. vestita
2400-3000
S
D
Reg. Himal.
NE
Ed ,Fl
Quercus
floribunda
2000-2700
W
E
Reg. Himal.
NE
Fl, Hb
Q. glauca
900-2000
W,S
E
Reg. Himal., Japan
Fl, AT
A. Camus
1200-2600
W,S
E
Reg. Himal.
-
M, Ed,
Hb,
AT, Fl
Q . lanuginosa
1800-2400
W
E
Reg. Himal.
-
Fl, Hb
Q.
semecarpifolia
2200-3500
W,S,A
E
Reg. Himal.
-
Fl, Hb
Q . serrata
1000-1800
S
D
Reg. Himal.
-
Fl, Hb
Rhus semialata
900-2100
S
D
Reg. Himal., China, Ins.
Sandvic
Or., -
Q
.
leutrichophora
Ed
119
Robinia pseudo- 1000-1600
acasia
S
D
Amer. Bor.
-
-
Salix
acmophylla
500-1800
S
D
Ind. Or.
-
-
S . Wallichiana
1800-3200
S
D
Indo.
Malaya
Or. -
-
Saurauia
napaulensis
900-1800
Th
E
Reg. Himal.
-
Ed
Sterculia pallens Upto 1400
S
D
Ind . Or.
-
Ed
Stranvaesia
naussia
800-2100
S
E
Reg. Himal.
-
Fl
Symplocos
chinensis
1200-2700
S
D
Reg. Himal., Burma,
China, Japan
-
S . ramosissima
1800-2500
W, S
E
Reg. Himal.
AT
Syzygium
cuminii
Upto 1500
S
E
As. et Austr. Trop.
M, ED,
Hb
Terminalia
belerica
Upto 1200
S
D
Indo. Or. , Malaya
M, Ed
T . chebula
Upto 1600
W, S
D
As. Trop.
-
M, Ed,
Fl
Trema orientalis 600-1500
Th
E
Geront. Trop
-
-
T . politoria
300-1500
Th
E
Reg. Himal.
-
-
Ulmus
wallichiana
1500-2800
S, R
D
Reg. Himal.
-
Hb
Viburnum
cotinifolium
1800-3300
S,R
D
Reg. Himal.
-
Ed
Wendlandia
exserta
Upto 1700
Th
E
Ind. Or.
-
Fl
Zanthoxylum
armatum
900-2100
W,S
E
Reg. Himal., China
-
M, Ed,
Misc
Shrubs
120
Aechmanthera
gossypina
900-2200
W,R
SD
Ind. Or.
-
-
Arundinaria
falcata
1800-2500
W
E
Reg. Himal.
NE
Misc
Asparagus
curillus
900- 2400
W,S
E
Reg. Himal.
NE
M, Ed
Berberis aristata
1800- 3200
S, R
D
Ind. Or.
-
M, Ed
B . asitatica
600-2500
S,R
D
Reg. Himal.
-
M, Ed
B . kumaonensis 2700-3600
S,R
D
Reg. Himal.
NE
M, Ed
B . lycium
1000-2600
S,R
D
Reg. Himal.
NE
M, Ed
B . petiolaris
2400- 3500
S,R
D
Ind. Or.
NE
M, Ed
B . umbellata
2700-3600
S,R
D
Reg. Himal.
NE
M, Ed
Boehmeria
macrophylla
500-1600
S,R
D
Reg. Himal., Burma
Ed
B . platyphylla
900-2100
R
D
As. et. Afr. Trop
Ins.
Pacific
-
Buddleia
paniculata
1100-2500
S
D
Reg. Himal., Burma
-
Callicarpa
macrophylla
300-1500
W
E
Ind. Or.
-
Ed
Cassia
floribunda
1000-1500
S
D
Cosmop.
Trop
-
Ed
Chimonobambu
sa jaunsarensis
2100-3200
W
E
Reg. Himal.
En
Misc
Colquhonia
coccinea
1500-2500
S,R
D
Reg. Himal.
-
-
Cotoneaster
affinis
2100-3200
S,R
D
Reg. Himal.
-
Fl
C. obtusa
1800- 2400
S
D
Reg. Himal.
NE
Fl, At
Cyathula
1200-2400
R
D
Reg. Himal.
-
M
121
tomentosa
Desmodium
elegans
1400-2400
S
D
Reg. Himal., China
FL
D . gangeticum
Upto 1800
R
D
As.
Trop., Austr.
M
D . sequax
300-1800
S
D
Reg. Himal.
-
-
Deutzia
staminea
900-2500
S,R
D
Reg. Himal.
NE
-
Ficus squamosa
Upto 1400
TH
E
Reg. Himal.
-
-
Flemingia
semialata
300-1800
S,R
SD
As. Trop.
-
-
Hiptage
benghalensis
Upto 1100
Th
E
Burma
-
-
Hymenopogon
parasiticus
1000-2400
S,R
D
Reg. Himal.
-
-
Indigofera
atropurpurea
900-1400
S
D
Reg. Himal., China
Ed,
Misc
I . cylindracea
Upto 1200
S,R
D
Afr., Austr.
-
-
I . gerardiana
1800-3000
S,R
D
Reg. Himal.
-
-
I . heterantha
900-2400
S
D
Reg. Himal.
NE
Ed, M
Lonicera
1200-3000
quinquelocularis
S,R
D
Reg. Himal.
-
Ed
Maesa indica
600-1800
Th
E
Ind. Or.
Malaya
Maousiya puya
500-1500
Th
D
Reg. Himal., Burma
-
Pentapanax
parasiticus
1000-2400
S
D
Reg. Himal.
-
-
Prinsepia utilis
1000-2700
S,R
SD
Reg. Himal.
-
Ed
Pyracantha
crenulata
600-2200
Th
E
Reg. Himal.
-
Ed, Fl,
AT
, -
Fl, Ed
122
Randia
tetrasperma
800-1800
Th
E
Reg. Himal.
NE
Rhamnus
virgatus
600-3000
S,R
D
Ind. Or. , As. Bor.
Ed
Rosa glandulosa 2700-3600
S,R
D
Reg. Himal.
Ed
R . macrophylla
1800-3600
S,R
D
Reg. Himal., China
Ed
R . moschata
900-2500
S,R
SD
Oriens
-
Ed
R . sericea
2400-3500
S,R
D
Reg. Himal.
-
Ed
R . webbiana
2700-4000
S,R
D
Reg. Himal.
NE
Ed
Rubus ellipticus
800-2100
Th
E
Indo. Or.
-
M, Ed
R . niveus
1800-3000
Th
E
Reg. Himal.
-
Ed
R . paniculatus
1200-2100
Th
E
Reg. Himal.
NE
Ed
R . rosaefolius
1500-2400
Th
E
As. Trop
-
Ed
Rumex hastatus
600-2100
W,S
E
Reg. Himal.
-
Ed
Osbeckia
stellata
1500-2200
S,R
D
Reg. Himal.
-
-
Ribes glaciale
2400-3600
S,R
D
Reg. Himal.
-
Ed
R . rubrum
2400-3500
S,R
D
Europe, As. et
Amer.
Bor.
Ed
Spiraea
canescens
1500-3000
S
D
Reg. Himal.
NE
-
S . lindleyana
2000-3300
S
D
Reg. Himal.
NE
-
Thamnocalamus 2000- 2600
falconeri
W,S
E
Reg. Himal.
NE
Misc
T. spathiflora
2400-3300
W,S
E
Reg. Himal.
NE
Misc
Triumfetta
pilosa
Upto 1800
S,R
D
As. et Afr. Trop
-
Urena lobata
Upto 1500
S,R
D
Reg. Trop.
M
NE
-
Ed
123
Zanthoxylum
acanthopodium
900- 2100
W,S
E
Reg. Himal.
-
M, Ed
Thysanolaena
maxima
Upto 1800
Th
E
As. Trop
-
Misc
Strobilanthes
atropurpureus
2200- 3000
Th
E
Reg. Himal.
En
-
S . wallichii
2100-2900
S
D
Reg. Himal.
NE
-
Woodfordia
fruticosa
Upto 1800
W
E
As. et Afr. Trop.
M,
Ed
Urtica
parviflora
300-2200
W,S
E
Reg. Himal.
M, Ed
Inula cappa
800-2400
S,R
D
Reg. Himal., Java, China
M
Leptodermis
lanceolata
1200-2400
S
D
Reg. Himal.
NE
-
Abelia triflora
1800-3000
S
D
Reg. Himal.
NE
-
Ampelocissus
rugosa
1600-2100
S,R
D
Ind. Or.
-
Ed
Atlosia
scarabaeoiaes
Upto 1000
S,R
D
Austr.
-
-
A . mollis
900-1500
S,R
D
Ind.
Or., Malaya
-
Bauhinia vahlii
Upto 1400
W,S
D
Ind. Or.
-
M , Ed,
Misc
Berchemia
floribunda
600-1800
S,R
D
Reg. Himal.,
-
-
B . lineata
2100-2700
S,R
D
China
-
-
Calamus tenuis
Upto 600
W,S
E
Reg. Himal., Burma,
Cochinch.
Ed,
Misc
Cissamplelos
Upto 1800
S,R
D
Reg. Trop.
M
-
Fl,
Climbers/ lianas
-
124
pariera
Clematis grata
900- 2400
S
D
Reg. Himal., China, Afr.
Trop.
-
C
. 900-2400
buchananiana
S
D
Reg. Himal.
-
-
C . napaulensis
1400-2100
Th
E
Nepal
NE
-
Ficus
sarmentosa
600-2100
Th
E
Reg. Himal., Burma
Ed
F . scandens
300-1000
Th
E
Reg. Himal., Burma
Ed
Hedera
nepalensis
1200-2600
Th
E
Europe, Afr. Bor.
As.
Temp.
M
Holboellia
angustifolia
1500-2700
Th
SD
Reg. Himal.
-
Ed
Jasminum
dispermum
1200-2100
Th
E
Reg. Himal.
-
-
Millettia
auiculata
Upto 1200
S,R
D
Reg. Himal.
-
-
Mucuna
nigricans
800-1100
S
D
Cochinch.
-
M
M . pruiens
600-1100
S
D
Amphing.
Trop.
-
M
Premna
interrupta
1500-2000
S
D
Reg. Himal.
NE
Ed
Asparagus
racemosus
Upto 1200
S
E
Afr. Trop., Austr.
-
Parthenocissus
semicordata
1500-3000
S,R
D
Indo. Or.
-
Ed
Pueraria
tuberosa
300-1200
S
D
Reg. Himal.
NE
M
Sabia
1700-2700
S,R
D
Reg. Himal.
-
125
camanulata
Shuteria
densiflora
300-1200
Th
E
Indo. Or.
-
Smilax aspera.
900-2100
Th
E
Europe,
Oriens. Indo.
Or.
M , Ed
S . parviflora
900-2400
Th
E
Reg. Himal.
-
M
S . indica
1000-1400
Th
E
Indo. Or.
-
-
S . vaginata
2100-3200
Th
E
Reg. Himal.
-
-
Stephania
glabra
900-1800
S
D
As. Trop.
-
M
Tinospora
cordifolia
Upto 1200
S,R
D
Indo. Or.
-
M
Trachelospermu
m lucidum
600-1800
Th
E
Reg. Himal.
NE
-
Vitis lanata
900-2100
Th
E
Indo.
China
V . capreolata
500-1200
Th
E
Reg. Himal.
-
-
Raphidophora
glauca
800-1500
S
D
Reg. Himal.
NE
Ed
Porana
paniculata
800-1200
Th
E
Indo.
Or., Malaya
M
Vallaris
solanacea
Upto 900
W,S
E
Indo.
Burma
-
Or., -
Or., -
-
-
Forbs and Grasses
Polygonum
capitatum
800- 2000
R
-
Reg. Himal.
-
Ed
Dicliptera
roxburghiana
1400-2200
R
-
Indo. Or.
-
-
Hedychium
spicatum
1400-2200
R
-
Reg. Himal.
-
M
Arundinella
1000-2000
R
-
Indo. Or.
-
126
nepalensis
A . pumila
1300-2400
R
-
Abyss.
-
-
Imperata
cylindrica
1000-2000
R
-
Reg. Himal.
-
-
Pilea scripta
1500-2800
R
-
Reg. Himal.
-
-
Setaria glauca
800-2300
R
-
Europe , As. Temp.
-
Achyranthes
aspera
1200-3300
S,R
-
Geront Trop.
-
M
A . bidentata
1500-3200
S,R
-
As. Trop.
-
M
Themeda
anathera
1000-2200
R
-
Indo. Or.
-
-
Barlaria cristata
800-1600
R
-
Indo.
Burma
Or., -
-
Polystichum
lentum
1500-2000
R
-
-
-
-
Meconopsis
aculeata
3400-4200
S,R
-
Reg. Himal.
NE
M, Ed
Arbidopsis
himalaica
2800—3800
S,R
-
Reg. Himal.
-
-
Thlaspi
andersonii
3000-3800
S,R
-
Europe , As. Bor.
-
Astragallus
chorostachys
3000-3600
S,R
-
Reg. Himal.
NE
-
A . himalayanus
2500-3500
S,R
-
Reg. Himal.
NE
-
Potentilla
argyrophylla
3000-3800
S,R
-
Reg. Himal.
NE
-
P.
atrosanguinea
3000-4000
S,R
-
Reg. Himal.
NE
-
P . peduncularis
3200-3800
S,R
-
Reg. Himal.
-
-
Bupleurum
candollii
3000-4000
S,R
-
Reg. Himal.
-
127
Cortia depressa
3500-4200
S,R
-
Reg. Himal.
NE
-
Trachydium
roylei
3200-3800
S,R
-
Reg. Himal.
NE
-
Taraxacum
officinalis
1800-4200
S,R
-
Reg.
Bor.
Polygonum
3000-4000
S,R
-
Reg. Himal.
NE
-
Juncus
himalensis
3000-4000
S,R
-
Reg. Himal.
-
-
Carex nubigena
3200- 4000
S,R
-
Reg. Himal.
-
-
Kobresia duthiei 3500- 4000
S,R
-
Reg. Himal.
En
-
Agrostis
munroana
2700- 3500
S,R
-
Afghan
-
-
Poa alpina
3000-4000
S,R
-
Reg. Bor. Et
-
-
Euphorbia
stracheyi
3200-4200
S,R
-
Reg. Himal.
-
-
Temp. -
-
Abbreviations used: E = Evergreen; D = Deciduous; SD = Semideciduous; M = Medicinal;
Ed = Edible; Fl = Fuel; AT = Agricultural Tools; Hb = House building; Misc = Miscellaneous;
Rel = Religious; Fb = Fibre; W = Winter; S = Summer; R= Rainy; A = Autumn; Th =
Throughout; En = Endemic; NE = Near Endemic; Reg. Himal. = Himalayan Region; Ind. Or.
= Oriental India; Geront. Trop. = Tropical Geront; As. Trop. = Tropical Asia; Austr. =
Australia; Ins. Pacif. = Pacific Insular; Amer. = America ; As. minor = Asia Minor; As. et.
Austr. Trop. = Tropical Asia and Australia; Afr. = Africa; Afr. Trop. = Tropical Africa ; Arab.
= Arabia; Reg. Temp. Bor. = Temperate Boreal Region; Ins. Selebes = Selebes Insular; Ind.
Occ. = Occidental india; As. Trop. Et Subtrop. = Tropical and Subtropical Asia; As. Bor. =
Boreal Asia; Ins. Sandvic = sandvic insular; Amer. Bor. = Boreal America; As. et Afr. Trop. =
Tropical Asia and Africa; Cosmop. Trop. = Cosmopolitan Tropics; As. et Amer. Bor. = Boreal
Asia and America; Reg. Trop. = Tropical Region; Afr. Bor. = Boreal Africa; As. Temp.=
Temperate Asia; Amphing. Trop. = Tropical Amphigaea; Abyss. = Abyssinia; Reg. Trop. Et
Subtrop. = Tropical and Subtropical region; Polynes. = Polynesia; Reg. Meditr. =
Mediterranean Region; Madag. = Madgascar; Afghan. = Afghanistan; Reg. Bor. Et Arct. =
Boreal and Arctic regions.
128