CHAPTER 10
PRACTICING SPEECH WORDING
CHAPTER SUMMARY
This chapter addresses the critical role of language in the speech process,
specifically discussing how language can be used to speak clearly, vividly,
emphatically, and appropriately, while remaining sensitive to the audience. It
begins with the foundational relationship between language and meaning, and
then continues, discussing the impact of language, its use in public speaking,
and its influence on the audience.
TRANSITION FROM THE 12TH EDITION
Overall, the chapter’s information and examples have been updated to reflect
current issues and resources. Specifically, the section on strengthening
vocabulary has been expanded, providing resources to accomplish this goal, as
well as the section on sensitivity, which now includes new material on avoiding
profanity and vulgarity.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Introduction (p. 175): Effective speech wording evolves out of an appreciation for
the complex relationship between language and meaning, and an understanding
of the specific tactics used to increase the audience’s recognition and
comprehension of that meaning.
Language and Meaning—though it may not seem so, the relationship
between language and meaning is complex (pp. 175-176).
A. First, language must be learned.
Both individuals and generations, within the language community,
must be learned anew.
Learning language is a continual process.
Words and their meanings are not always learned in the same way.
B. Second, each utterance is a creative act.
Language is used to create new sentences representing meaning.
Though there is some repetition, most utterances are unique.
C. Third, a word’s meaning is not fixed, but dependent on its
interpreter.
1. Denotation refers to the direct, explicit meaning given to a word
by its language community (the dictionary definition).
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Denotation reflects current and past practice in the language
community.
Because dictionaries use words to define words, definitions
and meanings vary across dictionaries and time.
Also, meaning will depend on context—the position of the word
in the sentence and its relationship to words around it—as
well
2. Connotation refers to the feelings or evaluations associated with
a word.
a. Perception of a word’s connotation is perhaps more
important than its denotation, in how the word’s meaning is
interpreted.
b. Failure to realize the possible misunderstandings/
miscommunications caused by a word’s connotation can
hurt the speaker.
Speaking clearly—reducing the use of ambiguous and confusing language by
using more specific, concrete, precise, and familiar words (pp. 177-180).
A. Using specific language—clarifying meaning, by narrowing what is
understood from a general category to a particular item of group
within a category.
1. General, abstract, and imprecise words usually come to mind
first when expressing a thought, forcing the listener to choose
from multiple images, rather than a singular focused image.
2. The more listeners are forced to provide their images, the more
likely they are to see meanings differently than the speaker
intended.
3. Drawing from a larger vocabulary, both speakers and listeners,
provide more choices for conveying and receiving the correct
meaning.
a. Utilizing a larger vocabulary does not mean impressing the
audience with unfamiliar words.
b. Rather, select the simplest, most familiar word to convey the
specific meaning.
c. Use a more difficult word only if it is the very best for the
context.
B. Providing details and examples—achieving clarity by adding details
and examples to words or messages lacking a concrete or precise
meaning.
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C. Being sensitive to cultural differences—understanding how
individualism and collectivism influence expectations of and clarity in
language.
Individualistic cultures emphasize individual goals more than group
goals because the culture values uniqueness.
Use low-context communication where information is
embedded in the message.
Present information directly.
Operate by saying directly what is meant and getting directly to
the point.
Collectivistic cultures emphasize group goals more than individual
goals because these cultures value harmony and solidarity.
Use high-context communication where people expect other to
know how they’re thinking and feeling.
Present some messages indirectly to avoid embarrassing the
other person.
Operate by intentionally framing information ambiguously,
where the listener must understand both the message and
the context.
Speaking vividly and emphatically—emphasizing key words and ideas
through memorable language (pp. 180-183).
A. Using vivid language—using words and phrases that are full of life,
bright and intense.
A simile is a direct comparison of dissimilar things using the word
like or as.
A metaphor is a comparison that establishes a figurative identity
between the objects being compared.
A good speaker will use creativity to develop original and vivid
metaphors and similes to help convey meaning.
B. Emphasizing key words—instructing the audience on what it should
pay most attention to by giving weight to certain words or ideas.
1. Proportion refers to emphasizing a word by the amount of time
spent discussing it.
2. Sequential positioning refers to emphasizing by presenting
information in the order of importance.
3. Repetition refers to emphasizing by repeating important words
and ideas.
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4. Emphasizing through internal transitions refers to highlighting
the relationship between main points.
Speaking appropriately—using language that adapts to the needs, interests,
knowledge, and attitudes of the listeners and avoiding language that
alienates audience members (pp. 183-187).
A. Adapting the formality of language to the occasion.
1. A speaker’s goal is to adapt his/her language to the occasion
and specific audience.
2. Appropriate language reflects the audience and the occasion,
but does not require the speaker to adopt unfamiliar or
uncharacteristic language patterns.
3. As a rule, speakers usually adopt more informal language with
smaller familiar audiences, and more formal language with
larger audiences or with those who have authority.
B. Limiting the use of jargon and slang.
Jargon refers to technical terminology, meaningless talk, or
gibberish.
Slang refers to informal, nonstandard vocabulary.
When speaking with an audience outside of a certain language
community, a speaker should limit the use of jargon or slang
because it will not be familiar with the terminology.
C. Showing sensitivity—avoiding sexist, racist, or otherwise biased
expressions that belittle a person or group.
1. Avoid using profanity or vulgarity, despite the modern
acceptance of casual swear words such as “hell”.
2. Avoid using inclusive language, such as the generic “he”,
nonparallel language, and marking.
3. Avoid using hate speech—the use of words and phrases to
demean and express prejudice toward another person or group.
LECTURE IDEAS
Introduce students to the legal aspects of libel, slander, and hate speech,
specifically focusing on the consequences of misusing words, whether intentional
or not. For specific information about slander, libel, and hate speech, as well as
additional resources, refer to (a) the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) web
site http://www.aclu.org/StudentsRights/StudentsRights.cfm?ID=9004&c=159; (b)
The Department of State’s unfettered press web site at
http://usinfo.state.gov/products/pubs/press/press08.htm; and the Society of
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Professional Journalists’ website http://www.spj.org,. For a closer look at hate
speech, specifically, refer to the additional resources at the end of this chapter.
Speaker credibility and audience adaptation are two major elements of effective
speaking. Find on INFOTRAC Payne and Downing’s (2000, Journal of
Technical Writing, 30.4) article “Speaking Ebonics in a professional context:
The role of ethos/source credibility and perceived sociability of the speaker.”
Based on the article, generate a class lecture addressing when it is and is not
appropriate or effective to adopt language and speech patterns of the
audience.
Virgil Scudder’s (2004, Vital Speeches of the Day, 70.18) article “The Importance
of Communication in a Global World” explores the communicative barrier
erected by culture. According to Scudder, the communicative gap between
cultures must be bridged. Using this article, discuss the impact of culture on
all aspects of communication. With such an embedded hold on culture, how is
culture-specific communication to be bypassed? What recent events involving
cultural overlaps have highlighted miscommunication?
Contact the library about “great” speeches of the past to show how American
language has changed from formal to informal, both in style and structure.
Lead the class in a discussion to find more examples of how modern speech
patterns have changed.
Have students complete the exercises under “Choosing Effective Language” in
the Infotrac College Edition Student Activities Workbook for Communication.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Is fame an excuse for inappropriate speech acts? If so, is it ethical? If no, why
does it continue to be used as such? How often are such “celebrities” held
accountable for their word usage? Do accountability and consequence
regulate a celebrity’s inappropriate language?
2. More or less, the modern business arena is a global market. How has
language adapted to serve a more universal audience and usage? Will
cultural differences in language and experience eventually fade away?
3. Reflect on experiences that you have had during private and/or public
communication transactions, which you believe were influenced by the
cultural differences of the participants. How would you characterize the
event? What were the major aspects of, or turning points in, the
communication? Was it successful/ unsuccessful? Could knowledge of the
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differences between high and low context speakers have helped your
experience with others? How?
4. Some scholars believe college students are their own culture (see IRM
Chapter 5). As a unique group, generate a list of words most commonly used
by your demographic. Which words are suitable for your class speeches
(why)? Which are inappropriate (why)? In your class, what determines the
level of appropriateness—the instructor, your peers, the context, society?
CLASS ACTIVITIES
Activity #10.1: The Ladder of Abstraction
This activity is designed to help students differentiate between specific language
and abstract language. Remind students that by their nature, abstract terms do
not create mental pictures. Rather, specific images are generated through the
use of concrete terms. The ladder of abstraction allows students to see a
continuum of descriptions of the same word, from the most abstract to the most
specific. For example:
PHONE CALL
DESCRIPTION
Most Abstract
“Hi, what are you doing?”
“Nothing.”
“Nothing?”
“Nope. Just watching TV.”
“TV huh?”
“Yeah. You know, CBS.”
“CBS?”
“Yeah, season finale of Survivor.”
Most Concrete
Most Abstract
A thing
An animal
A mammal
A carnivore
A cat
A male cat
A domestic male cat
My 3-year-old tabby cat MoMo
Most Concrete
Activity #10.4: Story Chain
Provide students with a list of random words (5-7). Using ALL of the words, the
students must create a short story (only a paragraph or so), complete with
characters, a scene, and some form of action. Encourage students to be as
creative a possible. When everyone is finished, have students deliver their short
stories in front of the class. Discuss the similarities and differences in their
stories, as well as the reasons for such. Below is an example list of words and
two actual student stories.
LIST: Ocean, Navigate, Doctor, Blender, Captain, Eye Patch, Crab, Horse
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Student #1: Captain Blender was as dangerous as they come, sailing the ocean
with his pirate crew. Though his sight was hindered by an eye patch, it did not
prevent him from navigating the waters. One day his ship, the Cunning Crab, was
approaching land and Blender spotted his long lost horse Doc’.
Student #2: After a choppy night navigating the ocean, Captain Ahab was feeling
seasick. Eyes blurred by the salt water, Ahab mistook the crew’s dog for a horse.
The ship’s doctor recommended he drink a crab smoothie, freshly prepared in
the galley’s blender, and wear and eye patch for the remainder of the day.
Activity #10.5: Ready, Set…Draw
Have a student volunteer to describe a drawing. The drawing is of shapes; very
abstract (see below). The first speaker must describe the drawing to the
audience, while the audience attempts to recreate it. The audience cannot ask
for clarification from the volunteer, and the volunteer may only discuss the “step”
or “direction” he/she is on (cannot go back and discuss a previous direction).
When finished with the first drawing, have a second student volunteer to describe
a second drawing. This time, students may ask for clarification from the
volunteer, but only for the “step” or “direction” they are presently on (again,
cannot go back to discuss a previous direction). Which outcome is more
accurate? Why?
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Activity #10.6: Using Vivid Language
OPTION A
This activity exemplifies the importance of using specific, concrete, precise, and
familiar language. In order to view how each audience member attaches different
meanings to different abstract terms, have the class write the first word that
comes to mind in response to the following list of “generic and ambiguous” terms.
For discussion, choose three words (or more depending on available time) and
have everyone share their individual reactions. Remember, one person’s
Chihuahua is another’s Bullmastiff.
TERMS:
College
Dog
Love
Vacation
Green
Foreign
Blonde
Car
Food
Good
Expensive
Cheap
House
Hot
Cool
Done
Sweet
Fun
OPTION B
Have students choose a word from the list in Option A. Their goal is to create a
vivid picture in their classmates’ heads, of a time or place—related to their
word—through the use of vivid language. Students are to individually present
their scenarios to the class. Afterwards, discuss the pictures. Which was the
most vivid? Why? What did the speaker do to make the picture vivid? How did
the speaker use concrete language and shared experiences?
GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMS
concrete words: words that appeal to the senses of conjure a picture.
connotation: the feelings or evaluations we associate with a word.
context: the position of a word in a sentence and its relationship to other words
around it.
denotation: the meaning found in the dictionary.
emphasis: the weight or importance given to certain words or ideas.
generic language: using words that may apply only to one sex, race, or other
group as though they represent everyone.
hate speech: the use of words and phrases to demean another person or group
to express the speaker’s hatred and prejudice toward that person or group.
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internal transitions: words and phrases that emphasize the relationship
between ideas within a main point.
jargon: technical terminology; meaningless talk, gibberish.
marking: the addition of sex, race, age, or other group designations to a
description.
metaphor: a comparison that establishes a figurative identity between objects
being compared.
nonparallel language: language in which terms are changed because of the
sex, race, or other group characteristics of the individual.
precise words: words that narrow a larger category.
simile: a direct comparison of dissimilar things using like or as.
slang: informal, nonstandard vocabulary.
speaking appropriately: using language that adapts to the needs, interests,
knowledge, and attitudes of the listener and avoiding language that alienates
audience members.
specific language: words that clarify meaning by narrowing what is understood
from a general category to a particular item or group within that category.
vivid language: language that is full of life—vigorous, bright, and intense.
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TEST QUESTIONS
CHAPTER 10
Multiple Choice
1.
All of the following are reasons for language’s complexity except
__________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
language must be learned
language can be shared
language is unique
language has two types of meaning
ANS: b
2.
__________ is a word’s direct, explicit meaning given by its language
community.
a.
b.
c.
d.
denotation
demarcation
connotation
context
ANS: a
3.
SEE PAGE 176
__________ is the feeling or evaluation associated with a word.
a.
b.
c.
d.
denotation
demarcation
connotation
context
ANS: c
4.
SEE PAGE 175
SEE PAGE 176
If the audience is having difficulty understanding the intended meaning of a
word, it can refer to the word’s __________, or its relationship to other
words in the sentence.
a.
b.
c.
d.
denotation
demarcation
connotation
context
ANS: d
SEE PAGE 176
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5.
Saying, “The elderly gentlemen in the black suit and red tie entered the
neighborhood grocery,” instead of, “The man went to the store,” is an
example of a speaker __________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
using denotation
speaking quickly
using specific language
speaking complexly
ANS: c
6.
If a speaker attempts to evoke the audience’s senses—touch, taste, smell,
see, hear—then he/she is relying on __________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
concrete words
precise words
mental pictures
vivid cues
ANS: a
7.
SEE PAGE 177
Narrowing a description from “blue collar worker” to “construction worker” to
“bulldozer operator” is an example of using __________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
concrete words
precise words
mental pictures
vivid cues
ANS: b
8.
SEE PAGE 177
SEE PAGE 177
What is a speaker attempting to do by claiming “Mo is ornery in the
morning,” and following with “He refuses to stop meowing until he has been
held and receives a saucer of milk”?
a.
b.
c.
d.
Speak appropriately
Use vivid language
Introduce the audience to an ill tempered cat
Explain the statement by providing details
ANS: d
SEE PAGE 179
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9.
When a speaker is addressing a __________ audience, he she should use
concrete examples, rather than indirectly stating the message.
a.
b.
c.
d.
high context
low context
open minded
closed minded
ANS: b
SEE PAGE 180
10. According to scholars, the rules, expectations, and clarity of verbal
communication __________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
are learned during childhood
have no effect on the interpretation of meaning
will vary from culture to culture
are subject to transformation
ANS: c
SEE PAGE 180
11. The sentiment, “Float like a butterfly, sting like a bee” is an example of a
__________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
metaphor
hyperbole
simile
exaggeration
ANS: c
SEE PAGE 181
12. If a speaker wanted to establish a figurative comparison between two ideas,
he she would want to use a __________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
metaphor
hyperbole
simile
exaggeration
ANS: a
SEE PAGE 181
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13. In order to focus the audience’s attention on the most important elements of
a speech’s content, the speaker must __________ the information.
a.
b.
c.
d.
broadcast
emphasize
define
verbalize
ANS: b
SEE PAGE 181
14. If a speaker carefully planned the order of a speech’s main points, then
he/she is concerned with __________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
proportion
sequential position
repetition
internal transition
ANS: b
SEE PAGE 181
15. Devoting more time to certain ideas, and less time to others, is an emphasis
technique known as __________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
proportion
sequential position
repetition
internal transition
ANS: a
SEE PAGE 181
16. Communicating respect for, and acceptance of, the audience is a matter of
__________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
emphasizing important information
speaking vividly
understanding meaning
speaking appropriately
ANS: d
SEE PAGE 183
207
17. While giving an anti-drug speech to a group of middle school students, a
speaker attempts to use what she believes is common teen slang. Rather
than connecting with the audience, the speaker appears insincere because
she didn’t consider __________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
the formality of the occasion
the appropriateness of jargon in a speech
the level of sincerity expected by the audience
all of the above
ANS: d
SEE PAGE 183
18. __________means using the language that adapts to the needs, interests,
knowledge, and attitudes of the listeners, and avoiding language that
alienates the audience.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Identifying similarities
Adapting to the occasion
Speaking appropriately
Completing the speech process
ANS: c
SEE PAGE 183
19. What is problematic with a speaker begging the audience, “Guys, we can
make a difference in the fight against violence if we just organize our
resources”?
a.
b.
c.
d.
The use of generic language
The use of vague language
The suggestion of a problem
Begging for help
ANS: a
SEE PAGE 185
20. While delivering an anecdote about defensive driving, the speaker adds,
“Jim is a great driver over the age of 70.” What is the speaker doing in this
statement?
a.
b.
c.
d.
Using hate speech against an elderly driver
Marking Jim as an elderly driver
Attempting to create an internal transition
Using language appropriate for an elderly audience
ANS: b
SEE PAGE 185
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True-False
21. T F When a speaker selects a word to represent a certain meaning, the
audience members will automatically understand what is meant.
ANS: F
SEE PAGE 176
22. T F Every utterance is a creative act.
ANS: T
SEE PAGE 176
23. T F Speakers can increase their credibility by impressing the audience with
his/her extensive vocabulary.
ANS: F
SEE PAGE 177
24. T F With a high context audience, a speaker can reasonably expect
audience members to know how he/she is feeling and what he/she is
thinking.
ANS: T
SEE PAGE 180
25. T F A speaker is much more likely to speak vividly if he/she avoids
spending too much time considering the physical or psychological
meanings of the words used.
ANS: F
SEE PAGE 181
26. T F By emphasizing a word or phrase, a speaker can alert the audience to
important material.
ANS: T
SEE PAGE 181
27. T F A speaker can appropriately adapt to the audience by using language
in a way that he/she believes the audience to speak.
ANS: F
SEE PAGE 183
28. T F Incorporating unfamiliar slang or jargon is a creative way to create a
mental picture in the minds of audience members.
ANS: F
SEE PAGE 185
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29. T F Casual swearing will not be frowned upon by the audience, but rather
seen as an attempt to create a more realistic speech.
ANS: false
SEE PAGE 185
30. T F Hate speech is always unethical.
ANS: true
SEE PAGE 187
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
Cowan, G., Resendez, M., Marshall, E., & Quist, R. (2002, June). Hate speech
and Constitutional protection: Priming values of equality and freedom.
Journal of Social Issues, 58(2). pp. 247-264.
O’Neil, T. (2001, November 5). I was a victim of Sunder Thobani’s hate speech.
Newsmagazine (BC Edition), 28(21). p. 2.
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