GUIDE TO THE GYMNOSPERMS
The Medicinal Uses of Pine Trees and Their Relatives
by Nathaniel Whitmore
GUIDE TO THE GYMNOSPERMS: The Medicinal Uses of Pine Trees and Their Relatives
by Nathaniel Whitmore, herbalist
January 2013
An Ethnobotanical Study of the Delaware Highlands
INTRODUCTION
PART I: Botany
Pinaceae – Pine Family
Cupressaceae – Cypress Family
Taxaceae – Yew Family
PART II: Herbology
Native American Uses of Wild Gymnosperms in Our Area
Native American Uses of Western Gymnosperms
Native American Uses of Southern Gymnosperms
Uses of Gymnosperms Cultivated in Our Area
European uses of Gymnosperms
Asian uses of Gymnosperms
REFERENCE CHARTS
INDEX
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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INTRODUCTION
This paper was born of my frustrations with herbal medicine as it is manifested today.
Just as religion reduces the highest human experiences to mindless dogma, main-stream
herbalism takes a true working knowledge of plant medicine and reduces it to a fluffy,
sensational, this-for-that quackery that is fit only for magazine articles. The practical,
intuitive, healing art and science of herbal medicine is just about lost. I believe that the
revival of herbal medicine depends partially on a rekindling of our intimacy with trees
and partially on preservation of Native American traditions (as well as many other things
that are not necessary to mention right now.) This is why I present this paper.
It is interesting that modern herbal medicine has largely forgotten the trees. We focus on
a select few herbs, and a couple trees like Slippery Elm and Willow, while largely
ignoring the forests that surround us. This is very strange to me, for it is deepest in the
forest that I sense the strongest healing energy. And it must be that trees, with their age,
size, and majestic form, hold much medicinal force.
You can easily feel the powerful life-force in a tree
by hugging or holding your hand on it.
The forests are disappearing. Alongside their
destruction and the growth of the modern lifestyle
is the loss of the tradition Native American way of
life. It is important to relearn and preserve Native
wisdom and practice. Native Americans
extensively used the native trees. The evergreens,
for instance, were an important source of vitamin C
and other nutrients during the winter.
Evergreens are also known as conifers. They make
up the bulk of a group of plants called
gymnosperms. We have one conifer that is not
evergreen: Larch or Tamarack (Larix). You can
also find the deciduous Bald Cypress (Taxodium
distichum) under cultivation; and likewise the
broadleaf gymnosperm Ginkgo biloba is often
planted. (I will stick to the conifers for this paper.) Generally, though, we consider
gymnosperms to be the evergreens. “Gymnosperm” means “naked-seed,” which means
that the female part is exposed so that it can be directly pollinated by the male pollen that
blows to it on the wind. The angiosperms that are responsible for all the beautiful
flowers like Tulips and Roses have female parts that are enclosed and must be reached by
the male pollen through the complexity of the flower.
It is my hope that this document helps to encourage people to learn about the world
around them and how to heal with our wild plants. I also hope that it stimulates
discussion and research in the nation’s community of professional herbalists. Further, I
intend for this to help preserve Native American herbal medicine.
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PART I: BOTANY
Recognizing a gymnosperm is relatively easy. For our sake, we can look for the “Pine
Trees” (or, more properly, the conifers). But take note that while many refer to any
conifer, or evergreen, as a Pine Tree there are really three botanical families represented
in our area: the Pine, Cypress, and Yew families. So, from here on out when I use “Pine”
I mean “Pinus” and when I say “Pine family” I mean “Pinaceae.” I encourage you to do
the same.
The Pine family contains several genera: Pinus (Pine), Picea (Spruce), Abies (Fir), Tsuga
(Hemlock), and Larix (Larch) are found in
our area. Pseudotsuga menziesii (Douglasfir) and some others (including nonindigenous Pine) can be found in
cultivation. I regularly use White Pine,
which is partially due to it being more
common in my area than the other Pines. I
also commonly make use of Hemlock,
which is a primary tree of certain forests
and the host of one of my favorite
medicinal mushrooms, Ganoderma tsugae
(Reishi). I do not make much use of the
Spruces, except for the essential oil of
Black Spruce, which was introduced to me
by my dear friend Maya. I am also fond of
the essential oil of Balsam Fir, though I
rarely use the “herb” as medicine.
The Cypress family has Taxodium (Bald
Cypress), Thuja (Arbor-vitae),
Chamaecyparis (Atlantic White-cedar), and
Juniperus (Juniper and Red Cedar). Red
Cedar is particularly dear to me, for I use it
as incense for prayer. I also burn Red Cedar for use as cleansing smudge. It is the
closest to the Western Cedars. Thuja can also be used in such a way. I suppose any
aromatic gymnosperm could, but these are preferred in our area.
The Yew family is mostly found in landscapes as our native Taxus (Yew) is overbrowsed
by deer. English and Japanese domestic varieties are quiet common under cultivation and
sometimes naturalize (spread into the wild from cultivation). I would like to point out
right away that while the other gymnosperms are more-or-less non-toxic, the Yews are
toxic. So to avoid poisoning, the beginner should quickly learn the difference between
Yews and the others, especially the Hemlock and Fir that superficially resemble Taxus
because of the leaf (needle) arrangement. The red “berry” of Taxus is edible, but not the
seed (which is actually visible, as it is a gymnosperm, in the cup-shaped “berry”). It is
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very common for poisonous plants to concentrate toxins in the seeds while producing an
innocuous fruit.
The Pines and Yews have needles while
the Cypress family has scale-like leaves.
(One exception to this generalization is
Bald Cypress, which has needle-like
leaves that alternate on deciduous
terminal twigs.) They are all needle-like
in a way, but you will notice the scale
quality in the Cypress family, such as
with Juniperus or Thuja. If you then
learn to recognize the Yew needle (which
are rare in the wild anyway), the
remainder varieties of needles can be
known as members of the Pine family.
Another distinction of the gymnosperms
is their cone.
Pinaceae – Pine Family
Pinaceae is the representitive family of
the gymnosperms, as the group consists
of the most quintessential evergreen trees.
They tend to be pitchy (they have thick,
sticky, aromatic sap), with a piney or
citrus-like scent. Their leaves are needles. And they have the most quintessential cones
(often called “pine cones” no matter what genus they occur on, even if the genus is of
another family), compared to the berry-like cones of Juniperus and Taxus (Yew), for
instance. The cones have spirally arranged scales and the seeds have wings.
One of the easiest ways to get to know this family of
trees is to get to know the individual genera: Pinus,
Tsuga, Picea, Larix, and Abies of our area. Cedrus and
Pseudotsuga are native to other parts of the country.
Cathaya, Pseudolarix, Keteleeria, and Nothotsuga are
native to China.
IMAGES:
(above) Pitch Pine
note needles in clusters and cone with spines
(right) Black Spruce
note square cross-section of needle
(previous page) Pitch Pine
note twisted needles in a bundle of three
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Pines produce resin in their leaves and to varying degrees in their wood. This is one of
their more distinct characteristics and should be regarded as a signature. (A signature of
a plant is a characteristic that results from and represents certain energetic qualities of the
plant; and, therefore, are used as indicators of medicinal potential.) For one thing, we can
consider the flavor and aroma, which is resinous, citrussy, and (of course) piney. This
aromatic flavor generally fits into the pungent or spicy category of Chinese medicine’s
five element theory. It removes, stimulates, and disperses stagnant fluids. Though Tierra
considers Pinus tabulaiformis and P. sylvestris to be bitter in flavor (he also considers it
to be warm, which is more characteristic of pungent than bitter) and Holmes considers
Pinus sylvestris to be “a bit pungent and bitter”. Holmes also considers P. sylvestris to be
thermally “neutral with warming and cooling potential” as well as “dry/moist
stimulating” (he defines stimulating generally as a pungent quality). Even though both
authors want to focus on the bitter flavor category, they describe a largely pungent plant
when considering it warm and stimulating. Tierra is following traditional Chinese
classification of Pinus tabulaiformis, P. massoniana, and P. yunnanensis which utilizes
the knots of the wood.
Pinus sylvestris (Scotch Pine) is the most widely distributed Pine. It was brought here
from Europe and can normally be found along driveways and cultivated lands. It can be
easily distinguished from the other common species by its orange shaded upper bark and
the light blue-green of its needles.
An interesting use of the aromatic property of Pine resin is that of the Ojibwa to revive
consciousness with Jack Pine (Pinus banksiana). It not only disperses mucus but also
revives the mind! Pain is also dispersed by Pines. Arthritis, muscle pains, sores, wounds,
and pains associated with colds and febrile illnesses have all been treated with various
Pinaceae species.
Master Funakoshi’s dojo, which was the first karate dojo built in Japan, was named by a
committee: Shoto-kan, after Funakoshi’s poetry pen name. Shoto, which means “Pine
waves”, was representative to Funakoshi of the rustle of Ryukyu Pines in a favorite
forest. In his autobiography he wrote that along with the sound he could “feel the deep,
impenetrable mystery that lies at the root of all life” and that to him “the murmur was a
kind of celestial music”. Indeed, those with a spiritual inclination can easily feel the
majesty of the White Pines when walking through an older forest.
There is a rock gorge that I am fond of visiting in which the Pines and waterfalls make
for a temple of Nature. There is also a church that I visit behind which there is an alter
and benches set up underneath a section of Pines for an outdoor service. Although we
never sat outside when I attended the service, I have for many years considered it a
sacred spot. I am sure that if the Natives of these forests did not also feel this reverence
for the Pines, it could only be because all the trees were regarded as sacred. Though,
there is reference to Native reverence for Pine, such as the symbol of the Iroquoian Five
Nations (which included our land’s Lenape): a White Pine rising to meet the sun (the eye
of God) with roots toward the four directions and an eagle (with far-reaching sight,
symbolizing preparedness) overhead.
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Perhaps what stands out about White Pine justifying special symbolic relevance is the
size. It often is found rising up above the surrounding canopy. It is also characteristic of
Pine forests to develop a distinct feel, which a person walking through in enveloped in,
that is created by the needles on the ground in addition to the needles and branches all
around above and the piney aroma in the air.
In order to differentiate the various genera and then species of Pinaceae, we can use
botanical keys. A key is a checklist of sorts, with which we go step to step through a
series of characteristic traits. For instance (and for starters in the key below), we can look
to the key trait of Larix (Larch) of deciduous needles (leaves). If a tree in question has
deciduous needles, than it is Larch. If not, we can go to the next step: are the needles in
bundles (fascicles), as in Pinus, or are they arranged singly…
Of course, we must first decide which family a given Gymnosperm belongs to. In our
area (as discussed above) we have Ginkgoaceae (which appears as a broadleaf and,
besides being easily differentiated and not native, is not part of our discussion), Pinaceae,
Cupressaceae, and Taxaceae. The latter three can be separated as follows: Cupressaceae
has scale-like leaves. Pinaceae has aromatic needles. And Taxaceae has non-aromatic
needles. If we wanted to arrange this information as a key, we could do so like this:
1. leaves scale-like – Cupressaceae
1. leaves needle-like
2. leaves aromatic – Pinaceae
2. leaves not aromatic – Taxaceae
or:
1. leaves not aromatic – Taxaceae
1. leaves aromatic
2. leaves needle-like – Pinaceae
2. leaves scale-like – Cupressaceae
The following is a key to the genera of the Pine family, followed by a key to each genera.
Then a description of each species is presented.
Local genera of Pinaceae can be keyed out as follows:
1. deciduous trees with needles in whorls – Larix
1. evergreen trees
2. needles in clusters (fascicles) of 2-5 – Pinus
2. needles occurring singly
3. twigs mostly smooth with circular leaf scar – Abies
3. twigs rough with raised leaf scars
4. needles spirally arranged around twig, sessile – Picea
4. needles with petiole arranged on opposite sides of twig – Tsuga
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Species can be keyed out with these keys to each of the Genera:
Larix:
Larix laricina, Larch or Tamarack, is the only native species. European Larch, L.
decidua, and Japanese Larch, L. kaempferi, can be found due to cultivation, but not
enough to warrant a key.
Pinus:
1. fascicles (leaf bundles) of 5 – Pinus strobus White Pine
1. fascicles of 2 or 3
2. blue-green needles < 9 cm, orange upper bark – P. sylvestris Scotch Pine
2. needles 7-18 cm long
3. fascicles of 3, cone scales with spine – P. rigida Pitch Pine
3. fascicles of 2, cone scales without spine – P. resinosa Red Pine
Although these keys are mostly for wild species, Scotch Pine is included for it is
commonly cultivated in found near wild places. One could also find Jack Pine (P.
banksiana), Table-Mountain Pine (P. pungens), Austrian Pine (P. nigra), and others, but
they are not common.
Abies:
Abies balsamea, Balsam Fir, is our only native, wild species. Of course, if you visit a
Christmas tree farm you could likely find other species. Likewise, an arboretum,
gardener’s yard, or ambitiously landscaped property could have other species of Abies or
members not listed under the other genera (these keys are mostly for wild species).
Picea:
1. twigs and bud scales glabrous
1. twigs and bud scales (at least lower) pubescent
Picea glauca White Spruce
2. needles grayish, glaucous, 6-18mm; cones persistant P. mariana Black Spruce
2. needles yellowish and shiny, 10-30mm; cones falling P. rubens Red Spruce
Tsuga:
The single species found in our area is Tsuga canadensis- Hemlock, Eastern Hemlock, or
Canada Hemlock.
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PINE FAMILY SPECIES DESCRIPTIONS:
~ Larix:
Larch, Tamarack Larix laricina
Deciduous conifer of swamps and bogs. The needles are arranged in
whorls (circular).
~ Pinus:
Pitch Pine Pinus rigida
The mature bark of this Pine is thick, dark, and in large patches. Tufts
of needles commonly come right out of the trunk of the tree (rather than from the smaller branches), which
is distinct. The needles are twisted, the cones spined and persistant, and the wood pitchey.
Red Pine P. resinosa
This Pine is often found in plantation-style plantings growing tall and straight. The bark has a reddish color
and is relatively flaky. The needles are long and close to the tip of the branches.
Scotch Pine P. sylvestris
The orangish upper bark is perhaps the most distinct characteristic of this Pine, but the blue-green color of
the needles is distinct also, and the needles are relatively short. This is a cultivated tree and is mostly found
along driveways and roads.
White Pine P. strobus
This is generally the best-known and most abundant of our Pines. Its needles are in fascicles (clusters) of 5,
are relatively soft, and have a relatively fluffy appearance.
IMAGES: (above) Larch twig with needles and cones (below left) White Pine with male flowers (below right) White Pine showing
seed, twig with pollen-producing flowers, needle cluster of five, and female cone
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~ Abies:
Balsam Fir Abies balsamea
These needles are similar to those of Spruce, but softer than the stiff Spruce needles and not as pointed.
The aroma of the needles is distinct and quite pleasant.
~ Picea:
Black Spruce P. mariana
A lover of wet feet (such as swamps).
Red Spruce P. rubens
This tree has a reddish tint compared to White Spruce and is fuller in shape than Black Spruce. It is often
found in plantings with Blue Spruce.
White Spruce Picea glauca
~ Tsuga:
Hemlock Tsuga canadensis
Horizontally arranged needles with white stripes (giving a pale appearance on the underside) that are dark
green above. Hemlock is a common tree of stream gorges. It hosts a species of Reishi (Ganoderma
tsugae) and is being attacked by a devastating instect, the Wooly Adelgid.
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Cupressaceae – Cypress Family
This is a very sacred plant family, as it is a primary source of ceremonial incense.
Chamaecyparis
Atlantic White-cedar
Juniperus
Red Cedar
Taxodium
Bald Cypress
Thuja
Arbor-vitae
Taxaceae – Yew Family
Taxaceae includes only three genera worldwide, only one of which, Taxus, which occurs
in this country. Of the nine (?) species of Taxus in the world, three can be found wild in
the region- one of which is native: T. canadensis. It is the only species found wild in the
immediate area, but is suffering from deer overbrowse. what species are cultivated?
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PART II: HERBOLOGY
Native American Uses of Wild Gymnosperms in Our Area
Our gymnosperms are generally similar in many of their therapeutic properties, as they are in
other perceivable traits, such as aroma and flavor. They are commonly used as expectorants for
coughs and lung congestion, diaphoretics for fevers, anti-rheumatics for arthritis, and antiseptics
and astringents for topical use.
Abies ballsamea
Coughs. Boil in water to “cut it.” Take straight or dilute with alcohol.
Cuts, sores, ulcers on legs. With Aralia nudicaulis
Gum for cuts.
Colds. Gonorrhea.
Colds. Heats you up, good for chest. Cook as strong as you can. Take ½ cup, feel the heat.
Larix laricina
Gwich’in people believe one should leave an offering to “pay for” the medicine when collecting
from a tamarack tree. Caroline Andre of Tsiigehtchic said, “This is real good medicine.”
Tamarack tea is good for upset stomach, colds, fatigue, or for general good health. It is made by
cutting tamarack branches into 15 centimeter (six inch) lengths, and boiling gently for five to 10
minutes, adding water as it evaporates. One can also add spruce gum or birch fungus (polypore?)
to the tamarack stems and boil to make a stronger medicine.
Used by Iroquois in formulas with Tsuga, White Pine, and Osmunda claytoniana. Fermented
compound decoction taken for soreness.
Abnaki used for coughs. Used in formula for persistant coughs.
Algonquin used needles and inner bark for cough medicine and topically for infection. Used with
pine as medicinal tea.
Young branches as a laxative Tete-de-Boule Algonquin.
Anticosti used as kidney aid.
Chippewa used infusion of bark for anemic conditions. Poultice of inner bark for burns.
Cree used with eight different trees as an antiemetic. They used the inner bark and wood
decoction and poultice for frostbite or deep cuts. Poultice of warm boiled inner bark used to draw
infection out of wounds.
Larix americana? used by Micmac in decoction (boughs) as a diuretic. They also pouliticed the
inner bark for sores and swellings.
Juniperus spp.?
The Juniper berries are a most admirable counter poison, and as great a resister of the pestilence
as any that grows. They are excellent against the bitings of venomous beasts; they cause urine; it
is a powerful remedy against the dropsy, even the ashes of the bush be made into lye and drank,
cures the disease. –It provokes the terms in women, helps the fits of the mother…
Picea
Chewing gum, ingrown nails, cuts. Apply gum
Colds. Make tea. Vomit in spring.
Picea glauca
Abnaki used infusion of cones for urinary troubles.
Eskimo used poultice of resin for wounds. Ate cambium in the spring.
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Picea mariana
Algonquin in Quebec used gum as a salve, …
Cree used decoction of cones for diarrhea. Pitch and grease for bad burns, skin rashes, scabies,
and persistent scabs. Cone decoction gargled for sore throat. Cones chewed for toothache.
Cones used in compound decoction for venereal disease.
…
Eskimos used gum or needle decoction for respiratory infections…
Koyukon used for kidney problems…
Ojibwa used for stomach pains…
used as gum Spruce gum, dzèh kwan' (G) dzih drinh' (T), is the hard, older kind of tree sap or
pitch, with a red or rose colour.
Spruce cones are used to make a tea that relieve colds and helps maintain good health. Of all the
parts of the spruce tree, some Elders believe the cones make the best medicine (Andre 1995).
Cones are picked year round from the tops of young trees. Usually five to 15 cones are gently
boiled for 10 – 15 minutes in a pot of water. The longer they boil, the stronger the medicine
becomes. Branches are sometimes put into the pot with the spruce cones. Some people prefer
straining the liquid before drinking it. Spruce tea relieves coughing and sore throats and chests.
Those who are sick with colds can take it three or four times a day for about five days. Some
Gwich’in drink between one-quarter cup and one cup of spruce tea every day to stay healthy. You
can drink this medicine when it is hot or after it is cooled, though it should never be gulped.
Many people keep the medicine in a jar in the fridge for later use.
According to Laura Pascal (COPE), the roots can be pounded and boiled to make a liquid
medicine.
Sticky gum is the clear, sticky sap that can be found year round on spruce trees and in green
firewood. This is new sap that has recently run from the wood of the tree. The gum can be used to
soothe irritated skin and, when applied to cuts, helps healing and reduces the chance of
infection.
Mary Kendi, from Fort McPherson, said to spread sticky gum on warm canvas and
then place it on the chest. The dressing is kept on until it drops off by itself. This remedy helps
relieve the symptoms of chest and tuberculosis (TB).
Spruce gum can also be boiled, strained
and cooled to make a tea. Like spruce cone tea, this tea is used to relieve colds and maintain good
health. It tends to be very concentrated though, so only small amounts are sipped.
The black and white spruce trees are used in the same way. The cones, boughs, inner bark, and
the gum of the spruce trees are made into teas, salves, and poultices to treat many internal and
external ailments. The outer bark is used as a splint.
“[The spruce tree] is one of the very best medicines that we have. We can use most of a day to
talk about and work with that whole tree. There is so much to it.”
– Ruth Welsh
Spruce gum or pitch is an excellent medicine. Spruce gum tea is drunk for stomach ulcers or
upset stomach. The tea is gargled at the onset of a sore throat or used as mouth wash for gum
disease or canker sores. Spruce gum can be used as is or made into a salve to heal cuts. Clear soft
gum can be applied on a bandage for a wound or to extract a sliver. Spruce gum salve is also put
on skin rashes like cold sores and eczema. Skin rashes can be bathed with tea made from pitch,
inner bark or spruce boughs then the salve is applied and the affected area is covered with a light
gauze.
Chewing gum can be made with the spruce gum left over in the pot after making pitch tea.
Spruce tree bark can be used as a splint and to heal broken limbs. The bark is cut to the length of
the broken limb and the clean side of the bark is placed over the broken limb and secured in
place. Later when the bark is removed, oil is rubbed over the skin to remove sap stuck to the skin.
Spruce tip steam treatment:
Prepare this medicine as a tea to drink for a cold and a sore throat or
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to use as a steam for a head or chest cold. The spruce tips are collected from either young or older
spruce trees. The spruce tips are rinsed well to wash away dust and pollen. In a pot of water,
move the tips around and keep them under the water. Bring to a gradual boil and let the medicine
simmer for a while. Turn the stove off. Steep the medicine a little while longer then cool it down.
Deep breathing is recommended when steaming with this medicine. The nasal passages will start
to clear.
Picea rubens
Used by Cherokee for colds and measles. Used in a cold formula. Associated with North.
Montagnais used for lung and throat trouble.
Pinus rigida pitch for boils
Laxative
Pinus strobus
weakness in infants, difficultly beathing in the overweight
colds coughs rheumatism
cleans stomach, cramps, stiffness in limbs
Taxus
Chest colds. Diaphoretic.
For when person gets numb in fingers or legs. Boil twigs up like tea.
Put in all medicines to give them strength.
Thuja
cuts, bruises, sprains, sores
rheumatism
colds, leaves boiled steam inhaled
used as smudge
Tsuga
Coughs and colds.
Rheumatism
Native American Uses of Western Gymnosperms
Calocedrus decurrens Incense Cedar (Post Cedar, White Cedar)
American Indian groups used seed tea for asthma. Twigs were burned in sweat baths for the ill.
Leaf tea inhaled for colds and drunk for stomach disorders. –Foster and Hobbs
Juniperus monosperma Bellota de Sabina
Tea from a teaspoon of dried leaves and berries for bladder infections and urethritis. One of two
berries chewed to help stimulate digestion for older people and those whose digestion has been
impaired by the use of alcohol. –Los Remedios
Juniperus scopulorum Red Cedar
Prayers rise on cedar smoke and are carried to the Creator.
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Aromatic, astringent, diuretic, emmenagouge; decoction for intermittent fevers, rheumatism,
dropsy, coughs, and scurvy
Picea
Picea
Picea pugens
Used by Navajo in the Chant of the Sun’s House.
Pinus
Pinus
Pseudotsuga
Thuja plicata
Uses of Gymnosperms Cultivated in Our Area
Blue Spruce
REFERENCE CHARTS
INDEX
INDEX TO IMAGES
Juniperus virginiana Eastern Red Cedar pages 2, 3
Black Spruce pages 5
Pinus rigida Pitch Pine pages 4, 5
Pinus strobus page 9 (two images)
Larix page 9
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The Plants of Pennsylvania by Ann Fowler Rhoads and Timothy A. Block
The Cherokee Herbal J.T. Garrett
Iroquois Medical Botany by James W. Herrick
Los Remedios by Michael Moore
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Manual of Vascular Plants of Northeastern United States and Adjacent Canada by Henry
A. Gleason and Arthur Cronquist
Native American Ethnobotany by Daniel E. Moerman
Plants of Power by Alfred Savinelli
Western Medicinal Plants and Herbs by Steven Foster and Christopher Hobbs
Plant Resins by Jean H. Langenheim
Planetary Herbology by Michael Tierra
The Energetics of Western Herbs by Peter Holmes
Karate-Do My Way of Life by Gichin Funakoshi
Gwich’in Ethnobotany by Alestine Andre and Alan Fehr
Indians in Pennsylvania by Paul A. W. Wallace
Andre, Alestine, Nant'aih nakwits'inahtsìh (The Land Gives Us Strength)
NOTES:
Jack Pine is classified as rare in New York.
white spruce (glauca) used like black spruce
think about genus description of Larix
Picea excelsa used for coughs and bronchitis as tea or as vapor with wintergreen by
Cherokee.
commonly cultivated spruce trees
commonly cultivated Christmas trees
White Spruce found in Sussex County, NJ Orange County, NY. In PA further west
Clinton and Franklin Counties and further.
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