Ethical Dilemmas
From Ethical Dimensions of the Scholar, a professional development module
for 1989-91 Kappa Omicron Phi and Omicron Nu Program Theme, developed
by Dorothy I. Mitstifer, 1989.
Purpose: This activity will apply ethical reasoning steps to ethical dilemmas
to develop a course of action.
Materials Needed: Handouts Ethical Principles, Ethical Reasoning
Steps, Case Studies: Ethical Dilemmas
Detailed Procedural Steps:
Experiencing
1. Form groups of 5-8 persons (if total group is small, 3-4).
2. Using the worksheet and a case study of an ethical dilemma, apply the
ethical reasoning steps to respond to the situation in an ethical
manner.
Processing
1. Reflect on the meaning of the activity. Direct participants to think for a
few minutes and then share with the small group: I learned that . . . ‘
I noticed that . . . ‘ I had difficulty with . . . ‘ I discovered that . . . .
2. Share cases and ethical decisions with the large group.
Synergizing (Facilitator presentation of mini-lecture)
Mini-Lecture
This activity used a four-step procedure (Goodwin, 1985) as a basic tool for
reasoning about moral dilemmas, and then a course of action was determined. You
didn’t find black and white answers; you didn’t know whether you were choosing the
right action. That’s frustrating.
There are no predetermined answers in most difficult ethical cases.
The difficulty we feel is not a matter of ignorance about what is
obviously the correct solution. (Goodwin, 1985, p. 8)
Rest (1982) concluded that there are four components of moral behavior:
1. Interpreting the situation – In other words, the individual is aware that
there is an ethical dilemma, that the situation has the potential to (or
does) violate moral behavior.
2. Formulating a course of action – The individual uses ethical reasoning
to make a decision about what to do.
3. Deciding what one actually intends to do – Although the individual
knows the ideal course of action, there are usually competing values.
This component has to do with committing to the moral value above
all others.
4. Implementing what one intends to do – The individual has the ego
strength and social skills to execute good intentions.
Failure to behave morally can result from deficiencies in any of the four components
. . . . Moral development entails gaining proficiency in all these . . . processes (Rest,
1982, p. 29).
References:
Goodwin, L. (1985, Fall) Ethical theory in the practical context. SCAN, 6-8.
Rest, J. R. (1982). A psychologist looks at the teaching of ethics. The
Hastings Center Report, 12(1), 29-36.
Thiroux, J. (1986). Ethics: Theory and practice. London: Collier McMillan.
Ethical Principles
The following principles (Thiroux, 1986) are guidelines for regulating ethical
behavior.
1. Value of Life – Human life has inviolable sanctity. “. . . it is always
wrong to act in a way which directly intends to harm or to kill an
innocent human person” (Goodwin, 1985, p. 7).
2. Goodness or Rightness – Ethical decisions should involve the
principle of the greatest good for the greatest number. Doing good, in
addition to refraining from doing evil, is required so that the
consequences are good for the individual and for society.
3. Justice or Fairness – This principle relates to equality of treatment
and fair distribution of benefits and burdens among members of
society.
4. Truth-telling or Honesty – Although ethical action should be based
on the truth, this principle is complicated by issues related to who has
a right to the truth and whether or not it is appropriate to withhold it.
When do you know you have all of the facts and can determine what is
true? Confidentiality (contact-keeping), related to honesty and
individual freedom, poses its own set of complications: What do you
do when human welfare conflicts with confidentiality? When do you
break a promise?
5. Individual Freedom – Ethical decisions should consider the principle
of self-determination. “. . . treat human beings as ends in themselves,
never as means only” (Kant in Goodwin, 1985, p.7). Related to this
standard are the following complexities: Whose right is uppermost
when one person’s autonomy impinges on another? Who should speak
for those who cannot speak for themselves?
Ethical Reasoning Steps*
I.
II.
Clarify the facts.
Identify the moral dilemma. What is the ethical question?
III.
Identify and interpret the relevant ethical principles: value of
life, goodness, justice, truth-telling, individual freedom.
IV.
Resolve the conflicts among principles. If more than one
principle is involved, which one has precedence?
V.
VI.
State the moral decision.
Formulate a course of action—action steps: what and how,
who, when.
* Adapted from the theory of Thiroux (1985).
Case Studies: Ethical Dilemmas
I.
Mary and Joann were roommates at Ivy University. Although Mary and
Joanne were enrolled in the Dietetics major, they weren’t in the same
classes. Mary had started at Ivy U, but Joanne transferred from Brown
Junior College at the beginning of her sophomore year. Knowing that
Mary was a good student, Joanne asked to borrow her class notes.
Mary didn’t mind. But when Joanne asked to use one of her papers
that reviewed the literature on bulimia, Mary didn’t know what to do.
Joanne was a good roommate, and she didn’t want to lose her
friendship. Besides, Joanne was always generous with her. She often
loaned sweaters and other clothes and took her home with her on
weekends. How should Mary solve this dilemma?
II.
Doug was an undergraduate research assistant to his favorite
professor. Dr. Brown was active within the University and was often
busy conducting workshops at national meetings or with speaking
engagements. Doug had worked with Dr. Brown for two years and had
been able to virtually take over the daycare project. Dr. Brown was
pleased with his work, and Doug was proud to be asked to submit a
written draft of the research findings. Dr. Brown gave a few
suggestions for revision, and Doug completed the paper and delivered
it to Dr. Brown’s office. In a few days, Doug received a message, “Well
done. Thanks.” Doug graduated soon after and entered graduate
school at another university. That first year in graduate school he had
an occasion to choose a small research project for one of his classes,
and he decided to do a small pilot follow-up study of his
undergraduate research experience. As he was updating his review of
the literature, he found an article written by Dr. Brown. Doug thought
it sounded familiar, and he checked it out. Yes, it was familiar; it was
his own work—word for word! What should he do? First-year grad
students don’t have much power. Would anyone believe him? What
would you do?
III.
Susan was an honors student at Big U. Her senior research project
compared dietary habits of women living off campus in apartments
with women living in dormitories. Her hypothesis was that dormitory
women would eat better than apartment women. But she was
surprised to find little difference. She was so sure that she was right
and that the dorm women just didn’t cooperate fully in reporting daily
intake. So she just reported some of the findings—the ones that
supported her hypothesis. Her Professor was impressed with her wellwritten report, and it was announced that Susan was to be recognized
on Honors Day for her outstanding project. Susan didn’t expect that;
she realized too late that it didn’t really matter with research what the
outcome was. Perhaps the award has nothing to do with her findings;
maybe she would have gotten the award anyway. But now what
should she do?
IV.
Marylou read the notice about a scholarship in education. She needed
more money for school next year or she might not be able to return.
She had decided to change majors. But if there was a chance she
could get that scholarship, she could wait until next year to change to
psychology. So she submitted her application by the deadline. She was
delighted two months later to receive a congratulatory letter. The Bay
City Educators were delighted that she had selected teaching as her
vocation. Marylou hadn’t counted on people being interested in her
and concerned about how their money would be used. What should
Marylou do?
V.
Jan was a merchandising major, and she always enjoyed the annual
Charity Fashion Show that her department sponsored. This year the
department would work with Jacobson’s Department Store, and Jan
would be one of the directors. She was excited when Wednesday
arrived. She was to go to the store to work with the fashion
coordinator to choose clothing for the Fashion Show. She found a
great dressy dress for herself. She could hardly wait until Friday when
it would be delivered for the Saturday night event. On Thursday Jan
was invited to a Friday night Frat Party. She was so ecstatic to be
invited that she didn’t even think about what she would wear. She
knew she didn’t have any extra money; what would she wear? Then,
she got an idea. The fashion show dress would be perfect. Nobody
would know. And besides, the dress would be worn once; twice
couldn’t hurt. Yes, that’s the perfect idea. During the fashion show,
Paula, one of Jan’s classmates, was astounded to see a dress that she
had seen the night before. No, it couldn’t be. What should she do?
Should she report Jan, keep quiet, talk to her? What should Paula do?
VI.
John accepted the nomination for President of the XYZ Professional
Club, thinking that he wouldn’t be elected. But he was. He didn’t have
much interest in the organization; student organizations weren’t very
important on campus anyway. He knew that the treasurer and the vice
president would work hard, and it wouldn’t hurt his resume to include
VII.
a leadership position. So, he decided to show up at meetings; he
would do what he was asked to do. It didn’t take long for the other
officers and the adviser to figure out that the president intended to be
a figurehead only. What should the adviser do? the officers?
Marie had a work-study job in the Department Office. Twice a week
she filled in for the Department Secretary when she had time off to
take a course. She often helped herself to office supplies in the closet.
After all, taxpayers pay for them; they were meant to be used for
education. She was using them for education. No big deal. The
Secretary noticed one day that the last of the pens were gone; she
was sure there was a whole package that morning. Where could they
have gone? She thought to herself, “I was only gone for one hour.
How could they have disappeared? Some other things have seemed to
turn up missing on Tuesday and Thursday. I wonder. It couldn’t be
Marie; she’s such a nice student. What should I do?” What should the
secretary do?