Concepts of God
Leaving Certificate Section A The Search for Meaning and Values
Part 3 Concepts of God
Topic 3.1 The gods of the ancients
Topic
3.1 The gods of the
ancients
Description of content
 descriptions of the gods in
ancient myths
 polytheism and the emergence
of monotheism
 the concept of God in the
monotheistic
traditions
of
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
Outcomes
As a result of studying this section, students
should be able to
 give two examples of the
gods in ancient myths
 explain and give two
examples of polytheism
 describe
briefly
the
emergence of monotheism
 explain the concept of
God in each of the
monotheistic traditions of
Judaism, Christianity, and
Islam
Leaving Certificate R.E. Syllabus p17
Please note that the following article is background information only on this topic. It in no way
constitutes a sample or exemplary answer on this topic.
3.1 The gods of the ancients
The concept of God is closely related to the search for meaning and values. It is a
concept that is widespread among religious traditions. Humans have always had an
idea of God or gods who created the world, and they have worshipped these gods in
various ways. The concept of God developed and progressed as human beings
developed and learned more about the world in which they lived. The idea of God
moved from a mythical understanding to a more rational understanding. In
patriarchal societies, where the male/father figure dominated, images of God are often
male images. In agricultural societies the images and understanding of God are linked
to the land and the cycle of the seasons. Each generation in every culture faced the
big questions of life: what is the meaning and purpose of life, why do people suffer,
where have we come from, what is the ultimate destiny of humanity? Their
experience of life and their knowledge shaped their understanding of God.
Humanity’s continuing search for meaning and values has influenced the concept of
God within the various cultures.
Gods in ancient myths:
The gods and goddesses of the mythical world take many different forms and are
often fascinating. They often share characteristics even when they are from widely
differing cultures. These characteristics identify a type of god, and are called
‘archetypes’. For example: Father/creator god, Great mother, Dying god, Trickster,
Destroyer god, Helper god, Male/female pair, gods who visits the earth and are
shunned. Pantheon is the word used to describe the officially recognised gods of a
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particular culture. The pantheon gives us an insight into the values and mindset of a
people.
Mircea Eliade1 gives immense insight into the gods of ancient times and shows a clear
link between the ancient search for meaning and the manner in which the gods were
portrayed. He noticed that many divine symbols of our ancient ancestors transcend
the boundaries of religion and culture. Thus, ancient myths express experiences that
are common to many people from a variety of cultures.
Eliade, in his portrait of the gods, explores the cosmic symbolism of the sky. This is
connected to the belief in sky gods or a great God of the sky. Our ancestors also held
beliefs in gods of rain, thunder and lightning (all fertility symbols) and also the sun
and moon gods (symbols of life, death and fertility). The sky is a central divine
symbol in ancient mythology and it expresses a real sense of the transcendent. The
Australian aboriginal culture also has images of divine beings linked to the sky. One
such divinity is Baiame who dwells in the sky and receives the souls of the innocent.
He causes rain and thunder and produces fertility, thus he is a creator. Baiame sees
and hears everything2. Thus Baiame is a creator, has fertility powers, he is
omnipotent and omniscient. He is an ethical god, judging and rewarding the innocent.
These are key themes that are bound up with the search for meaning.
Other ancient societies echo similar beliefs. The Selk’nam nomad hunters of Tierra
del Fuego (South America) believed in the ‘Dweller in the Sky’. Eliade3 identifies
this god as the omniscient creator and the author of moral law, the judge and master
of human destinies. Similarly in ancient Mesopotamian culture, the Babylonian God
‘Anu’ means ‘the sky’. Anu is the supreme ruler and king, and the authority of the
earthly king is derived from him. These ancient beliefs indicate a belief in the
mysterious and transcendent nature of God, the sky being an inaccessible divine
sphere removed from human proximity. The Greek god, Zeus and the Roman god,
Jupiter are exceptions to this rule.
Eliade4 notes that there is a close link between the word ‘God’ and the word for a
‘day’ (Deus and Dies in Latin) evoked by the god Dieus, the hypothetical god of the
light sky, common to Aryan tribes. He writes: ‘Certain it is that the Indian Dyaus, the
Roman Jupiter, the Greek Zeus and the Germanic god Tyr-Zio, are forms evolved in
the course of history from that primeval sky divinity, and that their very names reveal
the original twofold meaning of ‘light (day)’ and ‘sacred’ (cf. the Sanskrit div,
‘shine’, ‘day’, dyaus, ‘sky’, ‘day’; dios, dies;deivos, divus)5. Zeus, Jupiter and TyrZio are more actively involved in the world than the remote Hindu god Dyaus.
The thunderbolt, a symbol associated with both Zeus and Jupiter, indicates their
control of rain and storms and their vast power to protect or destroy fertility. Storms
manifest the great creative force of a god. The thunderbolts of lightning were used to
punish those who broke the moral and social codes. The Germanic gods, Thor and
Odin, also held great power. For our ancestors the concept of fertility being linked to
Eliade, M; ‘Patterns in Comparative Religion’, London 1969
Ibid; p41
3
Ibid; p44
4
Ibid; p66
5
Ibid; p66
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2
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a creator god is central to the idea of sky gods showing their power through storms.
For example, the Celts believed in a god called ‘Taranis’ (from the word ‘Taran’ / ‘to
thunder’, torann in Irish). Fertility was also dependant on the cooperation of the sky
gods with the earth goddess. It was perceived that there was a sacred marriage
between the sky gods and the great Earth Mother. The sky is the place for gathering
clouds, where thunder roars and where fertility is determined. Thus, all of life was
dependant on the sky for its continuance. Gradually our ancestors shifted their
understanding from creator sky gods to active fertility gods. As Neolithic peoples
began to abandon nomadism in favour of settlement and farming, fertility became a
central preoccupation for them. Dependency on fertility gods increased since they
were key to crop success and the cycles of nature. Some ancient societies replaced
the symbol of the sky with the symbol of the sun to reflect this gradual change in
understanding. The sun was of course the ultimate symbol of fertility, a symbol
commonly used by the Egyptian pharaohs.
The moon also became a central symbol for ancient societies. Representing the cycles
of nature, fertility, regeneration and life the goddesses of fertility were closely linked
to the moon. For example, in the Pygmy civilisation of Africa, the moon represents
the mother of all living things. Some civilisations linked the cyclic nature of the moon
to the woman’s menstrual cycle. Eliade6 notes that in traditional Eskimo culture,
unmarried girls dared not look at the moon for fear of falling pregnant
Greek myth: Zeus
The Greek pantheon tells us much about the concerns of Greek civilisation and how
the ancient Greeks understood themselves and the world. While there are many gods
and goddesses in the Greek pantheon, twelve principal gods emerge as the most
important. These comprise of Zeus and his family, who lived on Mount Olympus and
were thought to rule the world. Zeus was strong and powerful; he was a father,
husband and head of the family; however he had the failings of a mortal man. Zeus
was a sky god, concerned particularly with the weather, and his symbol was a
thunderbolt. The following is a myth concerning Zeus and tells us something about
his character.
Only Zeus, the Father of Heaven, might wield the thunderbolt; and it was with the
threat of its fatal flash that he controlled his quarrelsome and rebellious family on
Mount Olympus.
A time came when he became so proud and intolerable that his wife, Hera, Poseidon,
Apollo and all the other family surrounded him suddenly when he lay asleep on his
couch and bound him with rawhide thongs, knotted into a hundred knots, so that he
could not move. He threatened them with instant death, but they had placed his
thunderbolt out of his reach and laughed insultingly at him. While they were
celebrating their victory, and jealously discussing who was to be successor, Thetis the
Nereid, foreseeing a civil war on Olympus, hurried in search of the 100-handed
Briareus, who swiftly untied the thongs, using every hand at once, and released his
master. Because it was Hera who had led the conspiracy against him, Zeus hung her
up from the sky with a golden bracelet around both wrists and an anvil fastened to
6
Ibid; p155
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either ankle. The other deities were vexed, but dared attempt no rescue for all her
piteous cries. In the end, Zeus undertook to free her if they swore never more to rebel
against him, and this each in turn grudgingly did.
Nordic myth: Thor
The gods that emerged from Northern and Western Europe were gods of thunder, rain
and wind. Perhaps this reflected the colder, darker atmosphere of this part of the
world. This is an example of how the culture of a people affected their understanding
of God. The mythology of the Nordic culture is one that depicts the constant struggle
against the forces of darkness and chaos. The Nordic gods often engaged in violent
battles against the forces of evil, which were depicted as giants and monsters. Thor is
probably the best known of the Nordic gods. He was the god of thunder. He is
described as a huge bearded figure, who was armed with a hammer, iron gloves and a
girdle of strength. He was an outspoken god with an enormous appetite for food and
drink!
Thor, rising from sleep one day, found that his hammer was gone. This makes him so
angry that his beard shakes, and his whole body trembles. Accompanied by his
assistant Loki, he goes to Freyja (woman!) to ask if Loki may borrow her wings so
that he can fly to Jotunheim, the land of the giants and to find out if they are the ones
who stole his hammer.
At Jotunheim, Loki meets Thrym, the king of the giants, who boasts that he has
hidden the hammer seven leagues under the earth. He adds that the gods will not get
the hammer back until Thrym is given to Freyja for his bride.
Loki returns and tells Freyja to put on her wedding attire for she is (alas) to wed the
king of the giants. Freyja is furious and says that people will think she is man-mad if
she agrees to marry a giant! Then the god Heimdall comes up with an idea. What if
Thor dresses up as a bride. With his hair up and two stones under his tunic he will
look like a woman. Thor isn’t enthusiastic about the idea but he agrees to do it, since
it is the only way he will ever get his hammer back. So Thor allows himself to be
dressed in bridal costume with Loki as his bridesmaid.
When the gods arrive at Jutenheim, the giants prepare the wedding feast. But during
the feast, Thor devours and entire ox and eight salmon. He also drinks three barrels of
beer. Thrym is astonished. The true identity of the god is nearly revealed. But Loki
manages to avert the danger by explaining that Freyja has been looking forward to
coming to Jutenheim so much that she has not eaten for a week. When Thrym lifts
the bridal veil to kiss the bride, he is startled to find himself looking into Thor’s
burning eyes. Loki rescues the situation by saying that the bride has not slept for a
whole week because of the excitement and anticipation of the day. At this, Thrym
commands that the hammer be brought up and placed on the hands of the bride during
the wedding ceremony. Thor roars with laughter when he is given the hammer. He
kills Thrym with it, and he wipes out the giants and all their kin.
This god of thunder has a huge appetite. The loss of the hammer could represent a
drought and consequent crop failure. Recovery of the hammer could be the coming of
spring, arrival of hope.
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Polytheism and the emergence of monotheism:
Our ancient ancestors lived a precarious existence, often experiencing the need to
placate the gods to win their favour and guarantee fertility and life. It seems that they
needed reassurances about the purpose and fruitfulness of the world. Thus the gods
they worshipped were usually close to the world of nature. This sensitivity to a divine
presence in nature suggests a divinisation of the natural world, a theme taken up in
pantheism and in Celtic spirituality.
Monotheism and polytheism refer to the understanding of the transcendent within a
religion. The transcendent refers to the belief in a higher power, the other, the sacred
– generally referred to as God.
The belief in many gods is called polytheism. Polytheism is the norm rather than the
exception in world religions. Ancient cultures held beliefs in a wide range of gods.
This assumption was unquestioned. Yet, there were exceptions. Judaism totally
rejected polytheism throughout its history.
Examples of polytheism:
 Hinduism is sometimes described as a polytheistic religion. With a history of
four thousand years it is a belief system containing many gods. The majority
of Hindu villages have their own god whom they venerate. There is no
founder or prophet in Hinduism and it has no ecclesiastical structures nor
central creed. Gods worshipped in Hinduism include Shiva, Vishnu or his
incarnations (especially Krishna or Rama) and thousands of other local gods.
Hinduism dates back to the second millennium B.C. after the Ayran invasion
of north India. The Vedas (oldest sacred texts of Hinduism) come from the
Ayrans. Other strands of Hinduism grew out of this Vedic tradition. Agni is
the god of fire and sacrifice, restoring life to all beings. He also unites heaven,
earth and the atmosphere in between. Indra is the god of war and the sky god.
He represents the archetype of the forces that originate life and he is the
fertility god. This omnipresent god represents fruitfulness, for he has
abundant vitality: he is responsible for the fruitfulness of women, fields and
animals. At weddings he is invoked so that the bride may give birth to ten
sons. Varuna is another sky god – he upholds the cosmic order and uses
powers too punish and reward.
Hindus believe that Brahman is the ultimate source of their existence. Brahman is
a distant, all-powerful god; he is the creator and the basis for all existence. He is
an abstract concept, devoid of anthropomorphic images. He has no attributes, no
form and has no task – he is omnipresent yet imperceptible. He has to be
approached through a number of more accessible deities, the principal ones being:
Brahma – the creator who brings the Universe into existence
Vishnu – who preserves life and all living things, working for good and
controlling fate, salvation of moral order and redemption of humanity;
Vishnu’s work is carried out traditionally through his incarnations, such as the
gods Krishna and Rama; Krishna is the hero of myths such as the Bhagavad
Gita (Krishna is the lover, warrior king), Rama is the noble hero who
combated evil in the world;
Shiva – source of good and evil, destroys life but re-creates new life;
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Mahadeiri, the goddess, is also a principal deity in Hinduism. Hindus
frequently have a favourite deity and they may have a shrine to them in their
homes.
A more devotional relationship can be enjoyed with more
personalised gods, such as Shiva and Vishnu.

Shinto is another example of polytheistic religion. Shinto is a Japanese
religion. It means ‘shen’ - divine being and ‘tao’ - way of the gods. Gods or
spirits of Shinto are numerous. They are known as ‘kami’ and have special
powers. Shinto legend has it that the gods controlled the cosmos and came
down to earth and inhabited any special elements of the landscape.
Amaterasu – sun goddess is the supreme god in Shinto.
Izanagi and Izanami were creator gods – brother and sister as well as lovers.
The Upanishad writings (800-400 B.C.) show a shift of emphasis from polytheism
and its mythologies to a more unified and inward understanding of reality. They seem
to conclude that everything is one, thus moving towards monism. The notion of the
absolute Brahman emerges in these later writings. The world was then seen to have
emerged as a result of emanation or necessary evolving, rather than by a once off act
of creation. Something of the ultimate Source is believed to have flowed down to us.
In a deep way, all is one. Hinduism is unusual in that it upholds beliefs in many gods
yet these are all manifestations of the One or tend towards the One. ‘This monistic or
pantheistic view of reality is neither polytheism nor monotheism, The unity of all
reality runs contrary to polytheism; the lack of any distinction between creator and
creature or the divine and human – the idea that everything that exists is an expression
of the divine, runs contrary to classical monotheism. It is a belief system that
proclaims creation as a free act of God rather than a necessary emanation or
outpouring from the One’7.
The search for meaning in Hinduism is all-encompassing, and Hinduism does not shy
away from the complexity of this search. Each Hindu god is a unity of opposites.
Each god has a consort who is also a god and whose qualities complement or contrast
those of his/her divine partner. The god Shiva has a consort called Kali or Durga. If
Shiva is the destroyer, Kali is the great mother. There is also a paradoxical
contradiction within each god. Shiva the destroyer can also re-create new life. Kali,
the benevolent mother, can also judge and take life (she is perceived as wearing a
necklace of human skulls). The ‘trinitarian’ set of gods, Brahman, Vishnu and Shiva,
have an internal set of contrasting qualities. ‘This unity of opposites is one of the
most primitive ways of expressing the paradox of divine reality: the reconciliation or
rather the transcendence of all contraries’8.
Monotheism means the belief in one God. The three great monotheistic world
religions are Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The development of monotheism is
closely linked to the history of Judaism. Both Christianity and Islam trace their roots
to the faith of the Israelites. The monotheistic stance of Judaism was a clear departure
from the cult practices of the ancient Semitic civilization. The existence of many
divine beings in the ancient near East was unquestioned. Documentary evidence for
the Israelites’ monotheistic stance dates back to the 6th century B.C. but most likely
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8
Cassidy, E; ‘The Search for Meaning and Values’, Dublin 2004, p184
Ibid; p185
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pre-dates documentary evidence. Monotheism for the Jews involved a special
covenant relationship with Yahweh (God). Their strict first commandment was to
worship no other god but Yahweh. Images of God were also prohibited (a prohibition
that was most unusual in religious traditions in the ancient Near East at that time,
since all ancient gods were symbolised by images, mostly anthropomorphic ones).
The concept of God in the monotheistic traditions of Judaism, Christianity and
Islam
Judaism
In Judaism, Yahweh cannot be reduced to mere human representations or images.
The Old Testament attributes certain human traits to Yahweh. Yahweh is at the heart
of the close covenant relationship with the Jews. This relationship is written about in
terms of a husband/wife or a father/child relationship. Personal communication is
important to the relationship. Yahweh is not abstract or impersonal. Yahweh speaks
and acts, unlike the idols of surrounding nations of the Near East at that time. The
Genesis creation account (Adam and Eve) shows this relationship in action. It also
demonstrated human ethical responsibility resulting from Yahweh’s creation of us.
God was known by various names by the Israelites: El (‘Holy One’, showing the
transcendence of God), Elohim, Shaddai (‘The Almighty’, from early Patriarchal
literature). Yahweh is the most common name for God in Judaism. It closely mirrors
the verb to be – ‘I am who am’. It is a name suggesting a creator, one who brings life
into being.
Christianity
The Old Testament concept of God was passed down through the Christian tradition.
However, for Christians this great almighty God became a human being in the person
of Jesus of Nazareth, thus the person of Jesus is the fullness of God’s self-revelation.
Many titles were used to name Jesus: Kyrios/Lord – replacing the Jewish name for
Yahweh, stressing the authority of Jesus as universal Lord. Jesus was also called the
Messiah – anointed one, linked to Jewish kings who were anointed. The Messiah
would establish in the world the reign of God. Linked to the notion of the Messiah is
the concept of the Suffering Servant or the Son of Man. The title prophet was also
used – an eschatological prophet who would be killed because of what he stood for,
like prophets before him. The title High Priest was also used – the paschal mystery,
the sacrifice for sins symbolised by the cross. Jesus is referred to as the New
Covenant, sympathising with sinners. The New Testament uses titles such as Bread
of Life and Good Shepherd. Jesus reveals god through his person, his words and
actions. This is reflected in his key teachings in the New Testament such as the
Beatitudes and the command to love one another. These teachings reveal God to be
compassionate and merciful, forgiving and close to the poor and persecuted. The
concept of God in Christianity is Trinitarian. God is a communion of love between
Father, Son and Holy Spirit, revealed in the paschal mystery of Christ’s death and
resurrection. This God of love extends to enemies, is all embracing and forgiving. St.
Augustine described the dynamic as love: the Father is the One who loves, the Son is
loved and the Holy Spirit is love itself. This inclusive description of love gives us
insight not just into God but into humanity and the meaning of our existence.
Christians are called to love – even one’s enemies.
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Islam
In Islam god is revealed in the Qur’an, the sacred text that is understood literally as
God’s word. The Qur’an offers 99 names for God or Allah but the most important is
his status as God alone. The creed is taken from the first line of the Qur’an and is
recited by Muslims five times a day. It is a simple monotheistic statement: ‘There is
no God but Allah and Muhammad is his prophet’. Muhammad’s struggle against the
polytheism of the Arabian tribal religions of his culture resulted in the foundation if
Islam. The concept of the Incarnational and Trinitarian God of Christianity is
contrary to the beliefs of Muslims. Monotheism has many practical implications for
the daily life of Muslims. It is linked to the belief in the fundamental equality of all
people before God and therefore demands social justice. As well as the Oneness of
God, Muslims place emphasis on the transcendence of God: Allah is the creator and
there is a real gulf between Allah and humans. Muslims must not associate any other
god with Allah (this is known as the sin of shirk) nor use any images or
representations to depict Allah. Islam means ‘submission to God’, so all of human
life must be lived under God’s command. The belief in the absolute otherness of God
places Muslims at variance with Christians over the Incarnation – a central tenet of
Christian faith the God became human in Jesus Christ. Nevertheless, Muslims still
see Allah’s engagement with the world. They emphasise the merciful nature of
Yahweh and his creative power in the universe. Each chapter (sura) in the Qur’an
begins with the words ‘In the name of God the Merciful, the Compassionate’. Also
important in Islam is the notion of Allah’s judgment at the end of time as well as
Allah’s lordship over human origins, nature and destiny. Thus, the sovereignty of
God is all-important in Islam. Allah’s authority is not questioned.
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