Some Principles for Item Writing
We recognize that there are many principles. We encourage you to follow as many of the
principles as you can, but the bolded principles are those we see as most important to focus on.
Content
1. Target the item; one sub-idea per item if possible.
2. Necessity principle:1 The knowledge in the sub-idea is needed to answer the item
(i.e., the item cannot be answered correctly without knowing the sub-idea), so the
right answer should be about the sub-idea.
3. Sufficiency principle:2 The knowledge in the benchmark is ALL a student needs to
know to answer the item correctly (i.e., answering the item correctly requires NO
knowledge outside the benchmark). The distractors may be about other sub-ideas
as long as they’re within the benchmark, but it’s best to have distractors also be in
the sub-idea.
4. Item should not teach content.
5. Mirroring: Answer choices should reflect the question being asked.
Facilitating comprehension (especially important for English Language Learners)3
6. Keep sentences brief and straightforward, with a simple phrase structure and no
additional clauses.
7. Use present tense and active voice only.
8. Do not rephrase or reword ideas and sentences – repetition is good.
9. Include minimal contextual information to make the item more “real” to students, and to
avoid relying on prior knowledge that not everyone may possess.
10. Keep the cognitive load as minimal as possible.
11. Keep visuals simple and to the point.
12. Visuals should facilitate the understanding of what is being asked; don’t include a
visual just to include a visual.
13. Include the same information in the text and in the illustration or chart.
14. Where possible, define scientific terms that also have everyday uses (e.g., Earth, energy).
Structure
15. Provide only 4 answer choices.
16. Only one answer can be correct (for example, do NOT use “D. A and B are correct”).
17. Do not use “none of the above” as an answer choice.
Stern, L., and A. Ahlgren. 2002. Analysis of Students’ Assessments in Middle School Curriculum Materials:
Aiming Precisely at Benchmarks and Standards. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 39(9), 889-910.
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Stern and Ahlgren, 2002
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Many of the guidelines listed here were developed specifically for English Language Learners, but have proved
helpful for all students: Kopriva, R. 2000. Ensuring Accuracy in Testing for English Language Learners.
Washington, D.C.: Council of Chief State School Officers.
©2008 Horizon Research, Inc.
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18. The stem must be in the form of a question instead of a statement (for example, do NOT
use “The force is …” followed by four answer choices. Instead, ask “Which of the
following best describes the force?”).
19. Avoid using “never.”
20. Use “What is true about…” instead of “what is true of…”
Format
21. Capitalize the beginning of each answer choice.
22. End each answer choice that is a sentence with a period.
23. Capitalize and bold “NOT,” “INCORRECT,” and “EXCEPT.”
24. Italicize “greater than,” “less than,” and “equal to” when they occur throughout the
answer choices.
25. In the answer choices, correctly, incorrectly, and not should be italicized.
26. Use logical order in answer choices if there is one.
27. Avoid use of proper names.
28. Don’t use “You”; use “A student.”
Avoid test-wiseness
29. Students will look for the longest answer, thinking that more detail means more correct.
Items should have answer choices that are all about the same length.
30. Students will look for the most “science-y” answer (i.e., the choice with the most science
vocabulary). Items should include at least one “science-y” distractor if the correct answer
is also “science-y.”
31. Students will rule out choices that include strong qualifies such as “only,” “never,” and
“always.” Students think (often correctly) that such answer choices are too restrictive
and cannot be right. Items should include strong qualifiers in all or none of the choices.
If only some choices include these words, students typically rule them out and are often
right to do so, even though they may not understand the content.
©2008 Horizon Research, Inc.
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Guidelines for Flow of Matter and Energy in Living Systems Item Writing
Conceptual
1. Assume the idea that energy is not created or destroyed, only transferred is prior
knowledge.
2. Because there are exceptions, do not use “all” or “every” when referring to organisms.
3. Do not use terminology that assumes an understanding of molecules or chemical
symbols. For example, write out “oxygen” and “carbon dioxide.”
4. Do not refer to any specific forms of energy other than chemical energy and light energy.
5. Do not use distractors that require students to know the function of vitamins and
minerals.
6. Avoid using “nutrients” because it is too vague.
7. Be aware of (and try to avoid) phrasing in distractors that would be correct if the lay uses
of “energy” and “food” were used.
8. Avoid asking whether “fertilizer” is food because of the everyday definition of fertilizer
as plant food.
Wording
9. Do not use the terms “photosynthesis” and “respiration.”
10. When referring to plants “making food,” specify that they are making it in their bodies
(as opposed to cooking). The same rule applies to items that refer to animals not making
food.
11. Use “sugars,” not “sugar” to refer to the food made by plants.
12. Avoid the words “ingest” and “excrete.”
13. Use “turn into” instead of “transform” or “convert.”
14. Capitalize “Sun.”
15. Use “living things” instead of “organisms” with students.
16. Use “matter” instead of “material.”
17. Use “energy source” instead of “fuel.”
18. Use “light energy from the Sun” instead of “light energy” or “energy from sunlight.”
©2008 Horizon Research, Inc.
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Guidelines for Force and Motion Item Writing
Conceptual
1. Use “total force” instead of “overall force” (this is more technically correct and less
vague).
2. Use “force due to” instead of “force of” except when talking about gravity or friction or
magnetism.
3. Use “force of gravity” instead of “gravitational force due to Earth” (the latter is more
technically correct, but the former is more “kid-friendly”).
4. Avoid using the terms “balanced” and “unbalanced.”
5. Use “brief shove” to describe a brief moment of interaction.
Wording
6. Use “in the direction of” or “in the opposite direction of” instead of “forward” and
“backward.”
7. Use “level” instead of “flat.”
8. Use “faster and faster” and “slower and slower” instead of “speeding up” and “slowing
down.”
9. Italicize and bold “horizontal,” “frictionless,” and “absolutely no friction.”
©2008 Horizon Research, Inc.
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Guidelines for Plate Tectonics Item Writing
Conceptual
1.
2.
3.
4.
Try to use “away from” instead of “apart” for plate movement.
Use “moving toward one another” instead of “moving together.”
Use “formed at” instead of “added to.”
Terms for events and features should be used appropriately. For example, “volcano”
refers to a feature. “Volcanic eruption” refers to the event. Do not use the two
interchangeably.
Wording
5. Avoid using “lithospheric” to describe plates.
6. Use “plate material” rather than “crust.”
7. Use “outer portion” instead of “surface” when talking about plates.
8. Instead of describing plate material as being “destroyed,” use “consumed.”
9. Use “ocean floor” instead of “ocean basin” to avoid confusion.
10. When referring to the age of rock, use “youngest” then “newest” in parentheses.
11. Use “new rock material” instead of “new rock” or “new material.”
12. Use “Earth”, not “earth”, or “the Earth.”
©2008 Horizon Research, Inc.
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