Phil 208 Aesthetics
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Aristotle – c.384 to 322 BCE.
Student of Plato, teacher of Alexander the Great
Poetics
Aristotle, Poetics, Chapters 1-15 from The Classic Readings, pp. 29-44.
Outline of Poetics based on overviews by Fergusson and Janko.
1 Poetry in general
1.1 Poetry is a kind of representation.
Taxonomy of fine arts:
I.
Iconic arts - (media: c = color, f = figure)
A. Painting - c, f
B. Sculpture - f (Greek sculpture was also painted)
II. Mimetic arts - (media r = rhythm or meter, h = harmony or melody, l = words or logoi)
A. Dance - r
B. Instrumental music (lyre & flute) - r, h
C. Poetry - l, r, h
1. Epic - (mode: narration of action)
2. Tragedy - (mode: dramatization of action of superior or noble person(s))
3. Comedy - (mode: dramatization of action of inferior or shameful person(s))
1.2 Its kinds classified by (a) the media of representation.
Chapter 1
1.
2.
3.
4.
“The correct way of constructing plots.”
Imitation is the common principle of the arts of poetry, music, dancing, painting, and sculpture.
These arts are distinguished according to their medium or material vehicle; the objects and their
manner of imitation.
The mediums of imitation, taken singly or combined, are rhythm, language, and harmony.
1.3 Its kinds classified by (b) the objects represented.
Chapter 2
1.
2.
3.
The objects of imitation are people in action.
Higher or lower types are represented in all the imitative arts.
In poetry this is the basis of the distinction between tragedy and comedy.
1.4 Its kinds classified by (c) the manner or mode of representation.
Chapter 3
1.
2.
3.
The manner of imitation.
In form poetry may be dramatic narrative, pure narrative (including lyric poetry), or pure drama.
A digression follows on the original name and home of the Drama.
2 Origins and development of tragedy, comedy and epic
Chapter 4
1.
2.
3.
4.
The origin and development of poetry.
Psychologically, poetry may be traced to two causes:
a. The instinct of imitation.
b. The instinct of harmony and rhythm.
Part of the pleasure we derive from our pleasure in imitation is applying the intellect in recognition
of objects.
The understanding is applied in distinguishing an object that we might otherwise find horrifying
from a mimetic representation of that object.
Phil 208 Aesthetics
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6.
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Apprehension of the object of fine art brings pleasure.
Aristotle refers to the ‘end’ of tragedy, tragedy seen as a genre improved, then it reached its final
form. Aristotle is a botanist; he examines poetry as if it were a sample of plants. Thus, drawing
his conclusion of from his sample. Aristotle did not anticipate evolution of the genre over time.
Chapter 5
1.
2.
3.
4.
Aristotle gives a definition of the ludicrous and a brief sketch of the rise of comedy.
Aristotle elaborates on points of comparison between epic poetry and tragedy.
Tragedy has a one-day limit; epic has no time limit.
Comedy is shameful; tragedy & epic are noble (this chapter is fragmentary).
3 The nature of tragedy.
3.1 The definition of tragedy, and its six qualitative parts.
Chapter 6 - Definition of Tragedy:
“Tragedy is a mimesis of a high [serious], complete action (‘complete’ in the sense that applies amplitude),
in speech pleasurably enhanced, the different kinds [of enhancement] occurring in separate sections, in
dramatic, not narrative form, effecting through pity and fear the catharsis of such emotions.”
1.
Six elements in Tragedy
a. Three external elements—namely, spectacular presentment, lyrical song, diction.
b. Three internal elements—namely, plot, character, and thought.
c. Plot or the representation of the action is of primary importance. Character and thought
come next in order.
2.
Twice in Poetics Aristotle uses the example of Zeuxis critically. Zeuxis is said to have painted
grapes so realistically that living doves allegedly tried to eat them.
Aristotle states in chapter six that his paintings lack character, the plot must give the audience
something more than actuality provides.
In chapter twenty five Aristotle is again critical of Zeuxis’ reproductions that are too vividly real:
“Poetic requirements make a plausible impossibility preferable to an implausible
possibility… not such as Zeuxis painted them, but better, for the artist should surpass his
model.”1
3.
4.
3.2 The nature of plot.
Chapter 7
The plot must be a whole, complete in itself, and of adequate magnitude.
1. Complete
a. Beginning – no necessary connection to a preceding event, gives rise to further events.
b. Middle – involves causal connection with preceding and ensuing events.
c. End – something that follows another event but need not have ensuing events.
2. Magnitude
a. The beautiful has appropriate scale; it is not too small or too large.
b. The plot structure must be easily held in memory; it is clear as a whole.
c. The plot must entail amplitude allowing a “probable or necessary” transition in character
from good to bad. This implies a ‘quasi-universal’ not a universal ‘as the philosopher
knows.’2
1
The Poetics of Aristotle, trans. Stephen Halliwell (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina
Press, 1997), 63.
2
Ibid., “Commentary,” 112.
Phil 208 Aesthetics
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Chapter 8
The plot must be unified; unity of plot consists not in unity of hero, but in unity of actions. These parts
must be organically connected.
1. Unity
a. Plot has structure; it is a mimesis of a single action.
b. Parts should be necessary – plot cannot function if one is removed.
c. If a part is removed without affecting the plot, it is not necessary.
3.3 The kinds of plot
Chapter 9
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The plot, or dramatic unity can be attained only by the observance of the poetic as distinct from
historic truth; for poetry is an expression of the universal (a quasi universal –‘probable or
necessary’).
History of the particular (act/potency).
The rule of probable or necessary sequence as applied to the incidents-plot is quasi-universal.
Certain plots are condemned for want of unity.
The best tragic effects depend on the combination of the inevitable and the unexpected.
“What I have said also makes plain that the poet’s job is saying not what did happen but the sort of thing
that would happen, that is, what can happen in a strictly probable or necessary sequence. The difference
between the historian and the poet is not merely that one writes verse and the other prose…the essential
difference is that one tells us what happened and the other the sort of thing that would happen. That is why
poetry is at once more like philosophy and more worth while than history, since poetry tends to make
general statements [speaks more of universals], while those of history are particular.”
Chapter 10
Definitions of simple plot (unity) and complex plot (involving reversal or recognition) are given.
3.4 The three parts of plot.
Chapter 11
1.
2.
3.
Peripeteia: Reversal of the situation (opposite effect).
Recognition (ignorance to knowledge).
Suffering: tragic or disastrous incident defined and explained.
4 How tragedy can best achieve its function.
4.1 Plot in tragedy
Chapter 13
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2.
3.
4.
5.
What constitutes tragic action?
The change of fortune and the character of the hero as requisite to an ideal tragedy.
Due to fallibility, the main character is not wicked, but not preeminent in virtue.
The characters do not perform voluntary evil. But there is no final justice, no Christian
otherworldly compensation.
This is the tragedy; the mistake makes one bad. The character falls because of a flaw. The
unhappy ending is more truly tragic than the ‘poetic justice’ that is in favor with a popular
audience. ‘Poetic justice’ belongs to Comedy.
Chapter 14
1.
2.
3.
4.
The tragic emotions of pity and fear should sprint out of the plot itself.
To produce them by scenery or spectacular effect is entirely against the spirit of tragedy.
Examples of tragic incidents designed to heighten the emotional effect. The must be closely
connected.
Not every emotion is to be sought in tragedy, just the appropriate ones.
Phil 208 Aesthetics
4.2 Character in tragedy.
Chapter 15
1.
2.
The element of character (as the manifestation of moral purpose) in tragedy.
a. Characters are good
b. Characters are appropriate
c. Likeness of character
d. Consistency of character
The requisites of ethical portraiture
a. The rule of necessity or probability applicable to character as to plot. What is irrational
should be outside of tragedy.
b. People should be displayed as better than they are in reality, as the painter does, by
showing them with their flaws, but still having redeemable character.
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Richard Janko, “Introduction,” Poetics. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 1987.
Plato’s challenge to poetry and Aristotle’s defense.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Poets compose under inspiration, not by using reason.
Poetry teaches the wrong things.
Poetry is a mimesis (imitation), at two removes from reality.
Poetry encourages the emotions of those who perform or listen to it.
Plato poses a challenge late in book X of the Republic that those who love poetry should
show that it is of some benefit.
Aristotle responds to this challenge.
Aristotle argues that poetry can be philosophical without being philosophy and that
poetry can be educational without being education.
Responses to 1
 Poetry is a techne that can be learned.
 The rules are comprehensible by reason.
 Aristotle sets these rules and principles out in the Poetics, thus answering the 1st
criticism.
Responses to 2-3
 Poetry is a mimesis, but it is a useful one that we can learn from.
 The term mimesis does not clearly distinguish between imitating, copying,
impersonation and representation.
 For the Greeks, the term mimesis encompassed all of these meanings.
 Aristotle and Plato agreed that painting and poetry are mimetic, but they disagree
as to which aspect of the term.
 Aristotle saw these arts as representational.
 Plato viewed them as copies or imitations, less than the real.
 Aristotle thought we could learn about reality from these representations (Poetics,
chapter 9).
 Plato held that art deceives us about reality (Republic X).
 Aristotle held that representation was part of an intellectual process.
o Loss of detail in a mimetic representation is accompanied by clarity of
basic form.
o Poetry speaks of universals. History speaks of particulars.
Responses to 4
Regarding the charge that poetry stirred the emotions of the audience, it is argued that
Aristotle makes an indirect reply by asserting that the function of tragedy is catharsis.
 What is catharsis?
 A definition of catharsis attributed to Bernays, views it in a somewhat Freudian
manner as activity arousing emotion in order that it be released.
Phil 208 Aesthetics
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Aristotle does not, however, suggest that a trip to the theater is like a trip to the
doctor.
Bernays, as Plato, assumes emotions to be undesirable.
Aristotle does not hold this view.
Janko suggest another account of catharsis that hinges on Aristotle’s concept of
representation.
 Emotions are aroused in tragedy, but Aristotle differentiates the terror and pity of
real life with terror and pity aroused in a tragedy.
 Aristotle saw emotions as important for making good decisions and developing
character.
 Plato regarded them as irrational.
 Aristotle holds that virtue is a disposition to feel emotions correctly.
 Well-developed virtues lead to good decisions.
 We become good by habituating activities that are good.
 We feel the right emotions by being habituated to having the right emotions.
 Poetry allows us the habituation of having the right emotions without having to go
through the tragic experience.
 Thus, if the tragedy evokes the emotions correctly, it helps form good character.
Because it is also pleasurable, according to Janko’s interpretation of catharsis,