Senechal, M., & Cornell, E. H. (1993).
< active participation 01>
Vocabulary acquisition through shared reading experiences. Reading Research Quarterly, 28 (4),
361-374.
001
Abstract
The present study aims to investigate the effects of different reading conditions on children’s receptive and
expressive vocabulary. Four adult reading conditions were utilized in the experiment. The four reading measures
were the use of what-and where- questions, the use of recasts, the word repetition condition, and the verbatim reading
condition. Eighty 4-and eighty 5- years-old children were recruited in the study. Results indicated that requesting
active participation in the book-reading interactions did not boost children’s vocabulary learning; reading the book
verbatim was just as effective as asking questions or recasting new vocabulary introduced in the book. However, the
researchers found the effect of a single reading of a storybook on children’s receptive vocabulary. (L1)
Design: 1 storybook
Reading conditions:(a) the use of questions (b) the use of recasts (c) repetition (d) read the book verbatim
Findings: The reading episode was sufficient to boost young learners’ receptive vocabulary and that the
immediate test may have primed older children to acquire target words in extraexperimental contexts.
Children’s acquisition was superior to the reasonable estimate of guessing. Also, children remembered
more words than they forgot words. (after investigating the influence of remembering, forgetting, and
reminiscence on their receptive vocabulary development) On the other hand, although the children failed
to produce the target words, after the reading, they were able to produce appropriate synonyms for the
target words. Moreover, they produced few inappropriate labels and produced few failures to respond.
Multiple exposure of book reading is a must!
Senechal, M. (1997).
< active participation 02>
The differential effect of storybook reading on preschoolers’ acquisition
of expressive and receptive vocabulary. Cambridge University Press, 24, 123-
002
138.
Abstract
The present study was conducted to assess the effect of didactic techniques used during
storybook reading on young children’s acquisition of new vocabulary introduced in storybooks.
30 three-year-old and 30 four-year-old children are included in the experiment. One storybook
was utilized and three reading conditions were set up for the participants: single reading, repeated
reading and questioning. In both the repeated reading and questioning conditions, the storybook
was read three times. Results indicated that listening to multiple readings of a storybook
facilitated children’s acquisition of expressive and receptive vocabulary, whereas answering
questions during the multiple readings was more helpful to the acquisition of expressive than
receptive vocabulary. (L1)
Design: 1 storybook (the same with one that used in Senechal & Cornell, 1993)
Testing: Pretest of receptive vocabulary, Posttests of receptive & expressive vocabulary
Reading conditions: (a) single-reading (b) repeated-reading (c) questioning condition.
Discussion
Increased exposure of book reading enhanced children’s receptive and expressive vocabulary
similarly whereas active responding during repeated book reading events enhanced children’
expressive vocabulary more than their receptive vocabulary. Also, adults’ reading behaviors may
have different effects on children’s receptive and expressive vocabulary.
Ewers. C. A., & Brownson, S. M. (1999). < active participation 03>
Kindergarteners’ vocabulary acquisition as a function of active vs. passive
storybook reading, prior vocabulary, and working memory. Journal of Reading
Psychology, 20, 11-20.
003
Abstract
The purpose of the current study is to investigate the effect of active versus passive
storybook reading conditions on the vocabulary acquisition of kindergarteners who differed in
level of prior vocabulary and phonological working memory. Results revealed that children with
higher vocabulary knowledge acquired significantly more words than lower vocabulary peers;
active participants acquired significantly more words than passive participants; and children
with high versus low working memory did not differ in word acquisition. (L1)
Design: 1 storybook
Testing:(a) the Senechal Vocabulary Test-Adapted (b) Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVTR), and (c)the Children’s Test of Nonword Repetition (CNRep)  to get the current proficiency
(d) pretest (e) posttest of target words
Reading conditions: (a) active storybook reading (b) passive storybook reading.
Discussion
Kindergarteners could acquire a significant number of new vocabulary words as a result of
listening to a single storybook reading. Active participation would facilitates the learning of voca.
Justice, L. M. (2002). Word exposure conditions and preschoolers’ novel
word learning during shared storybook reading. Reading Psychology, 23,
87-106. < active participation 04>
004
Abstract
The researcher designed an experiment in which 23 preschoolers participated in 2 adult-child
shared storybook reading sessions over 1-week period. The purposes of the present study are,
firstly, to characterize the influence of various conditions. Secondly, to investigate the effects of the
two contrasting conditions. Results indicated that adults’ labeling of novel words facilitated
children’s receptive word learning but not for expressive word learning. Also, results suggested
that no differences in receptive or expressive word learning in terms of conceptual versus
perceptual questions. ( L1)
Design:
Testing: (a) Novel Receptive Vocabulary, and (b) Novel Expressive Vocabulary
Reading conditions: (a) questioning versus labeling of novel words, and (b) conceptual versus
perceptual questions about novel words
Discussion
Adults’ labeling of novel words resulted in significantly greater gains in preschool children’s
receptive learning of novel words. Also, both questioning and labeling did not exert positive effects
regarding to the young children’s expressive learning of novel words. Last, nor did various types of
adult questions exert differential effects on novel word learning by preschool children
Senechal, M., Thomas, E., & Monker, J. A. (1997) <active participation 05>
Individual differences in 4-year-old children’s acquisition of vocabulary during
storybook reading. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87 (2), 218-229.
Abstract
005
Two experiments were conducted to assess how children who differ in vocabulary knowledge learn
new vocabulary from listening to storybooks. Participants were pretested for their prior word knowledge
and classified as high or low word knowledge based on their Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised
(PPVT-R) standard scores. In experiment 1, children either listened passively or labeled pictures using
novel words. Results shown that children with larger vocabularies produced more novel words than did
children with smaller vocabularies, and children who answered questions during the book readings
comprehended and produced more words than did children who passively listened to the story. In
Experiment 2, participants either listened to readings of a book, pointed to pictures during the readings, or
labeled pictures during the readings. Results indicated that children with larger vocabularies
comprehended more novel words than did children with smaller vocabularies. Also, children who actively
participated by labeling or pointing learned more words than did children who listened passively to book
readings. Therefore, the results highlighted the importance of active participation during the readings,
whether verbal or nonverbal responding, namely, labeling or pointing. (L1)
Design: 2 storybooks, 2 exposures of book reading, delayed/ post-test of comprehension & production, 32 & 48 sub.
Low & high word knowledge groups
Discussion: an example of the Matthew Effects; active participation facilitates word learning (pointing or labeling);
home reading experience is a key role in children’s vocabulary base
Reading storybooks to
kindergarteners helps them learn new vocabulary words. Journal
of Educational Psychology, 86 (1), 54-64.
Ehri,
L.
C,
&
Robbins,
C.
(1994) .
006
Abstract
33 five-year-old kindergarteners comprised the body of the subjects in this study. Two storybooks were
used and were read twice to the participants. After the reading, the participants completed a posttest measuring
their knowledge of the meanings if 22 unfamiliar words. Results indicated that children recognized the meanings
of significantly more words from the story than words not in the story. Namely, storybook reading facilitated
children’s learning of vocabulary words. The study results were another example of the Matthew Effect, which
supported the phenomenon that the rich get richer and the poor get poorer. Moreover, four exposures to words
appeared to be necessary but not sufficient for higher rates of word learning. (L1)
.Design:
Testing: 2 storybooks; multiple-choice posttest (22 words, 11 heard, 11 not-heard)
3 groups: low, middle, & high word knowledge
Discussion:
1. an example of the Matthew Effects
2. multiple exposures of book reading is a must (in this study, 4 exposures are necessary but still
not sufficient for learning all new words in a story, at least 2 exposures for enhancing word learning)
Senechal, M., LeFevre, J. A., Hudson, E., & Lawson, E. P. (1996).
Knowledge of storybooks as a predictor of young children’s
vocabulary. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88 (3), 520-536.
<Knowledge as a Predictor of Vocabulary 01>
007
Abstract
In the present study, the researchers examined variables accounted for the children’s vocabulary acquisition
such as frequency of storybook reading at home, frequency of reading requests during a typical week and so on.
Additionally, parents’ education background, socioeconomic status, occupation and other potential influencing
factors were also being taken into consideration in the research. In Experiment 1, parents’ knowledge of
storybooks explained unique variance in children’s receptive vocabulary scores. In Experiment 2, children’s
knowledge of storybook explained unique variance in their receptive and expressive vocabulary scores. The
findings obtained in the present study indicate that storybook experiences during the preschool years may
play a key role in children’s vocabulary development. Furthermore, a book-exposure checklist would be an
alternative to self-reports of reading frequency. (L1)
.Design:
Ex.1: 119 children & parents Ex.2: 47 children & 50 parents
Checklists: CTC (Children’s Title Checklist), CAC (Children’s Author Checklist), & AAC (Adults’ Author Ckl.)
Discussion:
1. Book exposure plays a key role in enhancing young children’s vocabulary development.
2. Reading exposure checklists are relatively more reliable than parents’ self-report of children’s reading
experiences. (without social desirability)
3. After controlling for other influencing factors (environmental & cognitive), storybook exposure
(environmental variables) explains unique variance in children’s vocabulary knowledge
Snow, C. A., & Goldfield, B. A. (1983) Turn the page please: situationspecific language acquisition. J. Child Lang., 10, 551-569.
<mother-infant dyads 01>
008
Abstract
The study investigated the effects of storybook reading on children’s language development via motherinfant dyads. The research results showed that specific lexical items and constructions used to talk about a
picture frequently recurred in subsequent discussions, and that the child learned many of these same items and
constructions. Also, the child was most likely to acquire what he had heard his mother say about a picture if he
had repeated it in an earlier discussion. (L1) syntactic structures!
.Design: one mother-child pair over a period of 11 months Age: 2.5 years old (to 3.4 years old)
Discussion:
1. The recurrences of storybook reading and discussion did facilitate the child's language development.
2. In 37.7% of the discussions, the child initiated the conversation, indicating that he acquired the lexical items
he needed through the reading experiences. (the capacity and willingness to initiate the discussion)
3. In this particular interactive context, the child utilized the strategy of saying what he had heard others say in
precisely the same situation.
* Book reading is a frequent and powerful source of language learning.
* Book reading is an ideal and highly routinized activity.
* Routinization of situations and predictability of adult utterances from situation crucial variables determining
optimal usability of the linguistic environment.
Ninio, A. (1983) Joint book reading as a multiple vocabulary acquisition
device. Developmental Psychology, 19, 445-451.
<mother-infant dyads 02>
009-1
Abstract
The study investigated the effects of joint picture-book reading by 20 mother-infant dyads. Several labeling
formats have been found from the content analysis, among them simple labeling by the mother or the infant,
elicitation of labeling by “what-questions, “ elicitation of pointing by “where-questions,” and elicited and
spontaneous imitation by the infant. The results imply that imitation, comprehension, and productive responses
to words by vocabulary- learning infants do no represent different levels of word knowledge, and also that the
respective vocabularies are overlapping at a given point in time. (EFL)
Design: The study investigates vocabulary-teaching formats occurring in the context of joint picture-book
reading by mother-infant dyads. It focuses on repeated discussions of the same words occurring within a single
book-reading session of 15-min duration. 3 picture books are used in the study.
Discussion:
1. At the stage, correct responses appear intermixed with errors, implying that labeling games concentrate on
words in the process of being acquired rather than with fully mastered vocabulary items.
2. Comprehension and production of labels represent the same level of word knowledge—about 70% correct.
Imitation occurs at a slightly lower level of knowledge—about 43% success rate.
3. Words that are imitated are slightly less well-known by the child than others. That is, imitation occurs
literally on the threshold of acquisition. Following imitation, the success rate in producing and
comprehending the same items approaches the 70% level.
4. Production, comprehension, and imitation represent alternative forms of rehearsal, with imitation more likely
Ninio, A. (1983) Joint book reading as a multiple vocabulary acquisition
device. Developmental Psychology, 19, 445-451.
<mother-infant dyads 02>
to occur for less well-learned, but already comprehended, items.
009-2
5. Labeling statements were preceded by a significantly lower proportion of correct responses than either whatquestions or where-questions. (20.8% for labeling statements, 67.4% for what-questions, 51% for wherequestions)
6. Mother exhibited a high degree of sensitivity to signals of word knowledge or lack of it in their children and
chose their subsequent move accordingly. Mothers seemed to be motivated to impart labeling information only if
the children appeared not to know the word; otherwise, they attempted to elicit production or recognition of the
word from the children.
Snow, C.A., & Ninio, A. (1986) The contracts of literacy: What
children learn from listening to read books. In W. H. Teale, &
E. Sulzby (Eds.), Emergent literacy: Writing and Reading
(pp.116-138). Norwood, NJ: Ablex. <mother-infants dyads 3>
010
Abstract
With complementary lines of research, Snow & Ninio turned their attention completely to the contributions
of book reading to the child’s literacy development and discuss how children learn the “contracts of literacy,” the
basic rules related to the use of books and the meaning of texts. (L1)
Design: mother-child dyads
infant at their initial stage of language learning (one: at his early language acquisition and the other was 8
months old)
Discussion:
*The 7 contracts:
1) Books are for reading, not for manipulating; (2) In book reading, the book is in control and the
readeros led; (3) Pictures are not things but representatives of things; (4) Pictures are for naming; (5)
Pictures can represent events; (6) Book events occur outside real time; (7) Books constitute an
autonomous fictional world
Whitehurst, G. J. et al. (1988). Accelerating Language Development
011
Through Picture Book Reading. Developmental Psychology, 24, 552-559.
<mother-infants dyads 4>
Abstract : The study assessed the effects of joint book reading between mothers and infants. Mothers of the
experimental group, after receiving a less than 1 hour reading training, followed the instructions in their reading
yet mothers in the control read in their customary fashion. Results showed that the experimental outperformed
their counterparts on standardized posttests of expressive language ability. Also, the experimental had a higher
MLU (mean length of utterance), frequency of phrases, and a lower frequency of single words. Follow-up 9
months showed differences between the two groups. (L1)
Design: mother-child dyads / 1 month duration
The average age: 1.75~2.91 years old
Discussion:
Variations in reading to young children can have appreciable effects on language development. Results from
posttests and follow-up on PPVT, EOWPVT, and ITPA indicated that children in the experimental group had a
more positive results than ones in the control after being read to by their mothers under the requirements of using
open-ended questions, function/attribute questions, and expansions; to respond appropriately to children’s
attempts to answer these questions; and to decrease their frequency of straight reading and questions that could
be answered by pointing. Moreover, the experimental showed higher MLU, frequency of phrases, and a lower
frequency of single words.
PPVT: Peaboby Picture Vocabulary Test
EOWPT: Expressive One Word Picture Vocabulary Test
ITPA: Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities
Arnold, D. H. et al. (1994). Accelerating Language Development Through Picture
012
Book Reading: Replication and Extension to a Videotape Training Format. Journal
of Educational Psychology, 86, 235-243. <mother-infants dyads 5>
Abstract: As a replication of Whitehurst et al (1988)’s study, the present study assessed the effects of joint
book reading between mothers and infants using a videotape training program. The intervention program, called
dialogic reading, produced substantial effects on preschool children’s language development. Concerning the
costs of the reading training program, the authors developed and evaluated an inexpensive videotape training
package for teaching dialogic reading techniques. Results supported the conclusions of Whitehurst et al.:
Dialogic reading had powerful effects on children’s language skills and indicated that videotape training provide
a cost-effective, standardized means of implementing the program. (L1)
Design: mother-child dyads / 5 weeks duration/ 64 children, 27 in the control, 23 the direct, 14 in the video
The average age: 2~2. 83 years old
Discussion:
As a replication of Whitehurst, G. J. et al. (1988), the results also found that variations in reading to young
children can have appreciable effects on language development. Besides, with the cost-effective concern of the
application, the researchers utilized a videotape training program to provide parents with principles of reading
storybook aloud. As expectation, the research results confirmed the effects of reading stories to young children
did facilitate their vocabulary acquisition. Moreover, with the emphasis of eliciting production from children, the
storytelling evokes children’s productive vocabulary than their receptive vocabulary. In other word, the series of
dialogic reading studies demonstrates that large effects on children’s language can obtained by a storytime
intervention that encourages children to talk about picture books and provides appropriate language feedback
and models.
Akhtar, N., Jipson, J., & Callanen, M. A. (2001). Learning words from
013
overhearing. Child Development, 72, 416-430.
Abstract : Three studies examined 2 year-olds’ ability to learn novel words when overhearing these words
used by others. The results found that children aged 2.6 were equally good at learning novel words, both object
labels and action verbs when they were overhearers as when they were directly addressed. But for younger 2
year-olds, this was true for object labels than for action verbs. The research highlighted the active role played by
toddlers in vocabulary acquisition. (L1)
Design: 3 studies (1A/1B2.6 year-olds, 2A/2B young 2 year-olds, 3 younger 2 year-olds with a modified
procedure (provided chances of knowing the action prop first, experiences with the action verbs)
2 groups: 1overhearing, 1 addressed
The average age: 2.4~2.8 years old
Discussion: The research results indicated that by age 2.6, children are capable of learning novel words through
overhearing. (both nouns and verbs) Moreover, younger 2 year-olds show the ability of acquiring novel labels but not
action verbs through overhearing. For obvious reasons, younger 2 year-olds seemed not to learn action verbs through
overhearing.
Reflection: Context plays a critical role in children’s language acquisition. Only in meaningful social interaction
could children absorb language naturally and substantially. Also, the research findings reveal the fact that toddlers
can acquire words through meaningful literacy event even as an overhearer and this, to me, may provide an
explanation why children would absorb new words through storytelling.
Smith, H, & Higgins, S. (2006). Opening classroom interaction: the
importance of feedback. Cambridge Journal of Education, 36, 485502.
014
Abstract : This article uses evidence gathered from a large-scale research project examining classroom
interactions during literacy and numeracy lessons, and the researchers’ critical reflections upon this process,
to examine conceptions of interactive pedagogy. In order to “open” classroom interaction, emphasis should
be on the manner with which teachers’ react to pupils’ responses to questions. Episodes of classroom
interaction from video recorded literacy and numeracy lessons taken as part of the study are used to support
this argument.
Findings: It is not whether a question is factual, closed or open or even the degree of openness and authenticity
with which it is phrased, the act of asking questions itself, or the types of questions teachers ask, which
determines classroom interactivity. Rather it is how a teacher reacts to pupils’ responses in terms of their
feedback and the historical precedence of the perception of teacher intent this engenders. Types of feedback
moves which appear to facilitate pupils’ subsequent use of talk for thinking and learning. (1) quality feedback
moves: to encourage a more conversational and symmetrical interaction, (2) encouraging peer-peer feedback:
by asking pupils to review one another’s work, rephrasing the pupils’ ideas etc., which may enhance selfevaluation, (3) reciprocal engagement: to signal an authentic interest in what the pupils were saying and an
implicit cue prompting their continuance, (4) following pupils’ ideas: by taking pupils seriously, acknowledging
and building on what they said, which encouraged pupils to have ownership not only of the solution of the
problems, but also the flow of the lesson.
Notes:
(1) the feedback move: I-R-F initiation-response-feedback
(2) reason for using a video camera:: paralinguistic and non-linguistic features of talk and the use of the board as a pedagogical tool
were captured. The recordings were used to identify not just the function of teacher and pupil discourse, and “broad patterns in
the distribution of talk,” but also the content of what was actually said and the manner in which it was spoken.--> the whole
picture!
Cornell, E. H., Senechal, M., & Broda, L. S. (1988). Recall of picture books by
3 year-old children: Testing and repetition in joint reading activities. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 80, 537-542.
015
Abstract : The study probed the effects of rereading and testing for recall on children’s knowledge of content of the
given texts. An additional between-subject variable was whether the researcher or the child pointed to items to be
remembered; the different books served as a within-subject variable. The dependent variable measure was memories of
book items when the child was asked to anticipate events from page to page. There was little evidence that these
memories were strengthened by the child’s pointing during reading, but testing for recall and rereading the book were
found to be effective for teaching the content. (L1) (72 three-year-old children, duration: N/A)
Findings: The results indicated that rereading and testing boosted children’s knowledge of content of
picture-books. More importantly, once the book items were recalled and confirmed, children rarely forgot
them. However, pointing was not as effective for boosting recall of book items as hypothesized in this
current study. Namely, recall of pic. books was boosted by a single rereading of the books, by testing for
memories of book items, and by probing with different reminders.
Discussions:
(1) testing effects seen in the study: testing serves to (1) retrieve new items and (2) correct items that are recalled in
the wrong context.
(2) (2) lack of an effect of pointing: investigations involving different ages, book formats, and dependent measures
should be considered. Moreover, pointing may be instrumental for other aspects of language learning such as
vocabulary acquisition.(Ninio, 1983)
(3) certain pic. books facilitate certain aspects of book learning. The researchers urged that the literature seldom
acknowledge that the child’s competence and the parents’ techniques may be shaped by the book in hand.(Effie:
the importance of book selection)
(4) children’s intrusion reflect knowledge of content. The book that yielded more recall yielded less incorrect guessing,
less failure to respond to initial probes but more intrusions. Children are willing to name items that they knew
appeared somewhere in the book.  the importance to identify the memorable characteristics of favorite books
(Robinson & Sulzby, 1984).
Whitehurst, G. J., Arnold, D. S., Epstein, J. N., Angell, A. L., Smith, M., &
Fischel, J. E. (1994) A picture book reading intervention in day care and home for
016-1
children from low-income families. Developmental Psychology, 30, 679-689.
Abstract : The study investigated the effect of an interactive book reading program with children from lowincome families who attended subsidized day-care center in New York. Children were pretested and assigned
randomly within classrooms to 1 of conditions: (a) a school plus home condition in which the children were read
to by their teachers and their parents, (b) a school condition in which children were read to only by teachers,
and (c) a control condition in which children engaged in play activities under the supervision of their teachers.
The intervention lasted for 6 weeks, at which point children were posttested on several standardized measures
of language ability that had been used as pretests. These assessments were repeated at a 6-month follow-up.
Statistically and educationally significant effects of the reading intervention were obtained at posttests and
follow-up on measures of expressive vocabulary. (n= 73 three year-old L1 children)
Findings: Children in the reading conditions gained approximately double the number of words between
pretests and posttests than the counterparts in the control. Interestingly, from the correlational findings,
number of books in the home and the child’s enjoyment of shared reading contributed to children’ s
performance on the language assessment. The research results showed that book reading can be a practical
intervention for preschoolers from low-income backgrounds.(with readers are day care center teachers or
parents other than highly educated adults)
Discussion: (1) The principles underlying dialogic reading suggest that children benefit from active responding
to pic.books in a setting in which an adult gently pushes the child, through questions, expansions, and sensitivity
to the child’s interests and abilities.
Whitehurst, G. J., Arnold, D. S., Epstein, J. N., Angell, A. L., Smith, M., &
Fischel, J. E. (1994) A picture book reading intervention in day care and home for
children from low-income families. Developmental Psychology, 30, 679-689.
016-2
Discussion: (2) The model that underlies the research is that dialogic reading and related activities during
the preschool period enhance language and preliteracy skills, which in turn help children in learning to read
and other academic tasks when they begin school.
Note: In day care, teachers read to a small group of nor more than 5 children at a time.
Oeizman, Z. O., & Snow, C. (2001). Lexical Input as Related to Children’s
Vocabulary Acquisition: Effects of Sophisticated Exposure and Support for
017
Meaning, 37, 265-279.
Abstract : The study aims to investigate the relationship between early lexical input and vocabulary acquisition among in
low-income children. With 53 children recruited in the study, totally 263 mother-child conversations in 5 settings were
studied. Children’s vocabulary performance in kindergarten and later in 2nd grade related more to the occurrence of
sophisticated lexical items than to quantity of lexical input overall. Density of sophisticated words heard and the density
with which such words were embedded in helpful or instructive interactions, at age 5 at home, independently predicted over
a third of the variance in children’s voca. performance in both kindergarten and 2nd grade.
Design: 5 settings: toy-play, mealtime, magnet play, information book reading, storybook reading
The average age: 53 low-income mother & child, 5 years old, L1 (mother-child dyads)
Findings: Study results were two folded. Firstly, there’re profound quantitative and qualitative differences in
early voca. exposure among low-income preschoolers. Secondly, a powerful linkage b/w early exposure to
sophisticated words during mealtime and playtime conversations and later voca. performance was found.
Study results indicated that age 5 PPVT-R score absorbs most of the variance in the age 7 PPVT-R score. This
suggests that the relationships carried over into the early school years.
Discussion: The present research indicated the importance of the occurrence of sophisticated low-frequency
words at a child’s early literacy development. More importantly, it is particularly imperative for children in lowincome family. Also, the importance of providing interactive contexts that support the utility of sophisticated
language input was highlighted. Accordingly, the researchers suggest that descriptions of vocabulary input must
involve 3 fundamental elements: lexical quantity, lexical sophistication, and conversational support, in which
instructive or helpful interactions would be seen.
Lomax, C. L. (1977) Interest in books and stories at nursery school. Educational
Research, 19, 100-112.
018-1
Abstract : The study aims to investigate children’s interest in books and stories at nursery school. 28 preschool
children were compared by means of observations, tests, interviews with parent about activities at home, and
questionnaires for staff about activities at school.
Design: The subjects were divided into 2 groups: high-interest group & low-interest group. At the first stage, the children
were observed for two non-consecutive days to decide who has high interests in books and vice versa. At the second stage,
both Story Group (averagely spent 22.5 min in the books areas) and Control Group (spent only 4 mins) was observed
continuously for a period of 100 minutes.
The average age: 3 and 4 years old, L1
Findings: Significances were found in the study. Firstly, results from the first stage showed that story telling and
looking at books, taken together, were among the most commonly observed activities in the nursery school. (there’s a
dearth of research studies in giving information about children’s activities in nursery schools.) Secondly, the girls
tended to be using the book corner for longer periods than the boys. Thirdly, there’s big difference in time spent
between the two groups. CG spent more time on ‘nonspecific activity’ and SG stayed focus on ‘any’ activity for a
much longer time than their counterpart. Moreover, SG spent contrastively long time on listening to a story (12.72
min) from an adult and CG only a very short period of time (4.43 mins). Next, parents of SG reported that their
children had a story from an adult at home significantly more often than parents of CG. Besides, parents of SG
reported that their children painted more often than peers of CG, while children of CG were reported to pretend to be
an ‘action figure’ more often than the Story children. Furthermore, children of SG listened to a story from an adult
were more frequent their peers at the nursery school. Also, the frequency of using construction toys of SG was higher
than CG at the nursery school.
Lomax, C. L. (1977) Interest in books and stories at nursery school. Educational
Research, 19, 100-112.
018-2
Findings: On the other hand, all children in the SG were reported as having a story form an adult at home at least once
a week, and in most cases every day. Eight of the 12 CG children also had stories from an adult for at least once a
week, though one mother commented that her child received reading aloud no more than once a week. The other four
Comparison children had stories from adults at home less often than this, in two cases less often than once a month.
When it comes to the liking or disliking of playing alone, CG children disliked to play alone compared the Story
children most of whom were seen as liking to this or even liking it very much. By contrast the CG children were
mostly reported as liking to play with other young children very much compared with the Story children who merely
liked this situation of in many cases disliked it. Interestingly enough, the association between age and apparent
interests in books and stories for boys was also found in a longitudinal study undertaken at another nursery school as
part of the same project (Lomax, unpublished research). Nursery nurses kept records of children’s interests in various
play activities over a two-year period. Most of the boys in the study were reported as showing interests in books corner
at age five but not at age three; most of the girls, on the other hand, were reported as already showing interests by the
age of three. Last, CG children engaged in most nursery school activities more often than the SG but generally attended
to these activities for shorted periods and spent a significantly greater proportion of their time doing nothing in
particular.
Lomax, C. L. (1977) Interest in books and stories at nursery school. Educational
Research, 19, 100-112.
018-3
Discussion: The findings of the research were very critical and highly influencing. As in expectation, the researcher
indicated that many instances in the investigation showed that the children has a strong liking for repetition, which
was again supported the common belief that young children love repetition of hearing the same books again and again
once they love that given story. Moreover, the introduction of the ‘jukebox’ system which the children could operate
themselves would not only be interesting form a research point of view but might help to satisfy the children’s evident
desire for stories to be repeated several times. Also, the small number of children present at any one time for a story
suggests that there would be plenty of opportunity for individual attention and child-adult interaction in this situation.
Speaker, K. M., Taylor, D., & Kamen, R. (2004). Storytelling: Enhancing language
acquisition in young children. Education, 125, 3-14.
019
Abstract: The research aims to investigate the effects of listening to stories on preschoolers’ language acquisition.
In details, it is to assess the qualitative changes in verbal fluency in four aspects: vocabulary, grammatics, MLU, and
sentence formation. 5 subjects were enrolled in the study. The subjects received pretests and posttests on Brown’s
Stages of Language Development to probe the acquisition of syntax (MLU) and Templin’s Type of Token Ratio to
study the word knowledge (semantic content). Data collection was also from the language samples to analyze the four
aspects of language. The questions used were open-ended, thought provoking and intentionally written at eh higher
stages of Bloom’s taxonomy. Each child’s language development was analyzed through unstructured (free play) and
structured activities (narratives) using sequential picture cards and themed pictures before and after the storytelling
program.
Design: a qualitative research, 4 weeks & 10 books
The average age: 3, 4, and 5years old, L1
Findings: The study results showed that each of the five preschool children displayed improvement of language skills
after engaging in the rigorous storytelling program. While the level of overall progress varied in vocabulary,
grammatics and sentence formation, significant gains in MLU can be noted. The increased use of elaboration and the
use of complex sentences can also be seen in the post intervention stage in the participants. These findings reiterated
that increased exposure to storytelling would foster emergence of more advanced stages of different aspects, here,
with grammatics, vocabulary, length of utterance, and sentence formation, of language development in preschoolers.
Discussion: The MLU corresponds roughly to the child’s chronological age, in which case an MLU of 3.94 would
roughly correspond to a 4 year-old child. The flaws of the study: the way of storytelling was deficient. (N/A) and the
study duration seemed too short (with only 4 weeks).
Wood, E., Pressley, M., Turnure, J., & Walton, R. (1987). Enriching children’s
recall of picture-dictionary definitions with interrogation and elaborated pictures.
ECTJ, 35, 43-52.
020
Abstract: The hypothesis of this study was that preschoolers’ learning of vocabulary-meaning associations could be
improved by interventions that increased the likelihood of extensive, elaborated processing during the study of
vocabulary words and their definitions. Subjects were randomly put into 4 conditions: questioned & elaborated/
nonquestioned & elaborated/ questioned& nonelaborated, and nonquestioned & nonelaborated.
Design: 4 conditions (questioned(1) showed the pictures (2) read by the experimenter the short definitional
paragraph (3) ask questions & nonquestioned(1) showed the pictures (2) read by the experimenter the short
definitional paragraph (3) declarative sentences)
The average age: eighty 41 months ~ 69 months preschoolers
Findings: The study results showed that firstly questioned subjects performed better in total recall that was
paraphrased than nonquestioned counterparts but were less likely to recall the exact word wording of the text, consists
with the hypothesis that questioning would produce more extensive processing of the definitions. Secondly, the
presentation of elaborated pictures resulted in more congruent recall than the presentation of the less complex
pictures. That is, the elaborated pictures might also produce deeper processing than did the nonelaborated illustrations,
for subjects who viewed elaborated pictures were more likely to recall congruent information at testing. Finally, this
present study made it clear that preschool children’s memory of a definition can be made richer, with pictorial and
interrogative variables making unique contributions to recall. The study emphasized the importance of pictures and
questions in reading (and reading aloud) to children in terms of their language development.
Linse, C. (2006). Predictable books in the children’s EFL classroom. ELT Journal,
61, 46-54.
021
Abstract: The article explores the use of predictable books in EFL to help develop both their oral language and
literacy development. Furthermore, it explores the range of language found in predictable books and discusses
the suitability of this material for young children learning in EFL.
Discussion: (1) repetition is important of the learning. Many folktales are embedded with this feature such as
Goldilocks, Little Red Hen, and Three Little Pigs. Also, folktales were originally told orally in a social context.
The social environment of the story can assist in providing scaffolding as is the case when adults engage in
telling stories to children that use repetitive and predictable language. Last, repetition would provide linguistic
support as a young child developed concepts of language and narration. (2) One of the most precious moments
that teachers share with their very young students is story time when they crowd around to see the pictures and
listen to a tale read or told for the first or twentieth time. (3) Predictable story is a popular type of storybooks that
often used by native English teachers. Predictable books contain illustrations that help to clarify or support the
word, sentence, or pattern that is repeated in the text. Also, predictable books are considered to be an
educationally sound way of easing emergent readers into reading authentic literature. (“These predictable
features give emergent readers the sensation of reading and help them make associations between spoken
and written words (Popp, 1996)). Predictable book like Brown Bear, Brown Bear, what do you see? (4) the
advantages of reading predictable books: illustrate specific aspects of grammar, provide content (using
controlled patterns). For example, Polar Bear, Polar Bear, what do you hear? (repetitive structures and features
factual content). Next, it can teach children pronunciation, help them develop writing skills (it is important to use
books that children are familiar with and are at or slightly above children’s level of language acquisition.)
Linse, C. (2006). Predictable books in the children’s EFL classroom. ELT Journal,
61, 46-54.
021-1
Discussion: When search for a predictable book for reading aloud to young EFL learners, it is important to find
tales that are of interests and are linguistically accessible to beginning language learners. To decide whether a
book is suitable, some rules might help. For example, the structures in a specific book may be familiar to the
learners, although the vocabulary may be new. The repetition of text, combined with illustrations, is ideal for use
in the young EFL learners.
Note: the definition of predictable books: a core structure is repeated over and over again.
Lonigan, C. J.,& Whitehurst, G. J. (1998). Relative efficacy of parent and teacher
involvement in a shared-reading intervention for preschool children from lowincome backgrounds. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 13, 263-290.
022-1
Abstract: The effects of shared-reading intervention were evaluated with 3 to 4 years old children from
low-income families. The children were pretested and assigned to 1 of 4 conditions: no treatment,
school condition, home condition, school plus home condition. The intervention was conducted for 6
weeks, after the experiment, the children were posttested on standardized measures of oral language
and language samples were obtained during a shared-reading assessment. Also, the children received
follow-up 6 months. (L1, 91 children)
Design:4 (conditions)x 2 (centers: high & low compliance) ANCOVA/ shared-reading sessions were
scheduled to occur daily for approximately 10 minutes per reading group/ 6 books/ Assessments:
PPVT/EOWPVT(names for pic.)/ ITPA-VE (verbal fluency)/ verbal production(answer open-ended
questions to see children’s spontaneous speech growth)
Discussion: The results obtained under a more naturalistic measure of language.
Findings: The ANCOVA on the EOWPVT at posttest revealed a significant effect of intervention
group and the group by center compliance interaction. In the high compliance centers, the combined
intervention groups scored significantly higher than the control group, and none of the intervention
groups differ from each other. The school plus home group scored higher than the control group, and
there was a trend for the school group to score higher than the control group.
Lonigan, C. J.,& Whitehurst, G. J. (1998). Relative efficacy of parent and teacher
involvement in a shared-reading intervention for preschool children from lowincome backgrounds. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 13, 263-290.
022-2
Findings: The ANCOVA on the ITPA-VE at posttest revealed a significant effect of intervention
group. The combination of all three intervention groups scored higher than the control group. Scores in
the home group were higher than scores in either the school group or the school plus home group.
School for the home group were higher than scores in the control group. The ANCOVA on the PPVTR at posttest revealed no significant effects. Only 66 of the 91 children who were available for the
semi-structured reading intervention assessment to gain verbal production data. Concerning the high
and low compliance centers, significant effects of group were found for children’s MLU, the total
number of words produced, the number of different words produced, the number of different nouns
produced, and the number of different adjective/ modifiers produced. Planned comparisons revealed
that the combined intervention groups produced longer utterances, produced more words overall,
produced a higher diversity of words, and produced more adjectives/ modifiers than the control group.
And there were minimum differences between the intervention groups. In the low compliance centers,
there was a significant effect of group for the number of different words produced; however, neither the
combined intervention groups nor any individual intervention group differed from the control group.
Children’s verbal production assessment showed that in the high compliance centers, significant effects
of group were found for the total number of words produced, the number of different words produced,
and the number of different verbs produced. Planned comparisons indicated that the combined
intervention groups produced more words overall, produced a higher diversity of words, and produced
Lonigan, C. J.,& Whitehurst, G. J. (1998). Relative efficacy of parent and teacher
involvement in a shared-reading intervention for preschool children from lowincome backgrounds. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 13, 263-290.
022-3
more verbs than the control group. Children in high compliance centers scored higher on all of these
variables, and the effects were due to differences between centers in the school plus home and home
groups. (Reading frequency!)
Discussion: The results obtained under a more naturalistic measure of language. Both the teachers and parents
can produce significant positive changes in the development of low-income children using a relatively brief
dialogic reading intervention. The effects were apparent on two standardized tests of expressive language
(EOWPVT & ITPA-VE). These results add important data to the theoretical and empirical controversy
concerning the role of shared-reading activities in the development of oral language and other emergent literacy
skills. Also, the effects on structural aspects of spontaneous speech were relatively large. Within high
compliance centers, children who were exposed to dialogic reading at both home and school appeared to be
benefit more than those exposed just at home or just at school. The two school groups resulted in the largest
gains in expressive vocabulary suggests that teachers may focus on teaching specific age appropriate vocabulary.
In contrast to the results of vocabulary development, parents appear to be more influential in increasing their
children’s descriptive use of language. Results for the ITPA-VE were stronger in the home group than in either
the school or the school plus home group. (reading frequency! The nature of school versus home reading one
on one reading & small group reading) The relationship between dialogic reading and Vygotsky’s (1978) ZPD
was discussed. Impressively, the researchers found that after the study, several parents reported that because of
the experience, both they & their children enjoyed shared-reading and may ask whether they could get more
books. Note: high compliance center: conduct the intervention with a high frequency and vice versa.
Horner, S. L. (2004). Observational learning during shared book reading: The
effects on preschoolers’ attention to print and letter knowledge. Reading
Psychology, 25, 167-188.
023-1
Abstract: The study aimed to investigate the effects of observational learning one preschoolers’ use of a
questioning technique, attention to print, and knowledge of the alphabet. The hypotheses were, children who
observe a model will ask questions ask more questions. Also, children who observe a model ask print-related
questions will make more print-related response. Last, children who make print-related responses will learn more
target letter names.
Design: 62 preschoolers, 28 three-year-old; 28 four-year-old; 6 five-year-old/ 4 treatments: print questions
videotape, picture questions videotapes, no questions videotape, no videotape control/ pretests (to decide who
could participate in the study) and posttest/ 2 book readings (alphabet book)
*12% of the children enrolled in the program do not speak English while 88% speak English
Findings: Firstly, both the print questions and picture questions groups asked significantly more questions than
did the no questions and no videotape control groups. Specifically, children who observed a model asked 15
times more questions during BR1 and 30 times more questions during BR2 than children who did nor observe a
model. Also, it has found that the print questions videotape group focused on the individual letter more often
than the children in any other group. That is, children in the print questions condition commented on the letters
approximately 8 times more than the children in the other conditions. However, results failed to support the
hypothesis that preschoolers who made letter-focused responses would learn more target letters names than
children who did not make letter-focused responses within shared book-reading sessions. The number of letterfocused responses was positively correlated with pretest letter-name knowledge for all 26 letters.
Horner, S. L. (2004). Observational learning during shared book reading: The
effects on preschoolers’ attention to print and letter knowledge. Reading
Psychology, 25, 167-188.
023-2
Namely, those children who knew more letters at the beginning of this study imitated the model’s focus on the
individual letter more than children who knew fewer letters. Twice as many children who knew most letters
commented on the print than children who knew few letters. Also, the two children who knew most letters (25
&26) read most of the pages before the researcher did.
Discussion: The possible reasons that observational learning did not support children’ letter-name knowledge
might be “that letters are graphically abstract and highly confusable, learning the names of letters is not an easy
task.” (Adams, 1990; Ehri, 1983) For further discussion, see the paper.
The influence of home reading or preschool reading plays a key role in young children’s letter-name knowledge.
Children who are frequently read to at home or at preschool may learn behavioral patterns more readily within a
book-reading episode than children who are read to less frequently.
Whitehurst, G. J., Epstein, J. N., Angell, A. L., Payne, A. C., Crone, D. A.,
& Fischel, J. E. (1994). Outcomes of an emergent literacy intervention
in Head Start. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 542-555.
024-1
Abstract: The research aims to investigate the effects of an emergent literacy intervention to further explore the
relations between the intervention and its outcomes. The participants were pretested and posttested on
standardized tests of language, writing, linguistic awareness, and print concepts and were randomly assigned to 2
conditions: intervention, involving an add-on emergent literacy curriculum, or a control, involving the regular
Head Start curriculum. (Intervention: interactive book reading at home & school plus a classroom-based sound
and letter awareness program) The hypothesis was that the combination of dialogic reading and sound
foundations would enhance language, linguistic awareness, and print knowledge when introduced into
intervention classrooms and compared with the performance of children in control classroom.
Design: 167 four-year-old children, 2 conditions, pretests: the PPVT-M, the Expressive One Word Picture
Vocabulary Test, ITPA (a test of verbal fluency), and DSC (the Developing Skills Checklist but it’s not a
checklist); posttests: the same measurements in alternative forms if it’s available/ duration: 30 weeks with 30
books; 4 emergent literacy skills have been scrutinized: language, writing, linguistic awareness, print concept.
Findings: The MANCOVA analysis resulted in significant main effects for intervention versus control. That is,
children in the intervention group performed a significantly higher level than did children in the control
condition on the Writing factor and the Language factor. The effect sizes of .516 for the Writing factor and .624
for the Print Concepts factor fall into Cohen’s medium effect size category, indicating educationally meaningful
effects (e.g. Lee, Brooks-Gunn, Schnur, & Liaw, 1990). In particular, there’s a significant effect of the
intervention on the Identify Sounds and Letters subtest although there’s no overall effect on the Linguistic
Awareness factor on which this subtest loads most highly.
Whitehurst, G. J., Epstein, J. N., Angell, A. L., Payne, A. C., Crone, D. A.,
& Fischel, J. E. (1994). Outcomes of an emergent literacy intervention
in Head Start. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 542-555.
024-2
Also, the only significant effect for sex was that girls performed at a higher level than did boys on the Writing
factor. And boys performed better than girls in Language factor. More importantly, the researchers indicated that
effects on language were limited to children whose parents were actively involved in the at-home reading
program, which stressed the critical influence of home reading experience in children regarding to their language
growth. Other research also drew such conclusions (e.g. Lonigan & Whitehurst, 1998). Accordingly, the
Whitehurst et al. maintained that children from low-income families need frequent one-on-one language interactions with an adult to enhance their language skills. Group-based interactions may not be sufficient in the
late preschool years, even if the groups are small and the forms of interaction are optimized. Still, frequency of
exposure may be the most straightforward explanation of why the home is a more powerful venue fro language
growth than school. (home environment is critical! On the other hand, teachers, to achieve the goal of increasing
children’s language development, have to increase the frequency of reading.)
Note: CROWD: Completion prompts, Recall prompts, Open-ended prompts, Wh-prompts, Distancing promts
(e.g. Did you ever play in the snow like Peter did?) It was found that open-ended prompts and distancing
prompts were the least question type teachers in both experiment & control groups utilized. (adult readers should
use the five types of questions in the reading)
PEER: prompt the child to respond to the book, evaluate the child’s response, expand the child’s response by
repeating or adding information to it, and encourage the child to repeat the expanded utterance (remind the adult
reader to use CROWD in the reading)
Thoreson, C. C., & Dale, P. S. (1992). Do early talkers become early
readers? Linguistic precocity, preschool language, and emergent
literacy. Developmental Psychology, 28, 421-429.
025-1
Abstract: The aim of the longitudinal study is to examine whether verbal precocious children are also
precocious in reading. 25 children at 20 months of age were recruited in the study. The study was to relate
linguistically precocious children’s early verbal skills, parent-child interaction patterns, and instructional
experiences to their later language and literacy skills.
Design: 3 classes of predictor variables: measures of cognitive and language ability administered at age 24
months; a measure of child engagement during story reading at age 24 months; and parental reports of child
exposure to literacy collected when children were 24 months and 4 1/2 years. Two classes of outcome variables:
language and cognitive measures at ages 2 1/2 and 4 1/2 and literacy measures at age 4 1/2.
Findings: Conclusion that verbally precocious children are not likely to be early readers is correlational
evidence that language and literacy are separable abilities at 4 1/2 years in this group of children. Moreover,
children engagement in the story-reading episode showed greater predictive validity than either proportion or
frequency of specific parental utterance functions (e.g. questions, responses, simplifications) or that of child
utterance functions. No effects of type of questions were found in the study. (e.g. Justice (2002) also reached the
same conclusion) Story-reading engagement is moderately related to frequency of story reading at home.
Exposure to instruction in letter names and sounds was a significant predictor of children’s knowledge of print
conventions, invented spelling, and a nearly significant predictor of decoding skill but not of phonological
awareness, which is predicted by MLU at 24 months. Three of the four literacy outcomes were predicted
significantly or nearly significantly by at least one of the two measures of story reading. The two story-reading
variables predicted different aspects of literacy, suggesting that these predictors capture different aspects of
Thoreson, C. C., & Dale, P. S. (1992). Do early talkers become early
readers? Linguistic precocity, preschool language, and emergent
literacy. Developmental Psychology, 28, 421-429.
025-2
Exposure to literate activity. Engagement in the story-reading explained a significant portion of the variance in
the Concepts of Print outcome measure. Frequency of story reading in the home explained significant portions of
the variance in both PIAT (a measure of reading ability) and the phonological awareness outcome measure.
Story-reading frequency or story-reading engagement (but not both simultaneously) significantly predicts
syntactic comprehension at 2 1/2 years (PPVT-R). When the children grew older, it was found that either, but
not both, of the variables significantly predicts performance on the test of real-world knowledge, and the story
engagement is also a significant predictor of the test of analytic ability.
Besides, the results indicated that there’s stability of individual differences within the sample: 24-month PPVTR scores are correlated with 4 1/2-year PPVT-R scores. Moreover, as the results showed, the verbal precocious
children did not show substantial evidence in reading precocity, which was against the hypothesis. Also, the
researcher indicated that, in terms of individual differences, early language measures were not significant
predictors of literacy outcomes. More importantly, story reading with parents was found to be a role in literacy
and language development beyond that played by reading instruction and early language ability. Namely, story
reading is an important way in which parents prepare their children to become readers (e.g. Wells, 1985b). It is
striking to find such a storing relationship between story-reading variables and language outcomes even within a
group selected for linguistic precocity. This relationship is borne out with measures of vocabulary development,
syntactic development, and the development of real-world knowledge. These results also provided further
evidence for the hypothesis that what is learned from books changes with development. At 2 1/2 years, the
child’s focus is vocabulary and syntax acquisition; therefore, story-reading exposure predicts vocabulary and
Thoreson, C. C., & Dale, P. S. (1992). Do early talkers become early
readers? Linguistic precocity, preschool language, and emergent
literacy. Developmental Psychology, 28, 421-429.
025-3
Syntactic knowledge 6months later. At age 4 1/2, these highly capable children were no longer learning labels
from books; rather, they were focusing on more complex linguistic and cognitive constructs. (the developmental
framework, p. 428) The story reading with parents is fueling the growth of knowledge at the “leading edge” of
the child’s development. Still, the researchers claimed that measures of child engagement proved superior at
capturing the quality of the interaction over measures of parental behavior. Last, the story-engagement variable
was nor correlated with concurrent child ability measures but was predictive of language, cognitive, and literacy
outcomes.
The data suggest that children who have more opportunities to read stories with parents and who take advantage
of such opportunities through engagement learn something from story reading about both language and literacy.
This conclusion is consistent with experimental work showing that story reading can directly influence the
growth of language skills (Whitehurst et al., 1988).
Furthermore, frequency of story reading in the home and child engagement in a story reading episode at age 24
months were significant predictors of children’s language ability at 2 1/2 and 4 1/2 and knowledge of print
conventions at age 4 1/2. It is concluded that story reading with parents as well as literacy instruction contributes
to the development of emergent literacy in verbally precocious children.
Nagy & Herman (1987) Learning word meanings from context
during normal reading. American Educational Research
Journal, 24, 237-270.
026-1
Abstract: The study investigated incidental learning of vocabulary from context during normal reading. The
researchers hypothesized that learning form context typically takes place in small increments, so that any one
encounter with a word usually results in only a small gain in knowledge of that word.
Design: Three hundred and fifty-two students in third, fifth, and seventh grades. Narrative or expository
passages. Totally 418 children; with 157 in third grade, 100 in fifth grade, and 161 in seventh grade. Checklist
reading multiple choice test (1 week later)
Findings: Children at all three grade levels gained substantial knowledge about an unknown word form a single
exposure. Most of the target words occurred only once in a text and the target words were not highlighted in any
way. The students ranged widely in age and reading ability. Results indicated that significant effect of learning
from context has been found. Multiple-choice test scores were higher for easy texts than difficult ones, higher for
narratives than expositions, and higher for words children mentioned that they knew on the Checklist already.
More importantly, there’s a very high correlation between children’s prior knowledge of that target words as
measured on the checklist task and their performance on the multiple-choice test. Furthermore, there was no
learning from context for words at the highest level of conceptual difficulty. As for text properties, results
indicted that the more difficult the text, the fewer unknown words were learned; the longer the sentences and
words, the less was learned form context; and fewer words were learned form context in texts that had a higher
proportion of conceptually difficult words. Also, the longer the average length of a target word in a text, the less
likely any target word is to be learned from context. In this regard, texts with more conceptually difficult words
tend to have more long words, and vice versa.
Nagy & Herman (1987) Learning word meanings from context
during normal reading. American Educational Research
Journal, 24, 237-270.
026-2
Note: (1)Nagy at el. (1985) argued that even a small probability of learning a word from context can result in
large-scale vocabulary growth, if there is a sufficient volume of wide reading. (2) How much vocabulary a child
actually gains from written context depends on three factors: the volume of a child’s exposure to written
language, the quality of the text, and the child’s ability to infer and remember the meanings of new words
encountered during reading. In sum, Nagy and Herman claim the importance of prior knowledge in young
children’s learning of vocabulary through reading. Most important, the researchers maintain that comprehension
is dependent on the reader’s ability to integrate information in text with existing knowledge structures, which
explained clearly why teachers should provide students with input which is slightly above their current level to
help them acquire new knowledge. Besides, Nagy and Herman highlighted the importance of contextual support
of a text to enhance learners’ comprehension. Last, the researchers argued that multiple encounters with a word
in a variety of meaningful contexts is necessary to produce the depth of word knowledge. And they further
indicated that, from this and their earlier studies, “wide, regular reading must be seen as the major avenue of
large-scale, long-term vocabulary growth. Next, Nagy and Herman pointed out that “incidental learning from
written context represents about a third of a child’s annual vocabulary growth, an increase in absolute
vocabulary size that has not even been approached by any program of direct vocabulary instruction.
Accordingly, the results showed that normal reading, with a wide range of difficulty & familiarity, there’s sth
there for everyone to learn. And id children are given texts they can comprehend, they will eventually gain the
meaning of the unknown words.
Brett, A., Rothlein, L., & Hurley, M. (1996). Vocabulary acquisition
from listening to stories and explanations of target words. The
Elementary School Journal, 96, 415-422.
027
Abstract: The study aimed to examine the effects of 3 conditions on elementary school children’s vocabulary
acquisition: listening to stories with a brief explanation of the unfamiliar target words, listening to stories with
nor explanation of the words, and having not exposure to the stories or vocabulary (the control condition).
Students who listened to 2 stories along with a brief explanation of target words learned significantly more new
words and still remembered them 6 weeks after the intervention than the children in the other two groups.
Design: pre-and post-test, delayed posttest (6 weeks later), 20 items (10 per story) 2 stories, 5 days per story, one
hundred and seventy- five 10 years old children (4th graders), L1
Findings: Statistical analysis (3 group x 2 book x 3 time ANOVA & post hoc)showed that pretest scores for the
story-with explanation group were lower than the scores for the other two groups, and the posttest and delayed
posttest scores of the story-with-explanation group were significantly higher than the scores of the other two
groups. More impressively, the experimental group not only outperformed the other two groups but also
remembered the words 6 weeks later. The results support the hypothesis that 4th graders can acquire new words
from listening to stories if there’s a brief explanation of the new words.
Note: In reading aloud, comprehension and enjoyment are optimal. To maximize the benefit of explaining words
as they are encountered in the story, it would be helpful to discover which components of the explanation of the
unfamiliar words are critical.
Jenkins, J. R., Stein, M. L., & Wysocki, K. (1984). Learning
vocabulary through reading. American Educational Research
Journal, 21, 767-787.
028-1
Abstract: The study examined the effect of reading on young learners’ vocabulary growth. The researcher
hypothesized that new vocabulary can be acquired via incidental learning of word meanings from context. Also,
Jenkins et al. intended to find out the definite frequency of context exposure to boost learners’ vocabulary. Last,
the influence of prior exposure of the target words was also investigated.
Design: 120 fifth graders (age ranging from 9 to 11), measures: four posttests: 3 vocabulary tests & 1 reading
comprehension, statistical analysis: 2 (preexposure: present or absent) x 2 (ability: more or less able readers) x 3
(context presentations: 2, 6, or 10) x 3 (word set) factorial design
Findings: Firstly, results of vocabulary measures showed that higher ability students outperformed their less
skilled peers. Also, prior exposure did exert its positive influence on learners’ vocabulary test. The more
exposures of the target words, the better the learners’ word learning (2 of the 3 measures showed the
differences). Secondly, results of reading comprehension indicated that only 10 context presentations yielded a
significant difference on the measure. In sum, the study results are noteworthy in that fifth graders did acquire
some new vocabularies from context without explicit instructions. However, context representations did not
show its power over the learners’ reading ability in the study. Yet the factor affected the learners’ vocabulary
changes. In other words, the better readers were more likely to acquire word meanings, given some experience
with the unfamiliar words in context. As Jenkins et al. hypothesized, incidental vocabulary learning during
reading may account for a major portion of vocabulary growth during the elementary grades. The study
confirmed the hypothesis with positive results in both vocabulary test and reading comprehension measure.
Jenkins, J. R., Stein, M. L., & Wysocki, K. (1984). Learning
vocabulary through reading. American Educational Research
Journal, 21, 767-787.
028-2
To assure the positive outcome, the researchers argued that increased context presentations should be provided.
That is, more than 2 context exposures were needed to affect vocabulary acquisition. Jenkins et al. claim
conservatively that it was most possible that 10 exposures might boost young learners’ vocabulary growth. With
the assertion, the researchers admitted that although they had found that children learned new words incidentally
through reading, “this learning apparently does not come easily or in large quantities.” Also Jenkins et al.
indicated the important role of reading in a child’s vocabulary base by quoting Nagy & Anderson’s (1982)
words that although some vocabulary learning occur through listening, learning new words form context would
have to assign an important role to reading in accounting for vocabulary growth.
s
Word meanings were learned from context, and more frequent presentation in context increased learning. Also,
better readers profited more from context and prior exposure informal teaching) resulted in greater learning.
Vocabulary effects were also observed on a measure of reading comprehension.
Gay, C. (1976) Reading aloud and learning to write. The Elementary
School Journal,??, 87-93.
029-1
Abstract: Gay explained the relationship between reading aloud and its contributions on children’s language
development. The researcher claims that if people want to help young learners how to write, they have to “stifle
the questions and postpone the discussions and simply read aloud.” According to Gat, reading aloud facilitated a
child’s vocabulary, sentence structure, sense of structure and organization. More importantly, via reading aloud,
the child may gain a motive for writing. Also, Gay pointed out that averagely the lack of writing fluency in
learners may be compensated for by reading aloud literary works to the child. Through reading aloud good
books, learners would absorb the constructions of written language and thus develop the ability of writing. In
other words, learners should be provided with opportunities to assimilate the patterns and the rhythms of writing
before they are able to write. Mostly, Gay mentioned that children who read much more than textbooks are
children who usually read well and write well, which stressed the importance of reading in a child’s language
ability. Furthermore, Gay asserted that language is primarily oral. Namely, we hear language even when it is
written of when we are writing it. Accordingly, children are able to write only those patterns they are used to
hearing before. To ensure rich qualitative writing, the first step may be to read aloud storybooks to young
children. Gay put it that a better reading program should aware of the importance of reading aloud, ant they
should try to make provision for it. On the other hand, Gay critically revealed the reasons of a failure of a
reading program. Firstly, it is handicapped because it is a program. In detail, such programs usually follow an
organized step-by-step way so that children can learn what they need to learn and can learn at the appropriate
level and can be tested on to make sure whether they have succeeded. All these go against the nature of reading
and reading aloud, which is fun and should be experienced without questions, without artificial stimulants, but
Gay, C. (1976) Reading aloud and learning to write. The Elementary
School Journal,??, 87-93.
029-2
just reading. With what Gay asserted, one could easily infer why a reading program would lead to negative
outcome or even lead to children’s fear or hatred toward reading per se. (with endless questions to check their
language ability or even label the child accord to her/ his performance on the one-shot test) “They think of
questions, failure; and reading becomes associated with an unpleasant experience. Secondly, the failure of a
reading program, even a good one, is because that they are limited to books on or neat the child’s own reading
level. The solution to it is the child has to be exposed to the input that is slightly beyond his or her current level
to make sure that acquisition would take place.
In terms of the contributions of reading aloud, Gay further pointed out that usually the child who is having no
difficulty with language, who is reading well and has little difficulty with exercises because the child’s
vocabulary already takes in those words. Gay argued that the exercises were not really teaching the child
anything but were simply testing what s/he already knew. (it is the input per se teaches a child rather than the
output) As for less able children, Gay mentioned that teachers should read interesting book aloud to them often
and regularly so that they will hear the words and comprehend them in a natural, effortless way. By so doing,
Gay believed that would eventually motivate the less skilled children in learning the language for the words were
introduced to in interesting, irresistible contexts. After all, according to Gay, “one can’t read what one hasn’t
heard; one can’t write what one hasn’t head.” The second benefit of reading aloud is the ability to distinguish
between shades of meaning, which is, as Gay maintained, the ability to use language discriminately and which is
critical to good writing. “There are subtle differences in word meaning, subtle differences that increase out
power to communicate, but casual speech is not the place a child can become aware of them (p. 91).
Gay, C. (1976) Reading aloud and learning to write. The Elementary
School Journal,77, 87-93.
029-3
“We can describe the concrete simply by naming, but to talk about a feeling, an idea—to communicate that
unseen inner world that is central to our existence。We must have a command of metaphor and analogy. How
does a child get such a command? Not by learning a definition, but by hearing sentences like those in Julia
Cunningham’s Dorp Dead (p. 92).” Next, through reading aloud, children would have the chance of listening to
language which has structure and organization and that is important for them to be able to write like that one
day.
Ninio, A., & Bruner, J. (1978). The achievement and antecedents of
labeling. Journal of Child Language, 5, 1-15.
030-1
Abstract: Ninio and Bruner investigated the influence of labeling during storytelling in a mother-infant dyad.
Results of the longitudinal study confirmed the positive influence of labeling in an infant’s language
development. Analysis of joint picture-book reading revealed that this activity had very early on the structure of
a dialogue. In this study, the researchers have used book-reading as a principal source of data—the mother and
the child looking at pictures in a book.
Design: mother-infant looking at storybook; the child was 8 months (observation was from the child was 8
months to 1 year and 6 month years old; a longitudinal study (10 months); video-recorded observation, 12
filming session were analyzed
Findings: Results indicated that reading dialogue cycles were highly constant on a number of structural
characteristics. Also, stable increase of turns per cycle and the mean duration per cycle were seen in the
observation—all these released the fact that these constancies in the dialogue were remarkable for the child’s
linguistic performance undergoes profound changes, including the appearance of standard lexical words in his
communicative repertoire. And with the language-teaching function, the book-reading situation is more central
on a standard action format like simple and recurrent joint action patterns in other formats. Active participation,
vocalization and lexical utterances all increase steadily, and all these showed that storybook reading elicited a
child’s language development. Also, after being read to for 6 months, the appearance of vocalizations that were
recognizable approximations to lexical labels in the child convinced the mother to believe that the child
possessed a hypothesis about a relation between sound and meaning; that coming from listening to stories read
aloud. Moreover, proportion of reading cycles in which the child emitted an active response, proportion of active
turns of the child’s containing a vocalization, and proportion of vocalizations which were lexical labels exhibited
Ninio, A., & Bruner, J. (1978). The achievement and antecedents of
labeling. Journal of Child Language, 5, 1-15.
030-2
greatly that the child progressed steadily through the book-reading experience. Accordingly, Ninio and Bruner
concluded that storybook reading was a format well suited to the teaching of labeling for it has few elements and
strict ordering rules between them. Also, it is flexible in the sense of accepting a great variety of responses by the
child. Last, it is highly repetitive, both in the elements like Look, What’s that? and the labels themselves. Last, as
the researchers concluded, a central element in the achievement of labeling by the child is his mastery of the
reciprocal rules that govern the exchanges between him and his mother into which labeling is inserted.
Note: Labeling was defined as the stressed element in a demonstrative utterance, e.g. “It is an X.” The most
striking characteristic of labeling activity is that it takes place in a structural interactional sequence that has the
texture of a dialogue.
It is greater if the cycle is initiated by the child or by the mother uttering a What’s that? questions than if it is
initiated by the mother saying look of offering a label for the question “What’s that” usually elicits a label from
the child.
Imitation seemed not so effective as labeling. (for by asking what- questions or letting the child initiate would be
more likely that the child will label on his own)
Elley, W. (1989). Vocabulary acquisition from listening to stories.
Reading Research Quarterly, 24(2), 174-187.
031-1
Abstract: Hold the belief of positive influence of reading aloud, the researcher conducted the research to
examine the effects of reading aloud on elementary children’s vocabulary acquisition. Two experiments were set
up to study the impact of teachers’ explanation in students’ word learning. Pre-and-post tests and follow-up tests
were administered. Results showed that story reading was a significant source of children’s vocabulary
acquisition regardless of whether explanations of the unknown words were provided by the teacher. Further,
Elley found that frequency of the unknown word appeared in the storybook constituted the key element of the
learning of that word.
Design: 2 experiments, one without teachers’ explanation, the other with teachers’ explanation. The 1st
experiment: one hundred sixty- eight 7 year-old children; the 2nd: one hundred twenty-seven 8 year-old children;
In Ex.1: one book; in Ex. 2: two books were used; Procedure: Ex.1: pretest(7 days after) reading (3 times in a
week)(2 days later) posttest; Ex.2: L1
Findings: Results from EX.1 indicated that children scored higher on most target words on the posttest than on
the posttest, for a mean increase of 15 percent overall. Three of the 6 word-related variables showed significant
positive correlations with the children’s mean gain for each word, and the correlations for all 6 were positive.
Namely, the words that were most readily learned in the story were those for which the surrounding context was
helpful, those that occurred more than once in the story, and those that were illustrated in at least one picture.
Most encouragingly, it has been found that the low group showed the most gain, which was odds with the richget-richer syndrome. In other words, through reading aloud, the less able learners had the chance to compete
with their more able peers. Also, Elley found that, as research on silent reading, repeated exposure and helpful
context of an unknown word were the perquisites of the learning of those new words.
Elley, W. (1989). Vocabulary acquisition from listening to stories.
Reading Research Quarterly, 24(2), 174-187.
032-2
In order to adjust the limitations of the first experiment, Elley conducted the second experiment using different
books, under different teaching conditions, different children, with a more elaborate design. The difference
between the two experiments was that the second one employed teachers’ explanations of the unknown words.
Results in Ex.2 showed that children in the explanation group benefited most in reading aloud; with more than
double gains compared with the without-explanation group. The findings confirmed the power of providing
explanations either by giving synonyms, role-playing, or point to the corresponding picture in the storybook with
children for learning new items. As Ex.1, Elley found that the same 3 most correlated variables with word
learning were strength of meaning cues, number of occurrences, and number of times illustrated. Further, post
hoc analysis found that nouns were the easiest form of words for learning than adjectives or verbs. The reversal
phenomenon of the Matthew effect was also found in Ex.2. In other words, the lowest group improved more than
the other three groups, and the highest group improved the least (concerning regression effect and ceiling effect).
The delayed posttest showed only negligible decline of 2-3 percent indicated that the effects of reading aloud on
young children’s vocabulary acquisition were permanent. In general, the two experiments supported the
assumption that young children can learn new vocabulary from listening to stories read aloud. With teachers’
additional explanations of unknown words can even double vocabulary gains. Moreover, less proficient learners
gain at least as much from the readings as the other more proficient ones and the learning is relatively
permanent. Frequency of occurrence of the word in the story, the helpfulness of the context, and the frequency of
occurrence of the word in pictorial representation are the three most critical elements influencing children’s
word learning.
Elley, W., & Mangubhai, E. (1983). The impact of reading on second
language learning. Reading Research Quarterly, 19, 53-67.
033-1
Abstract: The researchers hypothesized that reading program could eliminate the five critical differences
between the first and the second language learning. The five differences are strength of motivation, emphasis on
meaning versus form, amount of exposure to language, type of exposure to language, and the quality of models.
Thus, Elley and Mangubhai suggest that when children read interesting storybooks, the five differences
diminished.
Design: 380 class 4 and class 5 children (9 to 11 years old); 3 groups: the Shared Book group, Sustained Silent
Reading group, and the control group; contrast 1: the book reading groups vs. the controlBook Flood
hypothesis: exposure to large numbers of storybooks will have an effect on general language competence;
contrast 2: the Shared Book group vs. Sustained Silent Reading group hypothesis: exposure to new language
in the Shared Book method is more persistent and concentrated, and that children would become more actively
involved in the learning experience than in the Silent Reading group. Last, it would be expected that effects on
receptive language is more significant than expressive language skills. Pre-and-posttest and follow-up 12 months
were administered. (L2)
Findings: Class 4 Results indicated that the Book Flood groups outperformed the control group dramatically in
reading comprehension (the groups produced 15 months reading growth in 8 months; the control: 6.5 months
growth only, which indicated that the reading groups were improving their general reading comprehension skill
at over twice the normal rate!) However, there’s no significant effect of the Shared Book group over the
Sustained Silent Reading group in that measure. On the Word Recognition test, the reading groups also had
higher means than the control yet didn’t reach the level of significance. And there’s small difference between the
two reading groups. And the oral sentences tests favored the Shared Book group than the other two groups.
Elley, W., & Mangubhai, E. (1983). The impact of reading on second
language learning. Reading Research Quarterly, 19, 53-67.
033-2
Findings: Class 5 results showed that in all measures, the Book Flood groups outperformed the control group.
In Reading Comprehension, the Shared Book group significantly ahead of the Silent Reading group. In detail,
the Shared Book group produced 15 months reading growth in 8 months, comparing to Silent Reading group’s 9
months and the control group’s 2.5 months. The same patterns were also seen in Listening Comprehension. In
general, the comparisons between Shared Book and Silent Reading methods showed significantly greater
benefits for the former in Class 5, but not in Class 4. The observed differences were greater in children’s
receptive skills than in expressive skills. Follow-up 12 months showed that both reading groups made greater
progress in their language growth on all tests. But in no case, however, did the Shared Book group significantly
surpass the Silent Reading group. Namely, the sharp contrasts between the reading groups and the control group
were, according to the researchers, repeated exposure to print, pictures, and story lines. Last, it is worth noting
that teachers in the Silent Reading method provided no follow-up activities to support the reading done, whereas
those in the Shared Reading method did. The lack of difference between the two methods indicated that those
follow-up activities were not as effective as their advocates believed.
Anderson, R. C., Wilson, P. T., & Fielding, L. G. (1988). Growth in
reading and how children spend their time outside of school.
Reading Research Quarterly, XXIII, 285-303.
034-1
Abstract: The study investigated how much time elementary school children spent on reading outside of school
and further examined the relationship between the time spent and their reading proficiency. Still, the researchers
were interested in answering the question whether out-of –school activities are in the causal nexus that produce
reading growth. Among all the ways children spent their time, reading books was the best predictor of several
measures of reading achievement. However, the study also found that on most days most children did little or no
book reading.
Design: 155 fifth-grade students; the use of activity forms (filled in by the children, asking them to write down
either the title or the author’s name of both more valid indicator of actual reading); 3 reading tests: reading
comprehension test, a checklist vocabulary measure, and measure of reading speed
Findings: Although most children do little reading, successive groups of children read for increasingly long
periods of time and cover increasingly large numbers of words. Notably, results found that teachers have a
significant influence on the amount of book reading children do out of school. Results showed that the class that
did the most reading in class read 3.6 times as much on the average as the class that did the least reading. In
other words, the more the teacher read aloud to students or provide them time for reading during the school day,
the more time children spent on reading after school. This findings were so encouraging when consider
promoting reading, reading aloud and providing time for reading during the school day were the two ways
teachers did in class. Also, children who were good readers in the second grade did more reading in the fifth
grade. In regard of sex difference, girls read more than boys. Moreover, reading books was the out-of school
activity that proved to have the strongest association with reading proficiency in children. Time spent reading
Anderson, R. C., Wilson, P. T., & Fielding, L. G. (1988). Growth in
reading and how children spend their time outside of school.
Reading Research Quarterly, XXIII, 285-303.
034-2
books was fairly strongly correlated with the measures of a child’s status as a reader in the fifth grade. Most
importantly, time spent reading books was the best predictor of a child’s growth as a reader from the second to
the fifth grade. The findings may infer the fact that reading aloud not only increases a child’s language growth
but also enhances the possibility of encouraging the child to do more out-of-school reading and that gives big
returns in more advanced language outcomes to the child. According to Anderson et al., “there is a moderately
storing association between out-of school reading and reading achievement, a relationship of about the same
magnitude as the strongest relationships reported with in-school use of time (Barr & Dreeben, 1983; Rosenshine
& Stevens, 1984).” The researchers also found that a typical child in the middle grades reads less than 25
minutes a day out of school. Again, from the results, one can easily find that book reading is a significant
predictor of reading growth. In terms of reckoning the influence of book reading in a child’s reading
achievement, 6.6 % of the variance in fifth-grade reading comprehension is uniquely explained in terms of
reading books. Last, the researchers concluded that the amount of time a child spends reading books is strongly
related to the child’s reading level in the fifth grade and growth in reading proficiency from the second to the
fifth grade. The findings of the present research indicated that, according to the researchers, reading books is a
cause, not merely a reflection, of reading proficiency. And home reading experience has influencing effect on
fifth graders’ reading comprehension ability after second grade comprehension ability was partialed out.
Juel, C. (1988). Learning to read and write: A longitudinal study of
54 children from first through fourth grades. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 80, 437-447.
035-1
Abstract: The study focused on elementary school children’s literacy development, investigated the relationship
between reading and writing. The probability that a child would remain a poor reader at the end of fourth grade
if the child was a poor reader at the end of first grade was .88. But early writing skill did not predict later writing
skill. Good readers read considerably more than the poor readers both in and out of school, which appeared to
contribute to the good readers’ growth in some reading and writing skills. Poor readers tended to become poor
writers. Juel argued that children who have experienced decontextualized language by having been read to, by
hearing language used for purely conceptual discussions, or in other abstract contexts are better prepared for the
language used in classroom. And such children are likely to be familiar with story structures and complex syntax
and have richer vocabularies and developed concepts that will foster reading, as well as writing, comprehension
of books.
Design: 54 children(from first through fourth grade), several measure on language aspects, including phonemic
awareness, decoding, word recognition, listening comprehension, reading comprehension, spelling, and writing
were administered. Also children’s IQ have been tested. And children’s ideas of story have also been
investigated. Last, interviews about children’s home reading, and attitude toward reading have been probed.
Findings: The findings were provided to answer the following questions. Do the same children remain poor
readers year after year? Do the same children remain poor writers year after year? What skills do the poor
readers lack? What skills do the poor writers lack? What factors seem to keep poor readers from improving? And
What factors seem to keep poor writers fro, improving? Results indicated that a child wound remain a poor
reader at the end of fourth grade, if the child was a poor reader at the end of first grade was .88; the probability
Juel, C. (1988). Learning to read and write: A longitudinal study of
54 children from first through fourth grades. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 80, 437-447.
035-2
that a child would become a poor reader in fourth grade if he or she had at least average reading skills in first
grade was .12. The probability that a child would remain an average reader in fourth grade if the child had
average reading ability in first grade was .87; the probability that a child would become an average reader in
fourth grade if he or she was a poor reader in first grade was only .13. The explanation for these correlations was
that the poor first-grade reader almost invariably remains a poor reader by the end of fourth grade. However,
results failed to report that early writing skill was a predictor of later writing skill as well as early reading ability
predicted later reading ability. Moreover, Juel found that poor reader entered first grade with little phonemic
awareness and their knowledge of spelling-sound correspondence was initially low comparing to their more able
peers. What’s worse, poor readers never reached the level of the average and good readers. Poor writers seemed
to lack the ability of generate a real story. Namely, they were still writing descriptions rather than stories at he
end of fourth grade. In the research, it has also found that those poor writers who also had poor spelling and poor
ideas. As for the ability that poorer readers lack, the results indicated that it was their poor decoding skill that
prevented them from reading and thus impeded them from improving. Juel showed that by the end of first grade,
the good readers has seen, on average, 18,681 words in running text in their basal readers. In contrast, the poor
readers had seen, on average, 9975 words, about half as many. Later in school years, the good readers, on
average, had read about 178000 words in running text in their basal readers by the end of fourth grade, whereas
the poor reader had read less than half of that—about 80000 words. The bid contrast explained why the
difference of reading ability between a good and a poor reader was so wide and so hard to make up for years of
lost experiences with words and concepts embedded in print.
Juel, C. (1988). Learning to read and write: A longitudinal study of
54 children from first through fourth grades. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 80, 437-447.
035-3
When probing the children’s reading at home, children, neither group of readers, uncovered the fact that they
read Much after school; but in third and fourth grade after school reading became quite frequent for the good
readers. And good readers were able to release information about the titles, authors or even the plots of the book
they read. However, few poor readers could supply such information. Also, the more frequent reading
experiences, both in and out of school, of the children who learned to read well early in school likely contributed
to the steadily widening gulf in listening comprehension (i.e. knowledge of vocabulary, concepts, text structures,
syntax, and pragmatics) between good and poor readers. Juel inferred that poor readers read little voluntarily,
partly because reading was so difficult for them, and reading experiences in school must have been rather
aversive. When asking whether they like reading or not 26 of the 29 good reader responded yes, whereas only 5
of the 25 poor readers responded yes. Mostly poor readers perceived reading as a boring activity. Poor reader
appear to become poor writers. The correlation between reading and writing at each grade were all reached the
level of significance. More clearly, by fourth grade 17 of the 25 poor readers were poor writers, whereas only 4
of the 29 good readers were poor writers. Through the years good readers’ proficiency in producing ideas
steadily grew, whereas poor readers made no apparent progress in their ability to tell an oral story from first to
fourth grade. Most poor readers were still telling and writing descriptions rather than stories in the fourth grade.
On the other hand, by at least fourth grade most good readers were writing stories that included some elements
of story grammar (i.e., setting, elaborated description of characters, and at least one episode). The findings led
Juel to conclude that the more frequent reading experiences of the good readers probably let to better story ideas,
knowledge of story structures and vocabulary with which to express those ideas. In sum, the research revealed
Juel, C. (1988). Learning to read and write: A longitudinal study of
54 children from first through fourth grades. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 80, 437-447.
035-4
that the poor first-grade reader was almost invariably still poor readers by the end of fourth grade. And the firstgrade good readers almost invariably remained good readers at the end of fourth grade. Last, the researcher
maintains that early success with reading is critical and argues that extensive reading or listening to a lot of
stories is important to acquiring ideas with which to write one’s own stories for good readers apparently read
more and over time have experienced more ideas and vocabulary that can be incorporated into their writing.
Cipielewski, J., & Stanovich, K.E. (1992). Predicting growth in
reading ability from children’s exposure to print. Journal of
Experimental Child Psychology, 54, 74-89.
036
Abstract: The longitudinal study employed two indicators aimed to examine the relationship between growth of
reading ability and print exposure. A checklist-with-foils logic was utilized.
Design: 98 participants (54 fourth graders & 44 fifth graders); Print exposure measures: TRT (Title Recognition
Test) & ART (Author Recognition Test); standardized measures of reading ability: the Reading Comprehension
subtest, the Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test, the Reading Comprehension, Reading Rate, and Phonetic
Analysis subtest; 2-year study
Findings: Both print exposure measures displayed significant correlations with every measure of reading
comprehension ability although the correlations of the ART with measures of reading comprehension was lower
than those involving TRT. These results indicated that the two print exposure measures predicted individual
differences in third- to fifth- grade growth in reading ability. Results showed that individual differences in
reading comprehension growth were reliably linked to differences in print exposure. Therefore, the researchers
assumed that print exposure appears to be both a consequence of developed reading ability and a contributor to
further growth in that ability. Thus, the results strengthened the importance of reading exposure in terms of
reading growth and even general cognitive development. In conclusion, the researchers indicated that the two
indicators of print exposure were reliable. Last, according to Stanovich (1986, cited Cipielewski & Stanovich,
1992), a more causal model sees individual differences in basic cognitive processes and knowledge
bases as at least in part resulting from the experience of reading itself.
Carol, Chomsky .(1972) Stages in Language Development and
Reading Exposure. Harvard Educational Review, 42 (1), 1-33.
037-1
Abstract: The paper contains two main parts: firstly, it investigates language acquisition in children
between the ages of six and ten, probing their linguistic competence with respect to complex aspects of
English syntax. Moreover, of particular interest is the regular order of acquisition of structures,
accompanied by wide variation in rate of acquisition in different children. Secondly, the author
examines the relationship between the children’s exposure to the written language and the rate of
linguistic development. The results show a strong correlation between a number of the reading
exposure measures and language development.
Design: Part II: reading questionnaires to both children and parents; daily records kept at home of all
reading (and listening to books read aloud); 36 children
Findings: As mentioned above, both the amount read and the complexity of the material were taken
into consideration. Among the pre-readers, listening to books read aloud is positively related to
linguistic stage. In this study, Chomsky uncovers the fact that those pre-readers in higher linguistic
stages are read to by more people and hear more books per week, at higher complexity levels than
children at lower linguistic stages.
Chomsky(1972) Stages in Language Development and Reading
Exposure. Harvard Educational Review, 42 (1), 1-33.
037-2
The overall picture of the study shows that at each age, reading or hearing books read is a strong factor,
with many different individual measures of reading exposure contributing to this trend. The third item
makes sense once its implications are considered. The mother who recalls certain books with pleasure
from her own childhood may well transmit this enjoyment to her child very early on when she reads to
him. The author then may speculate that this child learns to assign a special role to reading, for what his
mother enjoys doing with him, he quite naturally comes to enjoy and recognize as a valued activity.
This is what Effie intends to do! To show the great pleasure and enjoyment of reading.
The study has implications with regard to language programs in the elementary schools, and the
philosophy underlying curriculum design and selection of materials. The author mentions that we know
very little about the actual processes by which children learn language, but there has been an increasing
awareness over the past few years of just how much the child brings to the task by way of his own
internal organization and innate human characteristics. He certainly not “taught” language in any
formal sense, but acquire it naturally, in the course of maturing and developing in an environment
where he is adequately exposed to it. The research results indicate that the child enters the classroom
equipped to learn language and able to do so by methods of his own. This suggests that perhaps the best
thing that we might do for him in terms of encouraging this learning would be to make more of it
possible, by exposing him to a rich variety of language inputs in interesting, stimulating situations. The
question is how.
Carol, Chomsky .(1972) Stages in Language Development and
Reading Exposure. Harvard Educational Review, 42 (1), 1-33.
037-3
The reading results show that exposure to the more complex language available from reading dose
seem to go hand in hand with increased knowledge of the language. That is to say, the child could be
read to, stimulated to read on his own, not restricted to material deemed “at his level” but permitted
access to books well “above his level” to get out of them whatever he may. Accord to i+1
In general it may be that the effort should be towards providing more and richer language exposure,
rather than limiting the child with restrictive and carefully programmed materials. This approach would
seem to be more closely in accord with the nature of language acquisition as we are coming to
understand it.
The purpose of the results is to emphasize that the potential relevance of work of this sort to
language curricula will lie in its suggestiveness for effective use of classroom time, rather than in its
relation to the specifics of grammar teaching. (the main concern here is to provide the students with lots
of meaningful input which is interesting and stimulating enough to encourage the learning. Hearing
stories read aloud caters to the need! Effie’s remarks!)
Terblanche, L. (2002). Read-Alouds: Do they enhance students’
ability to read? (EDRS: ED 456 192).
038
Abstract: To gain information about teachers’ belief of reading aloud on children’s language development, the
researcher conducted the study in which a survey of 22 teachers was done and the results confirmed the findings
in the literature. What interested the researcher was whether the time spent reading aloud to students is worth its
weight in gold as it is the school’s goal to have all students reading at grade level at or before third grade. (the
researcher was a second grade teacher)
Design: survey of elementary school teachers
Findings: When asked whether students enjoyed being read to, 80% of the respondents gave positive response.
Moreover, the teachers mentioned that their students, when being read to, became more attentive and practiced
active listening. Also, the teachers claim that almost the students were engaged during the read-aloud, which was
likely to elicit comprehension of the story or, what’s better, enhance the language development in the children.
By these positive responses from the teachers, the researcher concluded that teachers need to be committed to the
continuation and implementation of reading aloud and make it daily routines. Last, although discussions are
appropriate, the researcher maintains that children should not be forced into discussions.
Note: “Reading aloud can provide a wonderful model to children as to how good readers read with intonation
and fluency. Additionally, children are exposed to a more descriptive flow of language than that of their
everyday language and dialogue, their vocabulary grows larger with each story (p.6)”. The reading materials fro
reading aloud should represent the interests of the children and age appropriate. Pictures are an important tool for
children who are ESL learners in vocabulary development.
Kies, D. A., Rodriguez, I., & Granato, F. V. (1993). Oral language
development through storytelling: An approach to emergent
literacy. Reading Improvement, 30, 43-48.
039
Abstract: The purpose of the study emphasized the relevance of storytelling as an informal technique that gets
children hooked to reading and writing. The technique is highly regarded as providing children with a wide range of
conceptual experiences that prepares them for the literacy development.
Discussion: the researcher claims that the storytelling must began during in infancy and continue in the home.
At school, the teacher continues the development of these skills by providing many opportunities to supplement,
enhance and support these readiness skills. The age and grade appropriate stories provide children with
language, concepts, and experiences that help to develop and reinforce oral and written language skills. Children
learn language in social contexts while interacting with other children and adults by actually constructing or
reconstructing language as they learn. Also, the more frequently children experience language use the more
successful they will be in producing appropriate texts for that particular context. To help children in their pattern
connection it is essential to provide them with many opportunities to hear diverse patterns of language. And
these patterns of language are acquired through the variety and number of stories children are read. According to
Peck (1989, cited Kies et a., 1993), with repeated storytelling the children began to develop story sense and
assimilate the language and the structure of the story. Also, Pucket (1988, cited Kies et al., 1993) pointed out that
children who hear many stories develop a strong motivation for reading, they learn that reading is an enjoyable
act and that reading ad writing are activities that make sense and have a purpose. Moreover, children also acquire
a desire to read on their own after hearing a story. With large numbers of parents unable to read to their children
due to time constraints, storytelling in the classroom is an opportunity to share the gift of time from an adult who
is caring. Parents are children’s first and ongoing teachers. Early childhood teachers must take the role of
supporters and partners to parents in the young children’s emergent literacy development.
Ulanoff, S. H.,& Pucci, S. L. (1999). Learning words from books:
The effects of read aloud on second language vocabulary
acquisition. Bilingual Research Journal, 23, 1-13.
040-1
Abstract: The study compared the gains made in second language vocabulary of 2 different methodologies:
concurrent translation and preview-review in a group of 60 ESL learners.
Design: 3 groups: the control, concurrent translation, and preview (to build background knowledge in the
primary language)-review (also in the first language to reinforce important points) groups/ pre- and post-test and
one week delayed post of vocabulary; the book was chosen for its repetitious and pictorial representation of the
target words, as well as predictability to facilitate the use of contextual clues (L2)
Findings: Students in the preview-review group score significantly higher than the control and concurrent
translation group scored the lowest of all three groups and improved slightly one week after treatment. The
results supported the use of strategies which build background knowledge as a means of teaching second
language vocabulary to English learners. From the results, it is clear that children learn and retain more
vocabulary from listening to stories within a schematic framework in which the primary language in a
scaffolding type activity is used. Moreover, the gains of the preview and review group (57%) surpass even
Elley’s (1989) findings of a growth of 33% with 3 repetitions of a story and brief explanations. In the study, the
story was read aloud only once, therefore, it is the preview-review technique that provides enough context to
activate the schemata and assist the children to acquire the target vocabulary. Without multiple exposures, the
type of mediation offered served the function of providing repeated exposure to target words. However, the
findings support previous research confirming that listening to stories read aloud facilitates vocabulary
acquisition.
Ulanoff, S. H.,& Pucci, S. L. (1999). Learning words from books:
The effects of read aloud on second language vocabulary
acquisition. Bilingual Research Journal, 23, 1-13.
040-2
Note: the content is previewed to build background knowledge in the primary language, the lesson then taught in
the target language
The study emphasized the importance of schematic framework in language learners. As the researchers
mentioned, it is important to contextualize language within a schematic framework such as in the form of an
interesting and predictable story. According to the researchers, it is more important for second language learners
to activate schemata to make connections b/w new vocabulary and background knowledge. And the new words
are easier to absorb within a contextualized framework (Andersson & Barnits 1984, cited Ulanoff, S. H.,&
Pucci, S. L. (1999)).
鄒文莉 (民 92)。說故事英語教學與國小英語學習。師大學報。
第 48 卷，頁 53-67。 (Tsou)
041-1
Abstract: The purpose of the study is to investigate the relationship between storytelling and language
development. In detail, the research intended to understand how storytelling shape a teacher’s talk during the
reading, how storytelling influence students’ oral language development and their participation in the reading,
last, how storytelling exert its impact on classroom atmosphere.
Design: qualitative research; 2 fifth-grade classes; a semester study (13 classes); observation, video taping and
audio recording, interview with the teacher, the teacher’s reflection
Findings: Teachers in the storytelling group used more open-ended questions than their colleagues in the
control. More impressing, teachers in the storytelling group put much less attention on classroom management,
with 1.27% comparing to 14.79%, which reflected the more attention and participation in the storytelling group.
Furthermore, children in the storytelling group showed much higher frequency of active participation compared
to their peers in the control, with 34.54 time/day to only 8.38 time/day. The big contrast further indicated the
positive influence the storytelling exerted in young EFL children’s language development. Last, the research
found that teachers in the storytelling group reflected in the interview that during storytelling, they put less
efforts in managing the class. However, in traditional teaching, they would have to take a more proportion of the
class time on classroom management. Also, through the observation of classroom atmosphere, classroom order,
and students’ participation, the teachers pointed out that storytelling indeed had more positive effects than
traditional teaching. With follow-up activities, the teachers assured the fact that students were very likely to
absorb new vocabulary in the story. The observers also released the similar findings with the classroom teachers.
In addition, the observers added that children in the storytelling group asked more questions and were more
willing to share their ideas with their teacher and peers.
田耐青、沈宜屏 (民 92)。國小級任導師運用英語童書輔助學生
英文學習之行動研究。Selected Papers from the Twelfth international
Symposium on English Teaching and Learning.，559-569.
042-1
Abstract: the purpose of the research is to probe the influence of storytelling on EFL elementary school
children’s language development. After a pilot study, the researcher developed 3P3R reading strategy to help
young EFL learners acquired the target language.
Design: 12 fifth-grade children in ABCD group (divide based on their conversation class performance); a
qualitative and quantitative study; data collected by the teacher’s teaching journal, observers’ observation, the
students’ learning diary, students’ reflection, and interview with the students
Findings: The researcher found that upper grade elementary children liked to participate in interactive context.
Also, the boys showed a preference of making prediction during storytelling. On the other hand, the girls liked to
ask questions to further understand the story. Moreover, the researcher pointed out that, via storytelling, children
showed higher confidence and preference toward English learning. What’s more, according to the researcher’s
observation, the children, after being read to, would go get books from the bookshelf in the classroom, for
reading on their own. Some parents even told the researcher that they found their children loved reading and
would read aloud storybooks, which were borrowed from the classroom library, to their younger siblings at
home. When asking whether they would like the storytelling program continued, 100% of the participants gave
the positive response, which indicated the growth of love for English learning after the storytelling. In addition,
the researcher pointed out that, after the action research, she would like to change the way she teaches young
learners. Other than traditional teaching, she would like to try other teaching approach, such as storytelling
because of the positive results gained from the study. Also, the researcher pointed out that teachers would
become more confident after the trial of choosing storybooks, which indicated that teachers would be more
experienced in the selection of storybooks.
S
田耐青、沈宜屏 (民 92)。國小級任導師運用英語童書輔助學生
英文學習之行動研究。Selected Papers from the Twelfth international
Symposium on English Teaching and Learning. 559-569.
042-2
The researcher also confirmed that fact that storytelling would broaden the students’ background knowledge and
enrich their life by learning different cultures through the storybooks. Still, as for the follow-up activities, the
researchers found that more able students liked self-reading, on the other hand, less able students preferred the
teacher read aloud for them. Last, the research suggested that when doting storytelling, teachers might interact
with the students through prediction—having students predict the following page or event, or questioning—
asking the students some relevant questions. When it comes to choose an appropriate storybook, the researchers
mentioned that first, predictable books might be considered. Second, the storyline should be able to link to the
students’ background. Third, language level of the storybook should also be taken into consideration. For
example, a storybook with complex language might decrease less proficient learners’ interests, yet an interesting
book with easy language level would fail to attract those more able students. For lower achievers, repetitious
pattern in a storybook may be suitable for them. (陳秋蘭，民 92) cited 田耐青、沈宜屏 (民 92)。
王怡雯 (民 93)。從閱讀英語文圖畫書看幼兒讀寫萌發現象。
Selected Papers from the Thirteenth International Symposium and Book
Fair on English Teaching. 198-209.
043-1
Abstract: The purpose of the study is to investigate the relationship between reading aloud storybooks and an
infant’s emergent literacy. The researcher intended to answer the following 2 questions: (1) during the parentchild reading aloud, what would the infant respond to the reading behavior? (2)What were the meanings of the
topic, plot, and the illustrations to the infant?
Design: a case / qualitative study; instruments: participant observation and in-depth interview; audio recording;
3 books; a three year and nine month boy
Findings: after mother-infant reading aloud, the researcher found that the infant would like to pick the storybook
which his mother read to him by flicking through the pages. Also, when choosing the storybook, the infant
would choose a book which could reflect his mood at that moment. Furthermore, the infant would share the story
with his grandparents by telling them what the story was. Although confined by limited expressive ability, the
infant, after reading a storybook, shared the book with others by role playing, puppets or drawing. Also, the
research found that, during the storybook reading, the infant either passively listened to the story, answered the
questions posed by his mother, or imitated his mother voice in the reading. Still, the infant showed logic thinking
when being asked relevant questions about the story. What’s more, the infant linked the story plot to his personal
experience, for example, “David was like me. We both liked to climbed, played toys in the bathtub, or played
while eating meals.” The infant showed his curiosity about the story by asking questions like “Are these animals
running out of the zoo?” Observation also indicated that illustrations raised the infant’s curiosity for he asked
some questions about the given pictures.
王怡雯 (民 93)。從閱讀英語文圖畫書看幼兒讀寫萌發現象。
Selected Papers from the Thirteenth International Symposium and Book
Fair on English Teaching. 198-209.
043-2
The researcher concluded that to help the child develop emergent literacy, parents or nursery teachers should
read aloud with the child. Also, through interactive context between the adult and the child, s/he would benefit
from the reading aloud.
Note: factor influenced a child’s emergent literacy, after reviewing literature, Wang pointed out that book access
and reading frequency were critical. Additionally, more library visits were found in early readers, and the
frequency of library visiting was positively correlated with reading comprehension. Also, the more parents read
aloud to their children, the better their reading achievement would be. The more active the interaction between
the child and his/her parents, the better reading ability would be found. And, the more the child read, the higher
his/her interests are; the higher the interests, the better reading ability would be seen. The more the mother read
with the infant, the more possible the infant would read and the frequency would be higher. Yang( 民 84, cited
Wang,????)
Tsou, W., Wang, W., & Tzeng, Y. (2006). Applying a multimedia
storytelling website in foreign language learning. Computers &
Education, 47, 17-28.
044-1
Abstract: The researchers developed a multimedia Storytelling Website to study how web-based technology can
assist young EFL learners learning English. The website contains an accounts administration module,
multimedia story composing module, and story re-playing module. The purpose of the study was to investigate
how web-based technology can assist EFL teaching and learning process through storytelling and story recall.
Design: 2 classes of fifth-graders(35 students each); 10 weeks; the control group used big books and flash
cards, the experimental group the teacher recreated the story with the Story Website to accompany the
teacher’s storytelling; questionnaire (for students) and interview (with the instructor); pretest of language
proficiency, story comprehension, and sentence complexity
Findings: Students in the Story Website group did better in their sentence complexity and post language
proficiency test but not significant surpassed the control group in story comprehension. The results indicated that
storytelling was appealing to students, with or without the assistance of the storytelling multimedia web, students
could easily comprehend the story and recall the story structure. Second, with the multimedia computer-assisted
process, students retained more words, phrases and sentences. Students received extra visual and audio stimuli
through still pictures, animation, music, and/or sound effects. According to the researchers, these stimuli not
only provided easier access for story recalls but also facilitated students’ creativity in recreating stories. Students
in the Storytelling Website group tended to include more details in recalls. Furthermore, many details that the
students included in their recalls were related to materials coming from their own creations, such as physical
descriptions of the characters, their locations, and sound effects.
Tsou, W., Wang, W., & Tzeng, Y. (2006). Applying a multimedia
storytelling website in foreign language learning. Computers &
Education, 47, 17-28.
044-2
Results from the student questionnaire revealed that students of both groups expressed interest in having
storytelling as a regular part of the class. When asked about their improvement on English learning, students in
the experimental group tended to be more confident than students in the control group, and this result was also
confirmed by the post language proficiency test. In addition, students in the experimental group expressed
enjoyment of the story recalling. On the other hand, the instructor indicated that greater anxiety when presenting
stories in the control group and she felt less confident. The instructor pointed out that students in the
experimental group seemed to be more engaged in the storytelling process because of colorful, animated
multimedia format of the presentation. Also, the teacher concluded that storytelling was effective on language
teaching, but without the Website she would not embrace the storytelling herself. The Website also allows
teachers’ stories be played again and again for reviewing purpose, and individual students’ story recalls to be
stored into a personal digital portfolio which teachers can access students’ learning progress or to conduct peer
comparisons.
\
Lickteig, M. J., & Russell, J. F. (1993) Elementary teachers’ readaloud practices. Reading Improvement, 30, 202-208.
045-1
Abstract: The researchers conducted a survey asking 183 elementary school teachers about their read-aloud
practice in the classrooms.
Findings: The data revealed that reading aloud is a pervasive practice. A majority of teachers read aloud every
day at least 20 minutes (71%). The frequency of times per week decreased and the length of the read aloud
sessions increased as the grades got higher. And the findings showed that children listened quietly (73% across
all grades). The teachers revealed the major reason for reading aloud were enjoyment and with an attempt to
foster the love of reading and literature. Still, to exposure students to more reading was another reason for doing
reading aloud. In reading aloud, both fantasy and realism are presented. When it comes to educational value of
reading aloud, the researchers emphasized that one way of stressing its importance is to expect students’ full
attention during literature time. To achieve this goal, the researchers argued that reading aloud should be
included into regular curriculum rather than a supplementary activity. To be an experienced read- aloud teacher,
the researcher suggested that the more literature the teacher knows the better. Book chosen should be ones the
teacher genuinely enjoys and is eager to share with her/ his students. To help students be more attentive to the
practice, the teacher may, suggested by Funk & Funk (1989, cited Lickteig & Russell (1993), provide a
purpose, set the stage and involve them with follow-up activities. For example, the teacher may provide
background of the story before the reading and allow some time for a short discussion after the reading.
Moreover, the researchers pointed out that with young learners, allowing participation is a good way to ensure
listening. That is, they may participate with discussions of illustrations, ask questions about the story events, or
even predict texts.
Lickteig, M. J., & Russell, J. F. (1993) Elementary teachers’ readaloud practices. Reading Improvement, 30, 202-208.
045-2
Mendoza (1988, cited Lickteig & Russell (1993) suggested that regard to beginning learners, teachers
may start with short picture books and working up to short novels and trying various time/content level
combinations until finding one that works well. The quality of reading is another factor to be
considered. In sum, the teacher should keep in mind that the goal to communicate a story. Last, the
researchers claimed that teachers use reading aloud to cultivate a love of reading, to encourage thinking
about important issues that might otherwise not be included in the curriculum, and for enjoyment and
relaxation.
簡 郁 娟 、 黃 月 貴 ( 民 89) 。 Starting with predictable stories: EFL
children’s oral and literacy development. Selected Papers from the
Ninth International Symposium on English Teaching and Learning,
264-273. (Chien & Huang, 2000)
046-1
Abstract: The study investigated the effect of predictable storybooks on kindergartners’ oral and emergent
literacy development. Research questions were: (1) What changes occur in EFL children’s oral language use
after reading a variety of predictable reading materials? (2) How do predictable reading texts influence EFL
children’s emergent reading behaviors before formal reading instruction? And (3) what are the relationships
between parents’ involvement and children’s development of second language reading?
Design: one school year study; five 5 to 6 years old children; ethnographic research, data collected from
observation, parental interview, teaching logs, students’ portfolios, and miscue analysis
Findings: Data from field notes and the transcription of videotapes reveal that the patterns in predictable stories
were easily absorbed by the children and thus the children produced them into their daily conversation without
hesitation or difficulty. Also, the patterns of vocabulary were presented in a meaningful context, and this enables
the children transferred what they learned from the storybook reading to their real-life situations. Using The
Emergent Reading Behavior Inventory, which included the categories for reading behaviors of book awareness,
directionality, print awareness, reading-like behavior, and the use of cueing systems, to investigate what the
children did during the storytelling, the researchers found that students made obvious progress in concepts about
print (e.g. book awareness, print direction, and print awareness). The results supported the hypothesis that young
children construct print awareness through literacy activities before formal reading instruction. Also, through
predictable storybooks, young EFL children showed reading-like behaviors, and developed the concepts about
print at the emergent literacy level.
簡 郁 娟 、 黃 月 貴 ( 民 89) 。 Starting with predictable stories: EFL
children’s oral and literacy development. Selected Papers from the
Ninth International Symposium on English Teaching and Learning,
264-273.
046-2
Furthermore, Miscue Analysis was employed to identify the students’ reading strategies in the final evaluation.
By doing so, the researchers attempted to learn whether the children could use their graph-phonemic connection
to read unknown words without formal phonics instruction. Results indicated that, except for one child, the other
4 children confidently read a whole story even though they sometimes stopped in one or two sentences, and then
continued their reading by employing their syntactic, semantic, and graph-phonemic knowledge to make sense of
the text or by the prompts of the teacher’s clues or direct language help. Some of the children might have read by
resorting to memory and pictorial clues, but some of the children showed that they were making use of other
reading strategies such as the sound-letter relationship or graphic identification when reading the story. This
finding` further verified that young EFL learners were also able to develop their ability of recognizing letters,
words, or even sentences without formal phonemic awareness or phonics training under the meaningful venue of
storytelling. Findings of the interview with the parents about their children’s family literacy environment showed
that parents’ concepts about children’s literacy development strongly influenced what they did to support their
children’s literacy development and how they offered literacy activities to assist their children always received
positive feedback from their children. Interestingly to note, parents of the most and the second most advanced
children among the five young EFL learners revealed the information that they started the literate activities very
early at home to foster their children’s literacy development by reading stories or environmental print like
newspaper or TV ads. On the other hand, with the assistance of the parents, these two children, among the 5
participants, showed early finger-point and prediction during the storybook reading. Moreover, book access
簡 郁 娟 、 黃 月 貴 ( 民 89) 。 Starting with predictable stories: EFL
children’s oral and literacy development. Selected Papers from the
Ninth International Symposium on English Teaching and Learning,
264-273.
046-3
was a critical element influencing the child’s literacy development. In general, children whose parents value the
importance of literacy development have positive attitudes toward their children’s emergent literacy and thus
encourage their reading-like behaviors. The results of the research revealed that EFL children can establish
reading readiness and construct meaning through reading predictable storybooks even if they have limited
English proficiency. With exposure to written language meaningfully and purposefully, most of the children
developed book concepts, direction concepts and print awareness and, more impressively, they were able to use
the graph-phonemic connection to make sense of the text without formal phonemic awareness or phonics
training. In addition, parental awareness and involvement of home literacy were positively correlated to the
child’s literacy development.
Hsieh, L. T. (2000). Reading aloud vs. silent reading in EFL reading.
Studies in English Language and Literature, 8, 13-21.
047
Abstract: The study investigated the effects of teacher reading aloud, self-reading aloud and silent reading on
college students’ reading comprehension. Findings indicated that the teacher reading aloud group and selfreading aloud group had higher scores than the silent reading group in reading comprehension tests. Also, the
intermediate-low proficiency readers preferred reading aloud while intermediate-high proficiency readers
preferred silent reading on their own.
Design: 44 first-year college students (intermediate-low proficiency learners), their average age was 15.5. & 44
second-year students (intermediate-high proficiency learners) with average age 16.6 years old; 3 reading
passages and an after-reading questionnaire; students from the 2 grades were randomly divided into 3 groups
self read aloud, read silently, or the teacher read aloud (the teacher read the passages for 2 times)
Findings: Results showed that college students benefited more from teacher’ reading aloud and self-reading
aloud on their reading comprehension tests than silent reading. Interestingly, the researcher noted that less
skilled readers seemed more relied on the reading aloud approach; on the other hand, more skilled readers
preferred to read silently, which was coincided with previous findings. The results verified the positive influence
of reading aloud on even older EFL learners’ language acquisition.
Note that in teacher’s reading aloud group, the teacher read the passages aloud twice to provide more exposure
of the reading, which may provide possible definite explanation of the better performance of the group than other
groups.
Dhaif, H. (1990). Reading aloud for comprehension: a neglected
teaching aid. Reading in a Foreign Language, 7, 457-464.
048-1
Abstract: The purpose of the study was to examine the effects of reading aloud on EFL learners’ reading
comprehension. Results showed that students in the teacher’s reading aloud group gained significantly higher
scores than their peers in silent reading situation, which indicated that reading aloud had a positive effect on EFL
learners’ reading comprehension. Moreover, the questionnaire revealed that 77% of the participants reported that
they were in favor of the teacher reading aloud to them.
Design: EFL; two methods: students’ silent reading & teacher’s reading aloudreading comprehension; 140
first-year crossed disciplinary university students enrolled; 6 passages were used
Findings: The reading comprehension tests revealed that students in the teacher reading aloud group had
significantly higher scores than their counterparts in the silent reading group. Coincidently with Elley (1989), the
less skilled students made the most progress through reading aloud. Dramatically, these students improved by
about 74% in the second test. The results showed that poor readers could benefit from a more “supportive”
reading condition whereby they were helped with the more knowledgeable readers. On the other hand, 77% of
the subjects indicated a preference for the teacher’s reading aloud for them. Among them, 47% mentioned that
the reason was that it helps them better understand the overall meaning of the text.
According to the researcher, learners with basic level of English proficiency had a better understanding of what
they were reading in a teacher reading aloud situation than in a silent reading situation. Furthermore, Dhaif
claims that teachers should set aside lesson time for reading aloud to their students, particularly to those poor
readers who were unable to read fluently and hence always had reading comprehension difficulties. It is hoped
that reading aloud would help those less skilled learners to improve their level of reading comprehension and
consequently encourage them to read to break the vicious circle: poor readers do not enjoy reading because they
Dhaif, H. (1990). Reading aloud for comprehension: a neglected
teaching aid. Reading in a Foreign Language, 7, 457-464.
048-2
do not understand, and because they do not understand, they do not read.
Note: This research provided evidence of the effect of reading aloud on EFL learners with basic proficiency
level of English. Dhaif argued that a non-native speaker goes through similar learning process as those
experienced by a child learning to read in its first language. With the findings, the researcher further pointed out
that EFL learners, despite their limited reading proficiency, were able to comprehend the given text when the
help from a more advanced reader was available. Specifically, Dhaif revealed the fact that in those beginning
readers, confined by their English reading ability, tend to break the sentences into small parts while they read. As
a result the sentences lose their integrity and consequently become meaningless. Reading aloud to these learners
at eh early sage would therefore restore that integrity and present larger semantic units which lead to better
understanding. Thus, with sufficient practice and active participation in the reading aloud, the readers would be
encouraged to follow a more holistic approach to reading which would be triggered off by their realization that a
higher level of comprehension can only be achieved by reading larger chunks of texts and not by attempting to
understand individual words or bits of sentences.
Wang, P. L. (2007). The effectiveness and difficulties of
implementing children’s literature in EFL writing. Proceedings of
the 24th Conference on English Teaching and Learning, 329-341.
049-1
Abstract: The purpose of the study is to determine whether children’s literature can be an effective instructional
aid in enhancing the writing competence in vocational college English majors, The participants were provides
with opportunities to listen to stories, read stories and write their own stories. Results revealed the progress of the
participants’ writing skills and their attitude towards reading storybooks and implementing storybooks into
regular curriculum.
Design: 1 semester study; 91 college students (39 first graders of the two-year college program and 52 fourth
graders of the five-year program majoring in Applied Foreign Language), 35 storybook were utilized; writing
analysis and questionnaires analyzed; 3 writings produced by the participants; T-unit: to examine the
participants’ syntactic maturity
Findings: Results indicated that almost every five-year and two-year college students liked and accepted
storybooks as English learning materials According to the positive responses, storybook are lovely and
interesting were the most common reasons. Also, storybooks were easy to understand and they helped increase
curiosity were all the priorities making by the students. Surprisingly, half (44%) of the English majors of the
five-year college had not read storybooks before the intervention. Astonishingly, 85% of the English-majored
students in the two-year college had not have the experience of reading a single storybook before. After the
reading aloud by the instructor in class, 54% of the students in five-year college have read at least 1 to 5 books,
15% students have read 6 to 10 storybooks and one student have even read more than 10 storybooks. That
implied the fact that the implementing of children’s literature motivate approximately 70% of the students to
make extra efforts for their English learning. Also, 75% of the participants believed that story-writing tasks
helped them enhance their writing competence and 85% of them believed that kind of task enhanced both
Wang, P. L. (2007). The effectiveness and difficulties of
implementing children’s literature in EFL writing. Proceedings of
the 24th Conference on English Teaching and Learning, 329-341.
049-2
their writing ability and creativity. On the other hand, after being read to by the teacher, 56% of the students in
tw0-year college have read 1 to 5 storybooks, 15% of them have read 6 to 10 storybooks and only one student
has read more than 10 storybooks during the study. The findings implied that implementing children’s literature
motivated nearly 75% of the students to read on their own. 79% of the students believed that their writing
competence could be improved by continuing to read and write. And nearly 70% of them thought that storywriting tasks not only help boost their writing ability but also increase their creativity. Descriptive statistics
showed that, after being read to, the students made significant progress in their writings. Both the groups, the
students in five-year and two-year college, performed much better in their second writing than the first one.
However, there’s no significant progress comparing the second and the third writing. The findings showed that
teacher’s reading aloud storybooks to college students did increase their writing skills. On the other hand, the
researcher failed to find the contribution of reading aloud children’s literature in achieving vocational college
students’ correctness in grammatical use. Namely, the researcher concluded that the intervention did not help the
students developed the ability of correcting grammatical errors in their writing, which should be reconsidered
thoroughly in that errors should be regarded common and acceptable in second or foreign learners and should not
be intentionally be removed just after a designed intervention. Error correction, after all, has been empirically
found not so effective or even harmful in language learners. In addition, Wang proposed that one of the major
difficulties teachers would encounter when involving such literature-based program is that it is not easy to find
one appropriate storybook that satisfied every student in the classroom. Still, some of the student
may perceive reading aloud storybooks as a form of entertainment like watching movies and thus pay less
Wang, P. L. (2007). The effectiveness and difficulties of
implementing children’s literature in EFL writing. Proceedings of
the 24th Conference on English Teaching and Learning, 329-341.
049-3
attention to the teacher’s reading aloud. This, to me, might be explained in the following ways. First, before the
program, the teacher should give her students a pre-orientation in which some relative second language theories
should be emphasized. Or at least, the contribution of reading aloud in language acquisition should be released to
those learners, which provides the opportunity of learning more about language acquisition theory and also have
the learners be aware of the self-responsibility of learning English. Next, if the students perceived the activity
interesting and low-stress, the outcome of language learning would be expectantly positive. Last, Wang
summarized that the reading aloud children’s storybooks to vocational college students boosted their writing
competence and instilled positive attitude toward children’s literature, which is worthy note because the study
further confirmed the interlinked relationships between reading and writing. Most importantly, the researcher
demonstrated that reading aloud, a common literate activity for young children, can even be utilized in older
learners and what’s more, in EFL language situation.
Lee, S.Y. (民 94). 晨光繪本閱讀活動與字彙習得
050-1
Abstract: The purpose of the study is to investigate the effect of reading storybooks aloud in early morning on
EFL elementary children’s vocabulary acquisition.
Design: 20-week design; 117 third-grade participants in Taipei county; without control group; vocabulary test
(30% of the items are from the textbook used in the school and the other 70% of the items are from the
storybooks and the frequency of the items are three to four times appeared in the storybooks) and questionnaire;
13 storybooks with interesting illustrations, storyline, and rhythmic patterns; pretest to select highly-interesting
storybooks
Findings: After being read to by university students for 20 weeks, information from the questionnaires revealed
that 86.3% of the students hoped that the storytelling activity could continue; 72.6% of the participants thought
that English learning became more interesting and 65% of the 117 children perceived that the English course in
school became easier after the experience. These findings reflected that reading aloud storybooks indeed
stimulated young EFL learners’ learning interests in English and reading as well. Also, such reading program
facilitated students’ language development. According to the readers (the university students), some observations
discussed here. Firstly, in terms of vocabulary learning, the readers found that blackboard use might enhance the
vocabulary learning during the reading aloud. Also, the readers may use the story to link to children’s personal
life experience, which would help the reader to better understand the perception of the students. Next, L1 might
be used to explain unknown words encountered in the storybooks to enhance the comprehension and children’s
interests in listening to the story. Besides, as for the design of the activities used during the reading, the readers
found that if possible, the second reading would better arouse students’ interest in reading. Reasons for this
might be first, after the first reading, the second reading would be easier to comprehend and the second reading
reinforce the newly-acquired words. Also, the second reading may elicit discussions between the reader and the
Lee, S.Y. (民 94). 晨光繪本閱讀活動與字彙習得
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Children and that enhance the learning subconsciously. As for the discussion, the readers would not force the
learners to produce English for response but encourage them to use some simple English or just respond in their
mother language. The readers confirmed that discussions were a very important activity after the reading.
Though not as expectant, TPR still played an important role in children’s learning English. That is, through the
imitation, the children had better interaction with the reader. As for the difficulties, the readers mentioned that
the interaction between the reader and the children plays a critical role in reading aloud. Namely, the better the
interaction, the better the effect of the reading aloud. Furthermore, the interruption by some irrelevant questions
posed by the children during the reading aloud made the reading not fluent and sometimes that would influence
the classroom order, which need extra efforts to deal with. Last, due to the not-appropriate seat arrangement, enot
every child would have a clear vision of the storybook, which might decrease the interests in listening to the
story. To solve the problem, the reader had to move around to make sure that every student had a better vision of
the pictures in the storybook. On the other hand, the descriptive statistics showed that all the four classes made
significant progress in total vocabulary, school vocabulary and storybook vocabulary. Interesting enough, the
researcher found that there’s no significant difference in the vocabulary performance between those go to
English cram school or not. Therefore, whether more instruction time would elicit better language outcome need
further examination. Also, the results revealed that comprehension and reading per se are intercorrelated to
vocabulary acquisition rather than the hours of the class or the activities in class. Students released the
information about their preference of classroom activities. The first priority was singing, the second, storytelling,
and the third, drams. However, storytelling was also the second least liking activity to those children. One
possible explanation for the contrast might be the level of comprehension that made such paradoxical responses
to storytelling in learners, which indicated the importance of comprehension in storytelling.
Lee, S.Y. (民 94). 晨光繪本閱讀活動與字彙習得
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As for the preference of activities done in outside school English class, as in school, the first priority was
singing, the second, drama, and the third, storytelling. Additionally, the most disliking activity was writing, the
second, grammar instruction, and the third, vocabulary exercise. From these results, the researcher urged that
reading aloud should be included into regular curriculum.
Li, S. C. (2003). A study of the effects of reading fairy tales aloud on junior
high school students.
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Abstract: The purpose of the thesis were first to explore the application of fairy tales on EFL junior high
students’ reading comprehension. Second, to examine whether reading aloud literature successfully enhanced the
students’ learning interests.
Design: reading comprehension pretest; 78 third-grade junior high students, 2 groups: the Experimental were
read to before reading the texts by themselves, the Control reading by themselves; 5 fairy tales; immediate
reading response report; post-test questionnaire; a take-a-book-home activity (to instigate whether reading aloud
encouraged voluntary reading after the intervention)
Findings: After one-semester research, the students conceived that they enjoyed experiences with the stories and
became familiar with the language of literature. Overall, students possessed positive attitude toward reading
literature. Illustrations, unlike young children, failed to enhance reading comprehension. According to the
researcher, pictorial clues served the entertainment role in reading with little facilitating impact for ninth EFL
graders. As for the genres the students preferred, jokes and comic ranked the top twp. Generally, they revealed
that they tend to prefer interesting, relevant to themes, or stimulating reading materials. To the experimental
group, reading aloud was reported as effective in increasing reading comprehension and fostering a love for
reading. 74 % of the experimental group showed their appreciation to reading aloud in English reading classes.
Moreover, as stated by the participants, reading aloud helped them developed a greater insight into the
characters’ feelings and thoughts and thus they could visualize the plot development as the teacher read aloud the
story to them.
李淑純
051-2
Abstract: The purpose of the thesis were first to explore the application of fairy tales on EFL junior high
students’ reading comprehension. Second, to examine whether reading aloud literature successfully enhanced the
students’ learning interests.
Design: reading comprehension pretest; 78 third-grade junior high students, 2 groups: the Experimental were
read to before reading the texts by themselves, the Control reading by themselves; 5 fairy tales; immediate
reading response report; post-test questionnaire; a take-a-book-home activity (to instigate whether reading aloud
encouraged voluntary reading after the intervention)
Findings: After one-semester research, the students conceived that they enjoyed experiences with the stories and
became familiar with the language of literature. Overall, students possessed positive attitude toward reading
literature. Illustrations, unlike young children, failed to enhance reading comprehension. According to the
researcher, pictorial clues served the entertainment role in reading with little facilitating impact for ninth EFL
graders. As for the genres the students preferred, jokes and comic ranked the top twp. Generally, they revealed
that they tend to prefer interesting, relevant to themes, or stimulating reading materials. To the experimental
group, reading aloud was reported as effective in increasing reading comprehension and fostering a love for
reading. 74 % of the experimental group showed their appreciation to reading aloud in English reading classes.
Moreover, as stated by the participants, reading aloud helped them developed a greater insight into the
characters’ feelings and thoughts and thus they could visualize the plot development as the teacher read aloud the
story to them. Statistical analysis revealed that reading aloud facilitated the participants’ reading comprehension.
That is, regard the comprehension test, the experimental group outperformed the control group in linger texts.
results of the study further confirmed the hypothesis. The experimental group demonstrated more favorable
attitudes toward readings than the control group and, outperformed on the longer and more difficult readings
李淑純
051-3
texts. This may result from the fact that students were more able to comprehend given reading texts while the
written language was delivered orally and simultaneously. Also, the more positive attitude toward reading and
the better performance of the experimental group in reading comprehension verified the hypothesis that the
positive relationship between reading interests and reading performance. Unexpectedly, the take-a-book-home
activity seemed not so stimulating to encourage more outside reading after the program. Reasons might be that
for these ninth-grade junior high students, the Basic Competence Exam is approaching, and this caused the
students lot of pressure and therefore failed to do extra reading outside of class. Besides, the students’
proficiency level might be another impediment to the infrequency of outside-class reading. And this indicated the
important role of the teacher in young EFL learners’ language development. To encourage more outside reading,
Lee proposed that teachers should convince students of the value of outside reading and prepare a plan for
maintaining their interests in reading. In a word, the teacher should also be a counselor, an observer, and a
partner in such literate activity to achieve reciprocal relationship and promising language outcome.
Valdez-Menchaca, M. C., & Whitehurst, G. J. (1992). Accelerating language
development through picture book reading: A systematic extension to Mexican
day care. Developmental Psychology, 28, 1106-1114.
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Abstract: The study introduced dialogic reading in 20 Mexican 2-year-olds from low-income backgrounds.
Children in the intervention group were read to individually by a teacher using dialogic reading techniques. The
control group children were given individual arts and crafts instruction by the same teacher. Effects of the
intervention were assessed through standardized language tests and by comparing the children’s spontaneous
language while they shared a picture book with an adult who was unaware of their group assignment.
Differences favoring the intervention group were found on all posttests and one some measures of languge
production.
Design: twenty 2-year-old Mexican children;2 groups: the Expe.--> one-on-one reading with an adult;
pretestsPPVT-R & EOWPVT; posttest: PPVT-R, EOWPVT & ITPA (expressive test); 5 storybooks with rich
illustrations and short, descriptive text; 6- to- 7 week intervention duration; children’s spontaneous verbalization
(the children interacted with an unfamiliar adult who asked specific or open-ended questions to elicit the
children’s language production); ESL
Findings: Outcome from the standardized tests revealed a significant group effect, indicating a higher
performance by children in the experimental group than by children in the control group. These positive
language outcome in the intervention group showed that the picture book reading produced large effects on
performance. Moreover, verbal production data showed that children in the experimental group produced a
significant greater number of utterances than children in the control group. Also, the intervention group produced
longer and more complex sentences (i.e. number of compound sentences, reflecting a higher level of syntactic
complexity of their speech.
Valdez-Menchaca, M. C., & Whitehurst, G. J. (1992). Accelerating
language development through picture book reading: A systematic
extension to Mexican day care. Developmental Psychology, 28, 11061114.
052-2
Furthermore, the intervention group produced more diverse word categories and greater various nouns and verbs.
Next, children in the experimental group were more able in answering questions posed by the responsible adult
and continuing topic-related discussions. That is, the children in the experimental group produced higher rates of
these types of verbalizations than control children. The results of the research extended those of Whitehurst et
al. (1988) by demonstrating that a shared picture book reading can work for Mexican children of low-income
parents with below-normal language abilities and with a day-care teacher rather than a parent in the adult role.
These two studies demonstrated that large and enduring effects on children’s language can be obtained from an
intervention that encouraged the child to talk about the pictures in shared picture books and provided the child
with appropriate models and feedback for progressively more sophisticated language use. With the success of
language outcomes appeared in the experimental group in the MLU, the diversity of verbs and nouns, and the
children’s efforts to initiate and continue conversation, the researchers concluded that picture book reading as a
critical component of preschoolers’ language development by demonstrating that active participation in picture
book reading produced language gains for children of low-income families. More importantly, Valdez-
Menchaca and Whitehurst believed that continuous exposure to picture book activities would produce
larger and more lasting effects than a 6-week intervention.