PSY 1 - APPROACHES IN PSYCHOLOGY
PREPARATION & REVISION
The aim of this handbook is to help you prepare and revise for the unit
named PSY1 in your A Level course in Psychology. It is not intended to
take the place of your class work nor of the full textbook covering the
course, but it should help you revise and prepare for the examination.
Contents
PSY 1 - WHAT YOU NEED TO STUDY
02
UNDERSTANDING HOW THE QUESTIONS
ARE STRUCTURED and HOW TO ANSWER THEM
03
THE BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH
ASSUMPTIONS
STRENGTHS & WEAKNESSES
THERAPY - SYSTEMATIC DESENSITISATION
THERAPY - AVERSION THERAPY
THEORY - SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY OF AGGRESSION
04
05
06
07
08
THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH
ASSUMPTIONS
STRENGTHS & WEAKNESSES
THERAPY - PSYCHOSURGERY
THERAPY - CHEMOTHERAPY
THEORY - SELYE’S GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME
09
10
11
12
13
THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH
ASSUMPTIONS
STRENGTHS & WEAKNESSES
THERAPY - THE TALKING CURE
THERAPY - DREAM ANALYSIS
THEORY - THEORY OF PERSONALITY
14
15
16
17
18
THE COGNITIVE APPROACH
ASSUMPTIONS
STRENGTHS & WEAKNESSES
THERAPY - RATIONAL EMOTIVE THERAPY
THERAPY - COGNITIVE BEHAVIOURAL THERAPY
THEORY - ATTRIBUTION THEORY
19
20
21
22
23
COMPARE AND CONTRAST THE APPROACHES
24
PSY 1 - WHAT YOU NEED TO STUDY
In this unit, we will be studying four major approaches in Psychology:
1)
2)
3)
4)
The BIOLOGICAL approach
The BEHAVIOURIST approach
The PSYCHODYNAMIC approach
The COGNITIVE approach
You will learn how to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
ASSUMPTIONS of each approach – for example, the biological approach assumes
that behaviour has a biological/physical/physiological case. You will learn how each
approach has been applied to a THEORY and a THERAPY.
You will learn to ASSESS CRITICALLY each approach in terms of its STRENGTHS
and WEAKNESSES. And you will learn to recognise SIMILARITIES and
DIFFERENCES between the approaches.
In PSY1, you will be expected to be able to demonstrate knowledge and
understanding of theories and therapies for each approach as outlined in the table
below:
THEORY
APPROACH
THERAPY
Selye’s General
Adaptation Syndrome
BIOLOGICAL
Psychosurgery or
chemotherapy
Social Learning Theory
of Aggression
BEHAVIOURIST
Aversion Therapy or
Systematic
Desensitisation
Freud’s theory of
personality development
PSYCHODYNAMIC
Dream analysis or Free
Association
Attribution theory
COGNITIVE
Cognitive Behavioural
Therapy or Rational
Emotive Therapy
Therefore, for the examination you must be able to:





Outline the main assumptions of each approach.
Describe how each approach can be applied in one form of therapy.
Describe how each approach can be applied to one theory.
Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each approach.
Compare and contrast the four approaches in terms of similarities and/or
differences.
2
UNDERSTANDING HOW THE QUESTIONS
ARE STRUCTURED and HOW TO ANSWER THEM
There are three kinds of questions in the examination, and the first word or
words of each question make it clear what is required in your answer.
The questions are
1. Outline/Describe the main assumptions of the …approach. (12)
2. Outline/Describe how the ... approach has been applied in … theory. (12)
3. Outline/Describe how the …approach has been applied in … therapy. (12)
4. Evaluate/Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the… approach. (12)
5. Compare and contrast the …and … approach in terms of similarities and
differences. (12)
The approaches you are required to describe, evaluate, and compare and
contrast will be named. The therapy and theory you are asked to describe
will be named.
Generally, describe and explain 3 or 4 fundamental assumptions.
Generally, describe and explain 2 strengths and 2 weaknesses.
Generally, describe and explain 2 similarities and 2 differences about the
approach you are asked to compare and contrast.
Be strict and sensible about your timing.
Don’t write brilliant answers for three questions, leaving little or no time
for the remaining 2 questions.
Don’t try to memorise answers to reproduce in the examination. It is far
better to show you really understand the psychology and show this
understanding in the examination.
3
THE BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH
ASSUMPTIONS
An examination essential
Outline the main assumptions of the behaviourist approach.
The behaviourist approach assumes that all behaviour, both normal and abnormal, is
learned through the processes of classical and operant conditioning. In other words,
we learn by interacting with the world around us, especially by the ways our
environment operates on us.
Classical conditioning is ‘learning through association’. It was first proposed by Ivan
Pavlov who observed that his laboratory dogs had learned to salivate to the sound of
the footsteps of the man who fed them. They had learned to associate the footsteps
with food. Later, Pavlov conditioned the dogs to salivate to the sound of a bell that he
rang before he gave them their food.
The individual learns to associate a neutral stimulus with an automatic reflex response
such as fear or pleasure. For example, Watson & Raynor (1920) conditioned Little
Albert to associate the sight of a white rat, or anything similar, with a fear response.
In other words, Albert had been conditioned to be frightened of something he had
previously found non-threatening, and even attractive. In conditioning terms, the loud
noise Albert heard was the UCS (unconditioned stimulus), his fear response of crying
was the UCR (unconditioned response), the white rat was the CS (conditioned
stimulus) and his fear of the white rat was the CR (conditioned response).
Operant conditioning is ‘learning through the consequences of behaviour’. If a
behaviour is rewarded (reinforced) then it will be maintained or increased. If it is
punished, it will weaken and may become extinguished. For example, if we are
praised for polite behaviour when we are young, we will learn that polite behaviour
brings rewards, and we will behave politely without thinking about it. B. F. Skinner
investigated operant conditioning using pigeons and rats in Skinner boxes and
discovered many of the principles of operant conditioning applied to human beings.
Again, operant conditioning can explain abnormal behaviour. For example,
adolescents who are ridiculed (punished) for being fat may stop eating to reduce their
weight and go on to develop an eating disorder.
Abnormal behaviour can be unlearned using the same conditioning principles. For
example, Watson & Rayner (1920) proposed to rid Little Albert of his fears by pairing
a reward (e.g. a sweet) with the sight of a rat until his fear was extinguished. Albert
was adopted from the institution where he was being raised and nothing is known of
him since. There is a detailed account of the experiment in Wikipedia.
4
THE BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH
STRENGTHS & WEAKNESSES
An examination essential
Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the behaviourist approach.
One of the main strengths of the behaviourist approach is that it focuses only on
behaviour that can be observed and manipulated. Therefore, this approach has proved
very useful in experiments under laboratory conditions where behaviour can be
observed and manipulated, especially in relation to the IV (independent variable) and
the DV (dependent variable). The behaviourist principles of learning have been, and
continue to be, tested in the laboratory where learning can be objectively measured.
The behaviourist approach concentrates on the ‘here and now’ rather than exploring a
person’s past or their medical history. This is an advantage because many people do
not know the past causes for their abnormal behaviour. And for many people getting
rid of undesirable behaviour may be more important than understanding the causes of
such behaviour. For example, a client with an irrational compulsion to wash his hands
unnecessarily many times every day may be satisfied by simply ridding himself of the
abnormal behaviour.
On the other hand, if an approach cannot treat the underlying causes of the behaviour,
it is likely the behaviour will return after a period of time. Behavioural treatments
such as Systematic Desensitisation and Token Economies are effective for certain
disorders, such as obsessive-compulsive disorders and phobias. However, they are not
so effective for more serious disorders, such as schizophrenia.
The behaviourist approach has been criticized for suggesting that most human
behaviour is mechanical, and that human behaviour is simply the product of stimulusresponse behaviours. This seems to be a very reductionist attitude.
In particular, the approach ignores human beings’ complex thought processes
(cognition) and emotions. In Social Learning Theory, Bandura (1977) has revealed
that cognitive factors cannot be ignored if learning is to be understood. Bandura has
pointed out that it is knowing, having the information, that certain behaviours will be
rewarded or punished that shapes behaviour just as much as the rewards or
punishments themselves. For example, Little Johnny knows he will be smacked for
touching the electric fire, and that is why he does not touch it.
In addition, the principles of behaviourism have been tested mainly on animals. Such
findings may not apply totally to human behaviour, which is much more complex.
Finally, ethical questions have been raised over some behavioural treatments which
have been used without the consent of the client, and in treatments such as Aversion
Therapy where pain and discomfort are deliberately used to change the behaviour of
the client.
5
A BEHAVIOURIST THERAPY
An examination essential
Describe how the behaviourist approach has been applied in one form of
therapy in psychology.
SYSTEMATIC DESENSITISATION
According to classical conditioning theory, a phobia is an automatic reflex acquired as
a response to a non-dangerous stimulus. For example, Little Albert (Watson &
Rayner, 1920) acquired his fear of rats when he ‘learned’ to associate the sight of a
white rat with the fright of a hammer crashing down on a steel bar just behind his
head. After only seven trials, Albert became frightened and backed away from the
white rat every time he saw it.
Behaviour therapy could have been used to counter Albert’s conditioning by exposing
him to the phobic stimulus (the white rat) while pairing the sight of the white rat with
something pleasant (sweets, hugs, cuddles) until the fear response was reduced and
extinguished.
During the therapy known as Systematic Desensitisation (SD), the patient is trained to
substitute a relaxation response for the fear response in the presence of the phobic
stimulus. Since this is unlikely to occur naturally, behaviour therapy can help by
exposing phobics to their fears in a safe and controlled setting.
Systematic Desensitisation was devised and developed by Wolpe (1958) as a therapy
to help clients overcome their phobias, i.e. an irrational fear of something that is not
genuinely dangerous – for example, Little Miss Muffett and her fear of spiders.
Systematic Desensitisation involves three steps:
 First, the patient is trained to relax completely. This may be with the help of
relaxation techniques, deep muscle relaxation, or tranquillisers.
 Second, the patient draws up a list of his most frightening scenarios, from
least frightening to most frightening. This is called his fear hierarchy.
 Third, the patient will progress through the scenarios, beginning with the least
frightening, learned to stay as relaxed as he can. Sometimes the patient will
be asked to imagine these frightening situations, but the therapy is said to be
more effective if the situation is real. For example, we might ask Miss
Muffett to touch a dead spider rather than imagine touching it.
Simple or specific phobias are quite effectively treated with behaviour therapy.
Wolpe (1988) claims that “80 to 90 per cent of patients are either apparently cured or
much improved after an average of twenty-five to thirty sessions.” SD is not so
successful with more serious disorders, such as schizophrenia.
6
A BEHAVIOURIST THERAPY
AVERSION THERAPY
An examination essential
Describe how the behaviourist approach has been applied in one form of
therapy in psychology, e.g. Aversion Therapy
Aversion therapy is a form of psychological therapy that uses conditioning procedures
to break the association between undesirable behaviour and a pleasant sensation. The
patient is exposed to the undesirable stimulus while at the same time being subjected
to some form of discomfort. This conditioning is aimed at causing the patient to
associate the undesirable stimulus with unpleasant sensations.
Aversion therapy used to treat an alcoholic would follow this procedure:
 the patient is given a drug that makes him feel very sick. The drug is the
unconditioned stimulus and the sickness is the unconditioned response.
 the patient is then given alcohol and the drug at the same time, so alcohol and
feeling sick are paired together.
 the pairing of alcohol and the drug is repeated until the patient associates
alcohol with feeling very sick. The alcohol is now the conditioned stimulus,
and feeling sick is the conditioned response. If the conditioning is successful,
the patent will no longer be able to drink alcohol.
Aversion therapy can take many forms. For example, a child who bites his nails may
have them painted with an unpleasant substance to discourage biting them. A violent
person might be shown images of violent crime while being given electric shocks. In
this way, new behaviour can be ‘learned’ to replace bad habits, undesirable behaviour,
addictions and obsessions.
The long-term effectiveness of aversion therapy is questionable. The therapy may be
successful at first but when patients are out of sight of the therapist, and the drugs or
electric shocks are no longer used, patients may return to the original undesirable
behaviour. In other words, the association between the undesirable behaviour and the
unpleasant association is extinguished.
Ethical questions have been raised concerning the use of aversion therapy, and indeed
all therapies that use conditioning procedures to change behaviour. First, although the
undesirable behaviour may be changed, the therapy may not reach the underlying
causes of the behaviour, and, therefore, undesirable behaviour is some form or other,
is likely to emerge later. Second, forced aversion therapy is used on children and
teenagers in some countries, which raises the issue of consent. And third, aversion
therapy deliberately causes pain and distress in some patients, which does not seem
compatible with the duty of psychologists to at least minimise the risk of pain and
harm.
7
THE BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY OF AGGRESSION
An examination essential
Describe how the behaviourist approach has been applied to one theory in
psychology.
The behaviourist approach assumes that all behaviour, both normal and abnormal, is
learned through the processes of classical and operant conditioning. In other words,
we learn by interacting with the world around us, especially by the ways our
environment operates on us. In classical conditioning we ‘learn by association’ while
in operant conditioning we ‘learn through the consequences of our behaviour’.
Social Learning Theory extends this approach by suggesting that we learn not only by
direct experience but also by observational experience. In other words, a boy who
sees other boys rewarded for polite behaviour is likely to behave politely in order to
gain the same rewards.
Social Learning Theory has been used to explain aggression, particularly why
children may behave aggressively. According to social learning principles, children
learn aggression by observing people behaving aggressively and imitating their
behaviour. People who are observed are called models because they are modelling the
behaviour the children imitate. Children are likely to copy the behaviour of people
they see as similar to themselves, adults they admire, powerful people, or people who
are rewarded for their aggression (indirect/vicarious reinforcement). The child is
likely to continuing imitating the behaviour if this brings reinforcement, rewards in
any form.
Albert Bandura et al. (1967) conducted a series of experiments to study how
children learned to behave aggressively. In Bandura’s basic procedure, children saw
an adult behave aggressively, both verbally and physically, towards a large inflatable
doll, called a Bobo doll. The children then had the chance to play with a range of toys,
including a Bobo doll, and observers assessed their behaviour. The observers found
that children who saw an aggressive model reproduced more of the aggressive acts
than children who saw a non-aggressive model. Another finding was that the children
showed significantly more imitation of a same-sex model, and boys performed more
acts of aggression than girls.
Bandura noted that boys will imitate aggressive behaviour more readily than girls, and
that both sexes will copy the behaviour of adults than that of children. Bandura’s
research confirmed his belief that children learn from their social environment, which
provides models of behaviour as well as expectations of appropriate behaviour. The
key processes of social learning are observation, imitation and reinforcement.
Bandura’s research has been criticised. Firstly, the children saw aggression towards
an inflatable doll, not towards another human being, so perhaps the children did not
display ‘real’ aggression. Secondly, the laboratory procedure may lack ecological
validity because the situation does not occur in real-life. Thirdly, it’s ethically
questionable if we should be ‘teaching’ children to behave aggressively.
8
THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH - ASSUMPTIONS
An examination essential
Outline the main assumptions of the biological approach.
The biological approach assumes that all behaviour, including abnormal behaviour,
has physiological causes in the same way that physical illnesses have physical causes.
In other words, abnormal behaviour is caused by a physiological abnormality. For
example, abnormal behaviour may be caused by chemical malfunctions in the brain or
by genetic disorders. Too much dopamine (a neurotransmitter) in the brain is linked
with the mental illness called schizophrenia, and it is also clear that the eating
disorder called anorexia nervosa has a genetic component.
The biological approach has focused on the links between the brain and behaviour. It
is assumed that all mental illnesses have a physiological cause related to the physical
structure and/or the functioning of the brain. A distinction is made between ‘organic’
and ‘functional’ disorders. Organic disorders involve obvious brain damage, such as a
brain tumour, while functional disorders, such as depression, don’t have an obvious
physical cause. The biological approach assumes that mental illnesses, just like
physical illness, have recognisable symptoms. Psychiatrists use diagnostic manuals
such DSM-IV to compare symptoms with set classifications of illnesses.
Technological advances such as CT scans and PET scans allow scientists to study the
the workings of the brain and its relationship to human behaviour. This has helped in
a wide range of research including the study of sleep, dreaming, and stress, as well as
the diagnoses and treatment of mental illness.
The biological approach assumes that mental illness can be treated by invasive,
physical intervention. It’s assumed there’s a physiological cause, so a physiological
treatment is used. There are three main somatic therapies: psychotherapeutic drugs
(chemotherapy), ECT (electro-convulsive therapy), and psychosurgery which may be
used to treat clinical depression and even acute anorexia.
Psychologists have also become increasingly interested in the role of genes in
understanding human behaviour. As we have understood more and more about DNA,
scientists have claimed there are specific genes that determine sexual orientation,
criminal tendencies, basic personality traits, and even how religious an individual is
likely to be.
Although it would be reductionist to try and explain all human behaviour as a product
of our biology, it does seem likely that the biological approach will continue to
contribute hugely to our understanding of mind and behaviour.
9
THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH
STRENGTHS & WEAKNESSES
An examination essential
Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the biological approach.
The main strength of the biological approach is that chemotherapy, ECT and
psychosurgery can be used to treat the symptoms of abnormal behaviour directly and
in a very short time. For example, Ritalin can be used to control ADHD, and Prozac
can be used to alleviate depression fairly quickly. Carefully-controlled studies are
used to test and demonstrate the effectiveness of drugs. In addition, treatment can be
easily varied, for example, by changing the dosage of the medication or the
medication itself.
However there may be problems with these treatments as they all carry the risk of
negative side effects though these don’t usually outweigh the benefits For example, in
the case of chemotherapy there is the risk that patients may become psychologically
and physically dependent on the drugs involved. And the results of psychosurgery are
irreversible, which raises serious ethical issues. However, patients are often pleased to
have tried these ‘last-ditch’ treatments even if they haven’t been successful.
A second advantage is that the patient is not labelled as mentally ill. Unfortunately,
the label of mental illness still carries a stigma in our society. It is reassuring to most
people to learn that their behaviour has a biological/medical cause that can be
corrected or controlled by medical treatment.
The main limitation of the biological approach is that it may be useful in dealing with
the symptoms of abnormal behaviour but it may not be effective in resolving the
underlying causes. Symptoms can recur when the treatment stops, and many patients
have to be re-admitted to hospital, the so-called ‘revolving door’ syndrome. However,
if the main symptom of depression is the feeling of depression and drugs stop this, we
can argue the medical approach has succeeded.
Mental illness may have multiple causes, including cognitive and behavioural causes.
The biological approach does not take these into consideration. It is always dangerous
to reduce a complex phenomenon to a single explanation (reductionism). Greater
emphasis should be placed on a patient’s personal feelings and experiences.
10
A BIOLOGICAL THERAPY - PSYCHOSURGERY
An examination essential!
Describe how the biological approach has been applied in one form of
treatment/therapy in psychology.
Psychosurgery involves the deliberate destruction of brain tissue in an attempt to
alleviate mental illnesses such as clinical depression. The destruction of brain tissue
has a long history going back to trepanning (drilling a hole through the skull) and
lobotomy (crude destruction of tissue).
In modern medicine, psychosurgery is used to treat severe depression, and anorexia
which is threatening the life of the patient. The aim in psychosurgery is to interrupt
the brain circuits that control our emotional responses. This is done by making tiny
lesions/cuts in the brain tissue to destroy some of the nerve cells.
Psychosurgery is now possible without cutting through the skull. Radiosurgery is used
to concentrate radiation (the so-called gamma knife) into a single, tiny point of brain
tissue in the emotional centres of the brain. This tissue is destroyed while the
surrounding healthy tissue is spared damage.
There are issues involving undesirable-effects and the irreversible nature of
psychosurgery. Since the procedure involves the destruction of brain tissue, the results
of any operation are irreversible. This has raised ethical doubts in the minds of many
people who believe no one has the right to destroy part of another person, even if this
is in the name of a cure. However, others believe it is a patient’s right to be able to
give their informed consent to such a last-resort operation.
It is difficult to evaluate the effectiveness of psychosurgery when so few operations
are carried out, and the criteria for success cannot be agreed upon. Although Cobb
(1993) reported a 75% success rate, the Mental Health Charity MIND (2002) believes
that there should be a “rigorous review to determine whether any continued use if
justified.”
Psychosurgery is seen very much as a treatment of last resort.
11
A BIOLOGICAL THERAPY - CHEMOTHERAPY
an examination essential
Describe how the biological approach has been applied in one form of
therapy in psychology.
About 25% of all drugs prescribed by the National Health Service are for mental
health problems. Psychotherapeutic drugs modify the working of the brain and affect
mood and behaviour. Patients suffering from mental disorders are often prescribed
more than one drug.
Drugs work by entering the bloodstream in order to reach the brain where they affect
the transmission of chemicals in the nervous system. These chemicals are called
neurotransmitters and they have a variety of effects on behaviour. The main
neurotransmitters are dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine, noradrenaline and GABA.
Basically, drugs work by either increasing or decreasing the availability of these
neurotransmitters and hence modifying their effects on behaviour.
The five major drug types are: the anti-psychotics (major tranquillisers), the antianxiety drugs (minor tranquillisers), the anti-depressants, the anti-manics (moodstabilising drugs), and the stimulant drugs. All of these groups have varying levels of
effectiveness, from short-term to long-term, but most have negative, undesirable sideeffects. It is also fair to say that while chemotherapy is often effective at tackling the
symptoms of mental disorders, they may not reach the underlying causes of the
disorder, and when the chemotherapy is discontinued the disorder returns.
For example, the benzodiazepines, which are the most commonly used minor
tranquillisers, are effective in controlling anxiety in the short term, become less
effective, and they can even produce the symptoms they are intended to reduce, the
so-called ‘rebound effect’. Benzodiazepines are also highly addictive.
On the other hand, the anti-depressant drugs often cure the mental disorder.
Depression is thought to occur because not enough serotonin and noradrenaline are
being produced in the brain. By boosting the levels of these neurotransmitters, the
majority of patients can remain free from depression for long periods of their lives.
Unlike the benzodiazepines, anti-depressant drugs are not addictive though they may
cause negative side-effects such as nausea, diarrhoea and headaches.
The major tranquillisers, the anti-psychotics, work by lowering dopamine activity in
the brain. These drugs are used to treat dopamine disorders, the manic phase of manic
depression, and other psychotic symptoms. They can help relieve voice-hearing,
hallucinations, delusions and feelings of paranoia. Although they do not cure the
illness, the reduction of psychotic symptoms can significantly improve many patients’
lives.
12
A BIOLOGICAL THEORY
SELYE’S GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME
An examination essential
Describe how the biological approach has been applied to one theory in psychology.
According to Hans Selye (1956), the General Adaptation Syndrome represents the
body’s defence against stress. Selye suggested that our responses to stress are
universal, i.e. we all have the same pattern of physiological responses. These
responses include the release of stress hormones (e.g. adrenaline), release of glucose
from the liver, rapid heartbeat, breathlessness, and increased blood supply to the
muscles. In other words, when placed under stress we go into ‘fight or flight’ mode.
Selye defined stress as: ‘the individual’s physiological response, mediated largely by
the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system, to any demands made on the
individual.’ He proposed there are three stages in General Adaptation Syndrome:
alarm - resistance - exhaustion.
In the alarm stage, the ANS (autonomic nervous system) produces high levels of
adrenaline and other adrenal hormones such as steroids to prepare the body for ‘fight
or flight’. There is a brief initial shock phase when blood pressure (BP) and muscle
tension drop. Resistance to the stressor is reduced. But this is quickly followed by the
countershock phase when the body’s physiological defences swing into action.
In the resistance stage, the ANS (autonomic nervous system) returns to normal, but
the body continues to use its physiological resources to resist the effects of the
stressor. During this stage, there is more careful use of the body’s resources, and there
is also the use of coping strategies, e.g. denying the situation is stressful.
In the exhaustion stage, the physiological systems become depleted and ineffective,
and stress-related illnesses (e.g. high blood pressure, asthma, heart disease) become
more likely. Selye (1956) also found that if a second source of stress was introduced
during the exhaustion stage, it could have devastating consequences for the health of
individual.
13
THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH
ASSUMPTIONS – an examination essential
Outline the main assumptions of the psychodynamic approach.
The psychodynamic approach assumes that experiences in our earliest years can affect
our emotions, attitudes and behaviour in later years without us being aware that it is
happening. Freud suggested the mind or psyche has three parts: the conscious, the
preconscious, and the unconscious. Freud suggested that individuals can never be
aware of the contents of the unconscious.
He also suggested that there is often conflict between the id and the superego in the
unconscious. The id represents a person’s basic drives, such as the sexual drive, and
the superego represents the conscience we develop by living in a society. These two
parts of the psyche need to be managed by the ego. When this balance isn’t achieved,
abnormal behaviour may result. For example, anxiety disorders may occur from an
over-developed superego (conscience), when the person simply worries far too much
trying to live up to external rules, perhaps those imposed by over-strict parents. Since
these processes occur at an unconscious level, people cannot be aware of them.
Freud argued that childhood experiences play a crucial part in adult development,
including the development of adult personality. Every child must pass through the socalled psycho-sexual stages; how a child experiences these stages plays a crucial role
in the development of his/her personality. A child who becomes fixated at the oral
stage may have an oral receptive personality and be very trusting and dependent on
others, or he may develop an oral aggressive personality and become aggressive and
dominating as an adult. The phallic personality type may be over-confident, vain and
impulsive while the genital personality type become well-adjusted, mature, able to
love and be loved.
Freud also suggested that emotional traumas and painful experiences in childhood
may be repressed into the unconscious where they may produce not only abnormal
behaviour and mental illness but also psychosomatic illnesses, such as asthma. The
psychodynamic approach assumes that psychoanalysis can make the ‘unconscious
conscious’ and reveal the true cause of any abnormalities. If the patient relives the
emotional pain of these repressed memories, the conflicts will be resolved and the
patient will be cured. Modern psychoanalysis suggests patients must also come to
understand what happened to them cognitively.
Therefore, the psychodynamic approach suggests that mental illness occurs as a result
of psychological problems, not physical problems as suggested by the biological
approach.
14
THE PSYCHDYNAMIC APPROACH
STRENGTHS & WEAKNESSES –
An examination essential
Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the psychodynamic approach.
A strength of the psychodynamic approach is that it reminds us that experiences in
childhood can affect us throughout our lives without us being aware that it is
happening. Some experiences in childhood may be so emotionally painful that the
only way the child can cope is by repressing the memory of these experiences into the
unconscious. Therefore, the approach accepts that everyone can suffer mental
conflicts and neuroses through no fault of their own. The approach also offers a ‘cure’
for abnormality through psychoanalysis by reaching the underlying causes in the
unconscious, making them conscious, and releasing the patient from the emotional
pain caused by the childhood trauma.
Freud was the first to stress the importance of psychological factors causing abnormal
behaviour. His argument that psychological problems can result in physical symptoms
is widely accepted today. Many people would agree that unconscious processes do
have an effect on human behaviour, and Freud’s work on how defence mechanisms
protect the ego is especially useful. Most people accept that we do use repression,
denial, projection, and other defence mechanisms to protect our egos.
The main limitation of the psychodynamic model is that it cannot be scientifically
observed or tested. In fact, one cannot even imagine a test by which psychodynamic
theory can be disproved. There is no way of demonstrating if the Unconscious
actually exists. There is no way of verifying if a repressed memory is a real or false
memory unless independent evidence is available. In other words, most of
psychodynamics must be taken on faith.
A second weakness is that any evidence recovered from a patient must be analysed
and interpreted by a therapist. This leaves open the possibility of serious
misinterpretation or bias because two therapists may interpret the same evidence in
entirely different ways. Psychoanalysis is time-consuming and expensive, and serious
questions have been raised about its effectiveness.
In addition, the psychodynamic approach ignores possible biological, behaviourist,
and cognitive explanations of abnormal behaviour, and may be in that sense
dangerously reductionist.
15
A PSYCHODYNAMIC THERAPY - THE TALKING CURE
An examination essential!
Describe how the psychodynamic approach has been applied in one form of
therapy in psychology, e.g. Free Association/Talking Cure.
The psychodynamic approach assumes that experiences in our earliest years can affect
our emotions, attitudes and behaviour in later years without us being aware that it is
happening.
The therapy called Free Association or the Talking Cure is based on the
psychodynamic model of abnormality. Psychotherapy places great significance on
childhood experiences, such as the psychosexual stages, and on repressed impulses
and unresolved conflicts in the unconscious.
The aim of psychotherapy is to bring repressed material into conscious awareness –
‘to make the unconscious conscious’.
During therapy sessions the patient is encouraged to relax on a couch and talk about
whatever comes into his mind. The therapist listens and offers no judgement about
anything the patient says. It is hoped the patient will relax his internal censor and
released repressed material from the unconscious. The therapist then helps the patient
interpret the material and gain insight into the origins of the conflict. During the
therapy the patient may also transfer his unconscious feelings and emotions onto the
therapist.
The psychotherapist helps the patient deal with the emotions and memories recovered
from the unconscious. This cathartic emotional experience is called abreaction, and a
patient experiencing abreaction will be ‘cured’ of his disorder. In modern
psychoanalysis, the therapist will help the patient come to a cognitive understanding
of his experiences in childhood.
Psychotherapy has been criticized because there is no way we can scientifically test
the methods of free association and dream analysis. The results of these methods
depend on speculation and interpretation by the therapist. This means two therapists
could interpret the same material and come to opposite conclusions. In addition,
psychotherapy is often time-consuming and expensive.
The Talking Cure has had some success with mental problems such as anxiety,
hysteria and OCD, but some psychologists argue it is being able to talk about
difficulties that produce the improvement, making the therapy essentially cognitive
rather than psychodynamic.
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A PSYCHODYNAMIC THERAPY - DREAM ANALYSIS
An examination essential
Describe how the psychodynamic approach has been applied in one form of
therapy in psychology, e.g. Dream Analysis.
Sigmund Freud suggested the mind or psyche has three parts: the conscious, the
preconscious, and the unconscious. Freud suggested that individuals can never be
aware of the contents of the unconscious although drives and conflicts in the
unconscious are responsible for much of our behaviour.
Freud (1902) described dreams as ‘the royal road to the unconscious’. By this he
meant that dreams provide a significant way of making the unconscious conscious.
Freud described dreams as disguised messages often expressing repressed wishes and
desires that the conscious person would find unacceptable. Many of these desires are
often of a sexual nature.
Freud suggested that while we are asleep our ego defences are lowered, and this
provides the opportunity for repressed wishes and desires to emerge in dreams, albeit
in a disguised, symbolic form. He suggested that, no matter how strange or bizarre
dreams are, they carry important messages to the individual. However, the client
undergoing dream analysis needs the help of an analyst to interpret these dreams and
explain their true meaning.
What we recall of our dream is the latent, or hidden content. This dream expresses
desires or anxieties we may have. However, it is in symbolic form because the
unacceptable desires or worries the dream expresses would wake us up. It is the task
of the analyst to interpret the latent dream and explain its true/real meaning, the
manifest content, to the client. For example, a student who reported frequently
dreaming about crossing a wobbly bridge might be expressing anxiety about
important examinations he is afraid of failing.
When the analyst is helping the client interpret the dream, it is important he does not
force the interpretation on the client. In fact, his interpretation should be close to
interpretations that client himself is on the verge of making. The client should be
encouraged to see how the dream helps him understand his present-day behaviour,
and how this behaviour may be related to incidents and experiences in his childhood,
especially those that involve some sort of conflict or emotional pain.
The most important aim of dream analysis is to provide the client with insight into
how the conflicts in his unconscious are related to his present-day problems. This
insight will help the client understand the nature and origin of these conflicts, and by
doing so resolve the conflicts and be cured of the disorder.
However, it is fair to say that later research has not supported Freud’s theory of the
nature and function of dreams.
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A PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY - PERSONALITY
An examination essential
Describe how the psychodynamic approach has been applied to one theory
in psychology.
Sigmund Freud suggested that experiences in early childhood can continue to affect
us throughout our lives without us being aware of it. These experiences include stages
in our psychosexual development. How a child experiences these stages play a crucial
role in the development of his/her adult personality.
Freud said that personality developed through the psychosexual stages from infancy
to adulthood. The five stages are: the Oral stage (birth to 18 months) when infants
enjoy various activities involving their mouths, lips, and tongues; the Anal stage (18
months to 3 years) when the anal area is the main source of satisfaction; the Phallic
stage (3 to 6 years) when children derive pleasure from their genitals; the Latent
stage (6 years to puberty) when sexual urges are dormant; and the Genital stage
(puberty onwards) when the focus is on sexual pleasure involving other people.
How a child passes through each of these stages will help determine what kind of
personality he has. If a child experiences a trauma at one of these stages, then their
behaviour at that stage can become fixated, and this behaviour can become a
permanent feature of their personality.
For example, a child who becomes fixated at the oral stage may become self-centred,
greedy, dependent on others, or cynical as an adult. A child fixated at the anal stage
may become obsessive, compulsive, stubborn and unwilling to share as an adult. A
child fixated at the phallic stage may become ultra-ambitious, over-confident and
impulsive as an adult. In other words, if we do not receive an appropriate amount of
gratification - receiving either too little or too much during a psychosexual stage - we
may become fixated in a particular stage. That is, we continue to have the same
demand for gratification that we had at that stage throughout the rest of our lives.
When an adult is under stress, he may show regression, with his behaviour becoming
more and more like his behaviour when he was fixated as a child. For example, a
person with an oral personality may regress to sucking his thumb, smoking heavily, or
comfort-eating when stressed, anxious or depressed.
Incidentally, Freud believed that the Latent stage (from 6 to puberty) is given over to
the development of defence mechanisms such as repression, regression, denial,
identification and rationalisation. These defence mechanisms help us protect our sense
of self as represented by the ego.
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THE COGNITIVE APPROACH
ASSUMPTIONS – an examination essential
Outline the main assumptions of the cognitive approach.
By cognition we mean mental processes such as thinking, remembering, imagining,
information-processing, and language. The cognitive approach assumes that how we
perceive our self, the world and the future influences how we feel and how we
behave. In other word, cognitive psychology focuses on how information received
from our senses is processed by the brain and how this processing directs how we
behave.
Cognitive research is often focused on how our brains process information, and the
research tends to take place in the laboratory rather than in real-life settings although
useful research has been done on eye-witness testimony and on dyslexia. Research
also tends to focus on specific rather than a general problem, e.g. on depth perception,
but it is assumed the findings will have wider applications.
Cognitive psychology has been influenced by developments in computer science and
comparisons are often made between how a computer processes information and how
the human brain processes information. However, we should keep in mind that the
human brain is far more sophisticated than a computer, and that we are also
influenced by past experiences and by our cultural experiences.
The cognitive approach also assumes that disordered thinking can cause disordered or
abnormal behaviour. Disordered thinking includes negative thoughts, irrational
beliefs, and illogical errors. These disordered thoughts usually happen automatically
and without the individual being fully aware of them. For example, disordered
thinking may be at the root of disorders such as depression and anxiety.
The cognitive approach assumes that cognitive disorders have been learned, and,
therefore, they can be unlearned. In this way it is similar to the behavioural approach.
These thoughts can be monitored, evaluated and altered. Individuals can learn to
challenge their faulty cognitions and self-defeating thoughts. So the approach assumes
cognitive change will lead to changes in behaviour.
According to Albert Ellis, when we think rationally, we behave rationally, and as a
consequence we are happy, competent and effective. On the other hand, prolonged
irrational thinking can lead to psychological problems and abnormal behaviour.
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THE COGNITIVE APPROACH
STRENGTHS & WEAKNESSES
An examination essential
Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the cognitive approach.
A major strength of the cognitive approach is that it concentrates on current
information-processing by the brain. It does not depend on the past history of the
client, for example, recovering repressed memories from the unconscious. This is an
advantage because details about a person’s past are often unclear, irrelevant,
misleading and misremembered. However, it does seem obvious that a person’s
medical history should be taken into consideration as there may be biological
explanations, e.g. excess dopamine, for their behaviour.
Many psychologists would see this narrow focus as a weakness. They might object
that you may well change the client’s surface thoughts but you won’t be addressing
the underlying cause of the abnormality. There may also be medical, environmental
and cultural influences affecting a person’s behaviour. Focussing only on a person’s
cognition may be too narrow an approach.
Cognitive psychology has been influenced by developments in computer science and
analogies are often made between how a computer processes information and how the
human brain processes information. However, we should keep in mind that the human
brain is far more sophisticated than a computer, and that we are also influenced by
past experiences and by our cultural experiences. Most cognitive research takes place
under laboratory conditions and focuses on specific rather than general problems; this
may make the research findings limited in their application in real-life settings.
Despite these weaknesses, the cognitive approach has proved useful in researching,
describing and understanding human behaviour. Loftus and Palmer's (1974) study of
eyewitness testimony reveals how memory can be distorted by post-event
information, i.e. information supplied after an event. This research demonstrated that
memory is not merely a tape recording of events but is a dynamic process that can be
influenced by information such as leading questions. These findings have had a
powerful influence in the ‘real world’.
Finally, cognitive therapies, especially when used together with behavioural therapy,
have a good success rate in helping clients. It is a popular and much-used approach. It
also empowers the individual to take responsibility for his own thinking processes by
monitoring, evaluating and altering self-defeating thought processes.
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THE COGNITIVE APPROACH
RATIONAL EMOTIVE THERAPY
An examination essential
Describe how the cognitive approach has been applied in one form of
therapy in psychology.
Rational Emotive Therapy (RET) was developed by Albert Ellis (1955) who renamed
it Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT). Like other cognitive psychologists,
Ellis believed that changing the ways in which we think will help change our feelings,
attitudes and behaviour. Ellis recognised that past events do influence people’s
behaviour but felt it was more effective to focus on their current thinking patterns.
According to Ellis, when we think rationally, we behave rationally, and as a
consequence, we are happy, competent and effective. However, people with
psychological problems indoctrinate themselves with a series of assumptions, which
ultimately lead them to develop irrational thoughts. Irrational thoughts lead to
irrational behaviour.
Some people hold irrational beliefs, such as “Everybody in the world hates me.” Some
indulge in ‘mustabation’ thinking they ‘must’ do something or else they will be a
failure, e.g. “I must get As in every exam.” Some make huge over-generalisations
(called ‘awfulizing) – ‘I didn’t pass my driving test, so I must be stupid.”
Some people will endlessly ‘damn’ themselves, seeing themselves as no good in
every situation. REBT encourages clients to develop an unconditional acceptance of
themselves, and recognise that everybody makes mistakes sometimes.
It is the task of cognitive therapists to challenge directly the negative assumptions
people make through their thinking. Clients are encouraged to monitor and challenge
their negative, automatic thoughts, and to accept more rational explanations of their
own experience and behaviour. The therapy also encourages clients to eases their
beliefs and goals, and to consider ways in which realistic goals can be achieved.
Because therapists using REBT are attempting to change thinking patterns, they tend
to be more argumentative and confrontational with their clients than in other forms of
therapy, such as psychoanalysis.
REBT seems to be most effective in treating excessive anger, depression and antisocial behaviour. REBT also reduces generalised anxiety and examination anxiety.
However, it is not useful with clients suffering from severe thought disorders. It has
also proved effective in helping healthy people cope with the stresses of everyday
living.
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THE COGNITIVE APPROACH
COGNITIVE BEHAVIOURAL THERAPY
An examination essential
Describe how the cognitive approach has been applied in one form of
therapy in psychology, e.g. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy.
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy is based on the idea that our thoughts influence our
feelings and our feelings in turn influence our behaviour. In other words, how we
think about a situation, influences how we feel about a situation, and this affects how
we behave and react in any given situation. CBT assumes that it not external things
such as people, situations and events that control our behaviour, but how we think,
and then how we feel about them.
CBT encourages clients to monitor and challenge their negative thoughts, irrational
assumptions and disordered thinking about a situation, and then to change their
behaviour in response to this fresh, rational thinking. CBT also teaches the client
coping skills and new ways of reacting to situations rather than meeting them with the
same old negative thought patterns. According to Albert Ellis (REBT), when we think
rationally, we behave rationally, and as a consequence, we are happy, competent and
effective.
CBT is a joint-enterprise between therapist and client. The therapist seeks to discover
what the client wants out of life, the client’s goals, and then tries to help the client
achieve these goals, often by clarifying the behaviour required, the options available,
and the possible routes to achieving these goals. The client’s role is to be frank about
his worries and concerns, to reflect on what he is learning during therapy, and to put
these lessons into action. One of the main skills the client must learn during CBT is
self-counselling; therefore, CBT therapists focus on rational self-counselling skills.
These are aimed at encouraging the client to take responsibility for his own life, now
and in the future. Relaxation techniques may also be taught.
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy is briefer than many other forms of therapy, for
example psychotherapy that can take years. In fact, the average number of sessions a
client will receive is 16 sessions. CBT is often time-limited; at the start of the therapy,
client and therapist agree when the formal therapy will end. This is possible because
the CBT therapist offers ‘instruction’ to the client, and also sets regular ‘homework’
assignments that must be completed on time. For example, the therapist will set
reading assignments and encourage his clients to practise the skills and techniques
studied during the therapy sessions.
CBT can be used alone or in conjunction with medication. CBT has proved effective
with many conditions, including depressive disorders, panic disorders, agoraphobia,
generalised anxiety disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, bulimia, and chronic
fatigue.
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THE COGNITIVE APPROACH
ATTRIBUTION THEORY
An examination essential
Describe how the cognitive approach has been applied to one theory in
psychology.
Attribution theory suggests that when we see a person behaving in a way we do not
understand, we try to work out in our minds why he is behaving that way. In other
words, we try to attribute reasons for his behaviour. We then go on and try to predict
the consequences of his behaviour, i.e. what is going to happen next.
According to Kelley (1967, 1973), when we are making these attributions, we follow
a set of rules. Firstly, we try to decide whether the individual is responsible for his
own actions, secondly, whether someone else is responsible and thirdly, whether the
situation itself is the cause of the person’s behaviour. No matter what the cause,
Kelley believes that we will try to work out what is happening, and in order to this,
we need more information.
Kelley (1973) distinguished between dispositional attribution (that’s the kind of
person who would behave that way), and situational attribution (he did it because of
the situation he was in). For example, we would not expect a kind person to behave in
a cruel way because we know they have a kind disposition. So we would try to
explain their behaviour in terms of the situation they were in. Kelley proposed that
when we have sufficient information, we can detect the co-variation of the person’s
behaviour and its possible causes. We can then work out the causes of the behaviour
and its consequences.
Kelley (1973) recognised that we sometimes we apply the discounting rule.
According to this rule, if there is strong evidence that the situation is responsible for
someone’s behaviour, then we will tend to ignore evidence pointing towards a
dispositional attribution.
Kelley’s theory has been criticized because we sometimes make attributions about the
behaviour of other people very rapidly, e.g. on ‘gut instinct’ and ignore the covariation information. Our attributions may also be influenced by our attitude
towards the individual; for example, we will give a friend the benefit of the doubt and
say the situation was to blame, not him, even if the evidence points to the contrary.
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COMPARE and CONTRAST
In PSY1 you are asked to compare and contrast two of the four approaches
you have studied in terms of their similarities and differences. It may help to
categorise each approach under these headings.
Does the approach suggest that …




behaviour is learned or not learned?
behaviour is predetermined or not predetermined?
behaviour focuses on the past or the present?
it can be regarded as scientific or unscientific?
This table can help remind you, but you need a thorough understanding to
give a developed response in the examination.
Psychodynamic
Psychodynamic
Psychodynamic
Psychodynamic
not learned
predetermined
focus on the past
unscientific
caused by forces in the unconscious
individuals no control over their behaviour
focus on early childhood
no way of observing, measuring, or
manipulating
Behaviourist
Behaviourist
Behaviourist
Behaviourist
learned
predetermined
focus on the present
scientific
conditioning, classical and operant
behaviour already decided by conditioning
only current/present behaviour matters
behaviour can be observed, measured, and
manipulated
Biological
Biological
Biological
Biological
not learned
predetermined
focus on the present
scientific
biological causes, e.g. chemical imbalance
medical condition controls behaviour
current symptoms and medical condition
behaviour can be observed, measured and
manipulated by therapies and treatments
Cognitive
Cognitive
Cognitive
Cognitive
learned
not predetermined
focus on the present
scientific
learned as we process information
we always have power to change cognition
changing cognition now changes behaviour
considers the brain similar to a computer
where information can be manipulated
Remember this table is only a reminder of the similarities and differences
between the approaches. Make sure you can explain each of them clearly
and in sufficient detail. Examples are always useful.
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