CACAO PRODUCTION IN CENTRAL AMERICA AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Cacao, more commonly known in the United States as cocoa or chocolate, has
come to enjoy widespread distribution and use. Hot chocolate, candy bars, and cocoa
for baking are a few of its uses. But the growing of cocoa plants does not come without
an environmental cost. There are issues that revolve around the growing of cacao in
farms and the damage caused to the rainforests by these farms. Some farms are grown
in full sun fields where the entire rainforest canopy is cut down and destroyed. Other
farms clear out land under the forest canopy, leaving the natural ecosystem mostly
intact, and plant other trees for shade. This type of farm is known as a "rustic shade"
farm, which involves planting cocoa plants with minimal clearing of the land that leaves
the forest canopy intact.
EXAMPLE OF CACAO TREE GROWING IN CLEARED LAND
Full sun production occurs in areas that have been cleared that used to be
rainforest. It appears to cause a loss of the natural balance of the ecosystem since the
natural biodiversity of the rainforest has been destroyed. An example of a problem that
has occurred is the Monilia pod rot invasion that was experienced in the Talamanca
Region of Costa Rica. Monilia is a fungus of the yeast family that appears to exist only
in the Americas, and its infestation occurs in areas where the rainforest canopy has
been completely destroyed. Cocoa production in Costa Rica virtually became nonexistent because of this fungus invasion. There is a cocoa pod borer that eats cocoa
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pods, and plants in direct sunlight become the victim of vascular streak dieback. Below
is a map of the Talamanca region.
Full sun production also damages the soil, resulting in a loss of topsoil and soil
fertility. As forests are thinned or even cut down, a loss of species diversity occurs,
particularly among ephyphytes. The destruction of ephyphytes causes further damage
because the habitat for growth is gone.
This bibliography will explore the different types of cocoa production that occur in
Central America. It will also look at the different agricultural problems. My research
question is “Can cacao production can be a sustainable commercial agriculture system
in the rainforests of Central America without causing the destruction of rainforest habitat
and its associated diverse species of plants, animals, insects, bird, etc?
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Map Showing Regions of Cacao Farms (Cacao Fun website)
Rice, Robert A. and Greenberg, Russell (May 2000). Cacao Cultivation and the
Conservation of Biological Diversity. Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2000,
Ambio, Vol. 29 No. 3, May 2000
Robert Rice, who is a geographer and policy researcher for the Smithsonian
Migratory Bird Center in Washington, D.C. and Russell Greenberg, who is the director of
the same organization, have assembled data from 67 different sources to address the
problem of maintaining biological diversity during cacao production. He discusses the
pros and cons of agroforestry versus farms that produce cacao with little shade or full
sun. Agroforestry is a practice whereby cacao is grown under the canopy of the
rainforest. Although some of the rainforest flora and fauna is removed, enough exists
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for there to not be a complete destruction of the rainforest. As a contrast, little or full sun
production clears out the rainforest completely and cacao is planted in a field that has
been tilled for growing plants.
Rice et al. indicate that biodiversity is preserved when agroforestry, or rustic
farming, is practiced, which is an advantage to the rainforest and also to the growth of
cacao. With agroforestry, natural predators and resistance to invasive entities, such as
yeasts, are controlled because the natural environment still exists to fight undesirable
entities, such as the deadly yeast Monilia. The article also acknowledges that rustic
farming does not completely preserve the rainforest and cites as examples missing
lizards in Costa Rican rustic plantations and less numbers of larger terrestrial mammals
and primates in Brazil (Rice et al., p. 168).
Rice et al. also discuss the value of rustic plantations in helping to prevent soil
erosion. Also, because the trees are preserved, leafs fall, break down, and are
absorbed into the soil, allowing for natural fertilization to take place. Shade reduces
dependence on chemicals (Rice et al. p. 172). A hypothesis called the “enemies
hypothesis” (Rice p. 172) has been formed that says that “organisms are less likely to
reach pest or epidemic proportions in the presence of more complex predator
assemblages (Rice p. 172).” This interesting hypothesis needs further investigation.
This article is relevant to the issue at hand because it focuses on the advantages
of rustic plantations and points out the disadvantages of full sun production. Not only is
it devastating to the rainforests, but topsoil is lost and funghi and other pests can destroy
the plantations, which ultimately leads to the destruction of the plantation. No
sustainability of farms is achieved without the development and maintenance of rustic
plantations.
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Slingerland, Maja and Gonzalez, Enrique Diaz. Organic Cacao Chain for Development:
The case of the Talamanca Small-Farmers Association. 2006 Springer. Printed
in the Netherlands, pp. 165-177.
The authors of this article focus on the organic production of cacao in the
Talamanca region and the efforts involved to ensure continuing purchasers for the
organic cacao. The price of non-organic cacao has risen a great deal which has
tempted Costa Rican farmers to change their crops to non-organic cacao since they can
still realize a great return. In addition, due to the high price of cacao, buyers of organic
cacao have fallen. Other regions of the world, including Vietnam and Africa, have
begun growing organic cacao, so the world supply has increased, which means the
price drops. The Talamanca Small-Farmers Association (APPTA) has been working to
keep organic cacao development in the Costa Rican Talamanca region.
Cacao production reached its peak in Costa Rica in the 1920s (Slingerland et al.
p. 166). In the late 1970s, Monilia attacked the Costa Rican cacao production and it
dropped to zero. In the 1990s, APPTA invested in the region and promoted the revival
of organic cacao plantations. They focused the plantations on organic and sustainable
growth. Organic cacao production in Costa Rica was combined with Panama so that the
growers could meet buyers’ needs. The organic cacao production has been extremely
beneficial to the Talamanca farmers because the Talamanca is one of the poorest
regions in Costa Rica. Organic cacao and organic banana production was combined to
ensure the farmers year-round crops. The main problem with the organic production is
that yields are low (150 kg per ha) (Slingerland et al. p. 172). However, it is important to
continue to grow organic and sustainable crops in the Talamanca on rustic plantations
and not allow clear cutting of forested areas to obtain more profit. “More than 90% of
Costa Rican floral diversity is found in Talamanca, and so are 1000 of the 1300 fern
species found in the whole country (Slingerland et al. p. 172).” Clearly, protection of the
diversity of this area is important.
This article is important to the issue of protection of the diversity of the rainforests
because it points out the efforts being made by APPTA to support organic, sustainable,
rustic plantation growth of cacao. Without these efforts, farmers might turn to old ways
of destroying the forests and planting full sun, non-organic cacao to maximize profit
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which will, in turn, lead to destruction of the tropical biosphere and ultimately lead to
problems similar to the Monilia invasion that developed in the 1970s.
Greenberg, Russell. Biodiversity in the Cacao Agroecosystem: Shade Management
and Landscape Considerations, last updated November 29, 2006
The author of this article focuses on the value of rustic plantations that focus on
shade produced cacao, which then allows for the ability to grow cacao under the forest
canopy. Although some of the forest is cleared and is no longer virgin forest, more
indigenous life is preserved. He cites the discovery of the Pink-legged Graveteiro, a
new species and genus of bird and the Golden-headed Lion Tamarin, as examples of
the biodiversity that is supported by rustic, full shade plantations. Although the forest is
“degraded,” it sill exists.
The author also looks at species richness to look at the value of the rustic
plantations. Although the number of specimens of a species may be decreased, greater
diversity of species still exists in rustic plantation farming. Protection of microhabitats is
also important. An example of a microhabitat he cites as being maintained with a rustic
plantation is an “aerial leaf litter” which is a microhabitat on the leaves of canopy trees
that is the only place certain arthropods can be found.
The author recommends the following: (1) maintain diverse species; (2) leave
buffer zones along streams and property boundaries; (3) leave epiphytes, lianas and
parasitic plants in place; (4) keep dead wood; (5) retain some weeds; (6) encourage
shade grown cacao; and (6) try to grow cacao plants in regions without protected
forests (Greenberg p. 10). Taking these steps can protect the rainforest as much as
possible, while allowing for reasonable commercial crops.
This article is important to the issue because it outlines concrete ways to allow for
cacao plantations to be successful in a sustainable way. Although it does not focus on
organic cacao, the intent of the article is to allow for cacao production and protection of
rainforest biodiversity as much as possible. He also raises an interesting point by
saying that cacao plantations should be developed where the forest areas have been
the most modified, which will thus mean less impact.
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Newmark, Tammy. Carbon Sequestration and Cocoa Production: Financing
Sustainable Development by Trading Carbon Emission Credits,
http://nationalzoo.si.edu/ConservationAndScience/MigratoryBirds/Research/Cac
ao/newmark.cfm, last updated November 29, 2006
The author of this article supports the idea of using carbon emission credits to
support the efforts of low-income farmers who engage in sustainable, shade plantation
growth of cacao. Since forests “store carbon at a rate 20 to 100 times more per hectare
than pastures and croplands (Newmark p. 1), the more trees left in place, the more
valuable the land becomes in terms of carbon emission credits. Carbon emission
credits allow for companies or countries that have high greenhouse gas emissions to
pay entities that do not have high greenhouse gas emissions for their “carbon credits,”
thus allowing the companies or countries to continue in their current business practices,
but at the cost of providing income to others. The carbon credits are capped so they
don’t increase.
Rustic cacao plantations are encouraged by the carbon emission credits system.
The more a farmer preserves the natural trees, the more valuable their land is in terms
of carbon credits. This article is relevant to the commercial viability of cacao production
because it provides a vehicle for income to be realized by the cacao farmers while
preserving the biological diversity of the rainforests. In fact, is also encourages the
replanting of trees.
Parrish, Jeffrey. Cacao as Crop and Conservation tool,
http://nationalzoo.si.edu/ConservationAndScience/MigratoryBirds/Research/Cac
ao/parrish.cfm, November 12, 2006
This author points out the value of cacao plantations, when they are of the rustic
variety and include shade-grown crops, in the preservation of rainforests. The
plantations, although they do thin out some of the flora and fauna of the forest floor,
function as a buffer zone between the rainforest and the encroaching cleared land. At
the plantation border, the clear-cutting of land decreases, and the cacao plantation
allows for the gradual transition from clear-cut land to the full rainforest and thus
protects rainforest species from the damages caused by clear cutting, or slash and burn
farming.
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The author points out the value of the Talamanca region. It has a large number
of “threatened animals and plants, including 59 mammal species, 43 amphibians, 51
reptiles, and over 350 birds (Parrish p. 4).” The last indigenous cultures of the country
live here, representing 1% of the Costa Rican population. Some of these people are
known as the Kekoldi. These people engage in the growing of longstanding traditional
crops such as corn rice, beans, cacao, and also engage in wild craft harvesting from the
forest. Their growing of crops is steeped in long-standing tradition, and they are highly
resistant to change. Cacao plantations, one of these crops, provide these people with a
source of income. Efforts to protect these people and the diversity of the species has
been undertaken by the APPTA.
Picture of Native Woman demonstrating
importance of cacao to indigenous people
Another novel concept the author introduces, in addition to carbon credits, is
payment for ecosystem services. The principle behind this payment is that forests have
a measurable value to others. These values could include medicines, food, water, and
air purity, to name a few. By engaging in shade-grown cacao production, farmers are
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helping preserve natural resources that have a measurable value that has not yet been
determined or completely acknowledged.
This article points out the importance of cacao crops because they are a
traditional crop grown by indigenous people, and the growth of cacao allows for income
into the area. It also points out that not all the value of cacao plantations is realized just
by the exchange of money in a commercial transaction. Rather, the value of the
plantations extends to the protection of sustaining a way of life that has been existence
for a long period of time.
CONCLUSION
Rustic cacao farms seem best because they provide habitat for biodiversity to
thrive and are less intensively managed. Conditions in these rustic plantations are more
similar to the conditions of natural forests so many species continue to thrive. Because
these species survive, disease and pests are neutralized because they are controlled by
natural predators, e.g., ants. In addition, the need to use fungicides and pesticides
decreases, resulting in a more “organic” farm and less costs to produce the cacao.
I believe that a combination of creative measures needs to be undertaken in
order to support commercial cacao production in Central America, particularly in the
Talamanca region of Costa Rica, and make it a viable financial effort. Farmers should
be rewarded by higher prices for growing organic, sustainable cacao. Additional funds
should be provided for shade grown crops, including carbon credits and financial
incentives for the protection of rainforests that occurs when rustic cacao plantations are
utilized. An additional concept discussed in a website I found
(http://blastmagazine.com/2008/02/earthtalk-chocolate-land-trusts/) spoke of the value
of government or entities purchasing land and then turning it into a protected area.
Individuals will still farm the land, but will do so in a manner that preserves the
biodiversity of the rainforest environment. Restrictions could include no logging, no
clearing of land, etc.
Cacao grows best in equatorial regions; thus, cacao plantations are in direct
conflict with rainforests. But I believe that by providing several financial incentives to
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shade-grown producers, such as those set forth above, farmers in the region can realize
a reasonable income and at the same time protect some of nature’s most invaluable
resources. I, for one, would like to continue to enjoy my chocolate but know that it is
being farmed and processed without destroying rainforests and under conditions that
provide farmers who act in an environmentally reasonable way with an income that
allows them to enjoy their lives.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Chok, Deem. Cocoa Development & Its Environmental Dilemma, last updated
November 29, 2006
Greenberg, Russell. Biodiversity in the Cacao Agroecosystem: Shade Management
and Landscape Considerations, last updated November 29, 2006
http://www.sweetriot.com/cacaofun/cacao_map.php, 03/17/2008
Newmark, Tammy. Carbon Sequestration and Cocoa Production: Financing
Sustainable Development by Trading Carbon Emission Credits,
http://nationalzoo.si.edu/ConservationAndScience/MigratoryBirds/Research/Cac
ao/newmark.cfm, last updated November 29, 2006
Parrish, Jeffrey. Cacao as Crop and Conservation tool,
http://nationalzoo.si.edu/ConservationAndScience/MigratoryBirds/Research/Cac
ao/parrish.cfm, November 12, 2006
Rice, Robert A. and Greenberg, Russell (May 2000). Cacao Cultivation and the
Conservation of Biological Diversity. Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2000,
Ambio, Vol. 29 No. 3, May 2000
Slingerland, Maja and Gonzalez, Enrique Diaz. Organic Cacao Chain for Development:
The case of the Talamanca Small-Farmers Association. 2006 Springer. Printed
in the Netherlands, pp. 165-177.
Vlaun, Scott. Much with Little: A Central American Journey with Sustainable Harvest
International By Scott Vlaun, February 19, 2004
http://www.oardc.ohio-state.edu/cocoa/monilia.htm
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