COUNSELING INTERVENTIONS
USING EXPRESSIVE ARTS
by Debbie W. Newsome
Editor’s Introduction: As an extension of responsive
services such as individual and group counseling,
expressive arts are relatively new additions to the
professional school counselor’s arsenal. While these
techniques and strategies work well under normal
circumstances, expressive arts also allow counselors to
reach resistant, creative, and sensitive students, allowing
them to use the many gifts each possesses. In many ways, a
chapter on counseling using expressive arts appropriately
suits the transformed professional school counselor who
challenges students to use their creativity and talents to
overcome adversity.
Counseling young people effectively often requires a
departure from traditional talk therapy (Sommers-Flanagan &
Sommers-Flanagan, 1997). When working with children and
adolescents, it is important for professional school
counselors to be familiar with a wide range of
interventions. Selecting which intervention to use is based
on the counselor’s theoretical orientation, the student’s
developmental level, and the particular issue that is being
addressed. The use of expressive arts with students
provides counselors with a repertoire of interventions that
are compatible with many theoretical approaches and can be
adapted to different developmental levels.
There are several advantages associated with using the arts
in counseling. Expressive arts are enriching, stimulating,
pragmatic, and therapeutic (Gladding, 1998). Creative
interventions get people “doing” rather than thinking, and
thus can be more activating than verbal counseling (France
& Allen, 1997). By their very nature, expressive arts
foster different ways of experiencing the world. They can
benefit students who are “stuck” by helping them view
things from different perspectives, with a variety of
possible responses. Through the use of expressive
approaches, counseling is enhanced as the emotional,
perceptual, and creative world of the client is engaged.
The use of creative interventions in counseling provides a
way to symbolize feelings in a unique, tangible, and
powerful way (Nichols & Schwartz, 1998). Artistic
expression acts as a metaphor for conflicts, emotions, and
troubling situations (Ulik & Cummings, 1997). Providing
students with creative outlets allows them to communicate
emotions and concerns that cannot be assessed through
rational, linear language.
Another benefit associated with the use of expressive arts
is that they help young people picture themselves or their
situations in a concrete, objectified manner. Art can serve
as a bridge between the student and the counselor,
especially when the subject matter is too embarrassing or
difficult to talk about, such as family violence or abuse
(Brooke, 1995; Liebmann, 1990; Trowbridge, 1995).
Expressing thoughts creatively is “one way to externalize a
distressing event and to prepare for healing and recovery”
(Howe, Burgess, & McCormack, 1987, p. 35).
Many different creative interventions can be used in
individual and group counseling, including visual art,
music, imagery, dance and movement, drama and puppetry,
therapeutic writing, storytelling, and bibliotherapy.
Counseling techniques using these expressive forms have
been described elsewhere by several authors (see Gladding,
1998; Hobday & Ollier, 1999; Kaduson & Schaefer, 1997; Muro
& Kottman, 1995; Vernon, 1999b). In this chapter, the focus
is on examples of activities associated with three creative
categories: visual arts, music, and creative writing and
storytelling. The examples selected to represent each
category describe only a few of the numerous ways creative
interventions can be used by professional school counselors
to enhance the counseling process. Some of the activities
are familiar and have been documented in other texts. Other
activities have evolved through ongoing work with young
people in school and community settings. Most of the
interventions can be adapted according to students’
developmental levels. Whereas some are more appropriate for
individual counseling and others for group experiences,
many can be used in both situations, depending on the issue
being addressed.
INTERVENTIONS USING VISUAL ARTS
Drawing, sketching, painting, sculpting, and photography
are all examples of visual art interventions. Using visual
art in counseling helps students gain a better
understanding of themselves and how they function in
families and in society. As children draw, paint, and
sculpt, they communicate thoughts and feelings in ways that
the counselor can hear and understand (Orton, 1997).
A wide variety of art supplies helps provide students with
choices in the manner in which they choose to express
themselves. Children up to about 11 or 12 years of age
typically enjoy using colored paper, colored pencils, and
thin or thick colored markers, whereas older children may
prefer using pens, pencils, and white paper (Hobday &
Ollier, 1999). Students of all ages tend to enjoy drawing
on dry-erase boards. Other supplies that facilitate
artistic expression include watercolor paints and brushes,
tempera paints, fingerpaints, glue, scissors, and modeling
clay or Play- Doh (Furrer, 1982; Muro & Kottman, 1995).
Introductory Activities for Building Rapport
About Me The purpose of this activity is to help build a
therapeutic relationship and give students an opportunity
to describe themselves using artistic media. It can be used
effectively with students of all ages and is particularly
useful in initial counseling sessions, either with
individuals or groups.
To begin the activity, students are invited to decoratively
write their names in the center of a piece of poster board
or construction paper. The counselor then asks the students
to draw or select magazine pictures that describe different
aspects of themselves, including strengths, interests,
relationships, or other characteristics they want to reveal
at that point. For students who seem stuck, or unsure about
what to draw, it may be helpful to provide prompting
questions. Examples include:
•
What do you like to do in your free time?
•
What are you good at?
•
Where do you like to go on weekends or holidays?
•
Who is your best friend?
•
What pets do you have?
•
What is your favorite food, subject, color, and so on?
After the collages are completed, the counselor encourages
students to talk about their picture selections.
Descriptions serve as a springboard for further discussion,
helping the counselor develop an understanding of each
student’s world.
Adolescents may enjoy using photography to complete a
variation of this activity. Students take photographs that
represent who they are, then arrange the pictures to form a
life collage. When the counselor processes the experience
with students afterward, it is helpful to look for
patterns, themes, and omissions.
Decorating My Bag This activity can be used with students
of all ages and, like the previously described activity, is
particularly helpful in the beginning stage of group
counseling. The exercise of decorating and displaying bags
requires group members to cut out pictures representing
themselves from magazines or newspapers. They then paste or
tape these pictures, along with other representative
symbols, on the outside of their bags. Also, as part of the
exercise, they put loose pictures and symbols that they are
not yet ready to share inside the bags.
After completing the activity, students introduce
themselves to one another by describing themselves in
relation to the pictures and symbols on the outside of the
bags. During subsequent sessions, as trust is developed,
students are given opportunities to share materials on the
inside of the bags, providing a way to help group members
make covert parts of their lives more overt as time and
desire allow (Gladding, 1997).
As a variation, the exercise can be introduced during the
termination phase of group counseling. On the outside of
their bags, students paste pictures representing positive
changes they have made as a result of group work. On the
inside of the bags, they place pictures describing areas in
which they are continuing to grow and develop. Rather than
selecting pictures from magazines, the students may choose
to draw symbols representing issues and changes. As with
any group activity, the counselor is responsible for
sensitively processing the experience with the group
members. Through processing, students are provided
opportunities to articulate personal changes they have made
and affirm changes made by others.
Dealing with Feelings
Lines of Feeling This exercise, which can be used in
individual or group counseling with students of all ages,
is based on the premise that everyone has emotional lines
in their lives (Gladding, 1997). At times, students cannot
find words to express their emotions, although they may
have a strong sense of what those feelings are. To help
with awareness and expression, the counselor asks students
to draw lines representing their emotions using various art
media (e.g., markers, colored pencils, paints, crayons).
The counselor explains that both the shape and the color of
the lines should match the emotions being depicted. For
example, jagged, rough lines in red or orange might signify
anger or discontent, whereas smooth, flowing, pastelcolored lines might represent peacefulness (Gladding, 1997,
1998).
Depending upon the stage of counseling and the particular
issues presented, the approach counselors take with this
activity can vary. One approach is to ask students to draw
lines representing their feelings at the present moment.
They then are asked to explain the lines and to draw what
they hope the lines will become in the future. As an
alternative, counselors ask students to reflect upon
specific past, present, and future events that relate to
the issues with which they are struggling. Using lines,
students draw feelings associated with the events, thereby
providing an avenue for exploring thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors.
Feel Wheel Professional elementary school counselors
frequently use games, books, and drawing activities to help
children recognize, express, and talk about their feelings.
A simple visual art activity that facilitates the
discussion of feelings involves asking children to draw
faces reflecting different emotions (e.g., glad, sad,
worried, mad) and then to talk about times they experienced
those feelings. Instead of drawing the faces, the students
may prefer to mold them out of clay. Another option is to
use a dry-erase board and play a guessing game with the
students, leading to further discussion of feelings,
thoughts, and behaviors.
An expanded version of drawing feelings, called the Feel
Wheel, is described by Hobday and Ollier (1999). Children
draw a circle on a paper plate or a piece of paper and
divide it into eight pie sections. Each section is labeled
with a different emotion, with pictures drawn to accompany
each one. The counselor then describes different situations
involving either the child or a fictional character and
asks the child to determine how the character would feel.
Alternatively, the counselor can ask children to describe
or draw times they or other people have experienced those
particular emotions.
The Volcano Many young people who participate in
counseling in schools struggle with anger issues. The
Volcano (White, 1998), which is especially applicable at
the elementary and middle school levels, is an activity
designed to help students with anger management. It can be
introduced in individual or group counseling.
To begin the activity, the counselor asks students to share
what they know about why volcanoes erupt. (Eruptions are
the sudden escape of high-pressure volcanic gas from magma
inside the volcano.) Students are invited to draw a
volcano, and the counselor explains how explosive volcanic
eruptions are similar to the way people sometimes erupt
when they are angry. Students draw steam and lava coming
out of their volcanoes and write in words describing
harmful ways people sometimes “blow their tops” in anger
(e.g., hurting self or others, cursing, yelling). Next,
they are asked to think about stressful or troublesome
things in their lives that might contribute to a buildup of
pressure inside their volcanoes. To avoid “explosions,”
students are instructed to draw several vents leading from
the pressure sources to the outside of the volcanoes. The
drawing of the vents generates a discussion of healthy ways
people can vent or get rid of angry feelings. Examples
might include deep breathing, self-talk, counting to 10,
physical exercise, and listening to music. To conclude the
activity, the counselor asks students to choose one or two
vents they will use during the upcoming week to help them
avoid angry explosions (see Figure 10–1).
Past, Present, and Future
Road Map The road map and its numerous variations, such as
life maps or life lines, can be used to help young people
review significant periods in their lives and anticipate
the future. One goal of the activity is to help young
people explore patterns, expand self-expression, and plan
their lives more effectively (Gladding, 1998; Kahn, 1999;
Miller, 1993). Road or life maps also can serve as forms of
qualitative assessment that stimulate counseling
interaction (Goldman, 1990).
The road map provides an opportunity for counselors to help
students plan for the future as they reflect on where they
have been and think about where they are going. The manner
in which the activity is presented depends upon students’
ages, counseling goals, and interests. One way to introduce
the activity to middle or high school-aged students is to
say, “I want you to represent your life as a road map. Some
roads are straight and wide; others are narrow and winding.
Some are bumpy, and others are smooth. There may be some
road blocks or detours. It is possible that the road of
your life has been many of these.” These directions give
the student free reign to evaluate life events that have
been most influential and to visualize the past, present,
and future simultaneously. After the drawing is finished,
the counselor encourages the student to talk about the map
and the events depicted on it. What events were expected?
Which were unexpected? What people were associated with
these events? What feelings are remembered? These and other
questions encourage self-exploration while at the same time
providing the counselor with a picture of the student’s
contextual development.
For high school students facing decisions about the future,
the following variation of the road map can be helpful. The
counselor asks students to draw the current road they are
on. Next, they are asked to draw three paths branching off
the main road: the high road, the expected road, and the
low road. Along each path, they draw or paint symbols to
represent an ideal future, an anticipated future, and the
worst possible scenario. After the paths have been drawn,
adolescents are encouraged to explore possible action steps
that need to be accomplished to stay on the preferred path
(see Figure 10–2).
Problem Solving and Goal Setting
The Bridge For students dealing with problem situations,
visual representations of the situation and possible
solutions can be empowering (Gladding, 1997; Mills &
Crowley, 1986). The Bridge is an activity that promotes
such representations and can be adapted for students of
varying ages. It is appropriate for individual counseling
as well as the working stage of group counseling.
To begin the activity, students divide a piece of paper
into three panels or sections. On the first panel, they are
invited to draw a picture of a specific problem or concern.
Next, they are asked to think about what it would look like
if the problem were solved and to draw that on the third
panel. Between these two scenes, students draw symbols of
obstacles blocking their movement toward the “solution.”
Afterward the students are asked to draw a bridge over the
obstacles, providing a connection between the problem and
the problem solved. The counselor encourages the inclusion
of symbols or word phrases on the bridge that represent
varied solutions for circumventing the obstacles and living
life more effectively.
A variation of The Bridge can be especially helpful for
students experiencing particular crises, such as parental
divorce, illness, or death of a loved one. Students are
invited to draw a picture of themselves in the present and
a picture of how they would like things to look in the
future. The sequential drawings can serve as a springboard
for discussing coping skills, new patterns of behavior, and
emotional responses to the changes being experienced.
Three Wishes This activity, described by Denny (1977) and
Orton (1997), is especially appropriate for elementary
school children and can be used for assessment or goal
setting. It can be employed effectively in both individual
and group counseling. To begin the activity, the counselor
asks children to draw or paint pictures of three wishes.
Depending on the situation, the counselor may choose to ask
the child to think of wishes related to a particular
setting, such as school or home. After the drawings are
complete, the counselor talks with the child about the
strength of the wishes, whether they are attainable, and
what needs to be accomplished to make what is desired a
reality.
The techniques just described represent just a few of the
multiple ways professional school counselors can employ
visual art interventions in their work with children and
adolescents. It is important to consider each intervention
within the context of the counselor’s skill and the
students’ needs (Orton, 1997).
MUSIC INTERVENTIONS
Throughout history, music has played an important role in
nurturing and healing (Gladding, 1998; Price, Rexroad, &
Stephens, 1985). Noted for its therapeutic capabilities,
music can be used to capture attention, elicit memories,
soothe, communicate feelings, and create or intensify moods
(Bowman, 1987). For some individuals, the act of listening
to music can enhance self-awareness, reduce anxiety, and
provide a springboard for discussing feelings and
experiences. For others, performing or creating music can
energize, provide emotional release, and promote selfawareness and well-being (Gladding, 1998; McClellan, 1994).
As a counseling approach, the use of music can be
especially effective with children and adolescents
(Newcomb, 1994). Younger children seem to love music and
spontaneously sing, listen, or play music-like instruments.
Their natural affinity for music can be used to promote
fun, learning, good feelings, and bonding among children
from diverse backgrounds (Crabbs, Crabbs, & Wayman, 1986).
Adolescents, too, typically have an affinity for music,
although their interests may be expressed in ways that
differ from those of younger children. For many teenagers,
listening to CDs, playing in a band, and composing songs
are activities that promote self-expression as well as
enjoyment (Gladding, 1998).
Listening to Music
Lyrics Whereas sometimes the rhythm and melody attract
children and adolescents to particular songs, other times
it is the lyrics, or a combination of lyrics, rhythm, and
melody. Professional school counselors can use the lyrics
in music to promote individual and group counseling in
several different ways. For example, counselors might ask
older children or adolescents to bring in CDs or tapes
containing lyrics that reflect some of the issues with
which they are dealing. (Due to the explicit nature of some
lyrics, it might be necessary to set limits in advance
about types of music that may be brought to the counseling
session.) After listening to the portion of the song
selected by the student, the counselor facilitates
discussion about how the music was meaningful. What
thoughts, feelings, or memories did it evoke? The counselor
can help the student process his or her responses to the
music, providing an impetus for self-exploration and
growth.
An alternative to asking students to select one
representative song is to have them create a music collage
by recording short music segments that reflect their lives
in some way. The segments may be chosen because the student
likes the music or because of the meaningful lyrics. The
final result is a collage of musical pieces with an
identity and feeling of its own. Listening to the students’
tapes can reveal unique perspectives and promote further
exploration (Bowman, 1987).
During the adjourning stage of group counseling, music can
be particularly effective. When a group is nearing closure,
goals include helping students reflect on past experiences
in the group, evaluate what was learned, acknowledge
feelings, and articulate decisions for new ways of
behaving. Ideally, as a result of the group experience,
members know themselves and each other on a deeper level.
Song lyrics can help them express either what they have
experienced in the group or specific ways they have
changed. Students play the portions of the songs they have
selected and talk about their reasons for selecting them.
Afterward, the counselor helps process the activity by
pointing out common themes and encouraging members to share
their responses to songs brought in by other students.
At times it is helpful for the counselor to select music
for the session. The selection should be based on
counseling goals, taking into account the student’s
preferences and needs. For example, the song “Change Your
Mind,” by Sister Hazel (2000), describes the importance of
changing one’s thought processes when “you’re tired of
doing battle with yourself.” Playing the song and talking
about the lyrics is one way to enhance a cognitive-based
approach to counseling, which focuses on changing
maladaptive thinking patterns to improve emotional wellbeing.
Stress Reduction Students of all ages can benefit from
learning ways to relax when they feel anxious or uptight.
One way to teach relaxation is to ask young people to
select soothing music to bring to the counseling session.
Using guided imagery or progressive relaxation in
conjunction with the music can enhance the process of
helping students reduce stressful feelings (Bowman, 1987;
Russell, 1992).
Another approach to teaching relaxation is for the
counselor, rather than the student, to make the music
selection. There are advantages and disadvantages to using
counselor-selected music. Although certain compositions and
types of music (e.g., instrumental music with violin,
flute, or piano) have been associated with anxiety
reduction (Spintge & Droh, 1985), there is evidence that
the most important factor related to relaxation is the
person’s liking for the music (Stratton & Zalanowski,
1989). Well-chosen music in collaboration with the student
helps personalize the process, making positive results more
likely (Gladding, 1998).
Performing and Composing
Performing or creating music can energize, evoke emotional
release, and promote self-awareness and well-being. To
provide opportunities for creating music, counselors might
choose to include a variety of portable musical instruments
in their offices, such as drums, rain sticks, recorders,
and keyboards. Students can be invited to “play out” their
feelings, after which they talk about those feelings and
the events that precipitated them.
As a homework assignment, counselors can encourage
musically inclined students to compose music through which
they can represent themselves. At the next session, the
student either plays the composition or brings in a
recording of it. Afterward, the student and counselor talk
about the actual experience of composing as well as the
personal significance of the music (Gladding, 1998).
Composing does not have to involve recognizable
instruments. Instead, students can be asked to tap, snap,
click, bang, or hum to represent different emotions
(Gladding, 1998). Also, counselors can encourage younger
children to improvise and compose during group counseling
and guidance sessions. For example, students can be divided
into small groups of three or four. Each group is secretly
given a feeling word. Children then use sound makers of
various types to make up songs representing the assigned
feelings. Each group performs its composition while the
rest of the children try to guess what emotion is being
expressed (Bowman, 1987).
As with the use of visual art interventions, there are many
ways music can be used therapeutically by professional
school counselors, depending on the needs of the students.
The various ways music can be used to enhance the
counseling process are limited only by the creativity and
skill of the counselor.
THERAPEUTIC WRITING AND STORYTELLING
Therapeutic, or creative, writing and storytelling help
people express their identities, re-create events and
experiences, and communicate powerful emotion. Both forms
of imaginative expression can facilitate individual and
group counseling processes with children and adolescents.
Scriptotherapy
Scriptotherapy is a term coined by Riordan (1996) to denote
the many different forms of writing that are used in
counseling. Writing for preventive and therapeutic purposes
has a notable history. Since the 1940s, workers in the
helping professions have incorporated activities such as
journaling, autobiographical expression, and the writing of
stories and poems into their work with clients (L’Abate,
1999). Although much of the research on the effectiveness
of expressive writing interventions is anecdotal rather
than empirical, evidence of the therapeutic benefits of
expressive writing is substantial (Riordan, 1996; Wenz &
McWhirter, 1990).
Scriptotherapy can facilitate counseling processes that
emphasize catharsis, the acceptance of emotions, and the
objectification of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
Writing is an expressive act that offers a medium through
which emotions can be analyzed and integrated in a personal
way (Brand, 1987). Free forms of writing, such as poetry,
elicit the writer’s unique subjective perceptions and
encourage emotional self-searching. Conceivably, writing
brings about healing sooner and with equal or greater
intensity than counseling without writing (Riordan, 1996).
Written expression also provides concrete evidence of an
individual’s involvement in the counseling process.
Professional school counselors can incorporate therapeutic
writing interventions directly into their counseling
sessions or give students assignments to be completed
between sessions. As with the use of other expressive arts,
the types of activities implemented are limited only by the
counselor’s imagination and skill and the students’
preferences.
Writing interventions can be structured or unstructured.
Journaling is an example of an unstructured therapeutic
writing activity that is frequently prescribed as homework
(Gladding, 1998). Examples of more structured creative
writing activities include life-review exercises, letter
writing, therapeutic fairy tales, and specific group
exercises.
Journaling For some students, the process of writing on a
regular basis about life experiences and processes can be
therapeutic. Journal writing can take several forms,
including poetic reflections, daily logs, stream-ofconsciousness responses, and semistructured writing sprints
(Bradley & Gould, 1999). People often express a desire to
keep journals, but frequently end up not doing so
(Gladding, 1998). To help students who are interested in
journal writing, Adams (1994) offered several suggestions.
One suggestion is for students to prepare themselves in
advance for the writing process. Preparation may include
selecting an aesthetically appealing space or creating an
atmosphere for reflection by playing music or progressively
relaxing.
Another way counselors can encourage students to engage in
journal writing is by prescribing the “five-minute writing
sprint” (Adams, 1994; Gladding, 1998).To participate in the
five-minute writing sprint, the student sets a timer for
five minutes and then begins writing about anything he or
she wishes. During the five minutes, the writing instrument
must be continually in motion, even if that means doodling.
When the time is up, the student stops writing and then
reads and reflects upon what was written. At times, it may
be helpful to provide students with a list of possible
writing starters, such as “I wish,” “When I was angry,” “A
big decision,” or “The best/worst thing about today.” On
other occasions, a less structured approach may be
preferred. Gladding (1998) suggested that students write
one day and then reflect upon what was written the next day
to increase their motivation and mindfulness.
Life-review Exercises Whereas journal writing is often
used to help students reflect upon what is going on in
their lives in the present, life-review exercises help them
reflect upon past experiences and future possibilities.
Many forms of life-review can be used therapeutically by
professional school counselors. For example, Hobday and
Ollier (1999) described an activity called My Life So Far.
The activity may take several sessions and can include
illustrations as well as written descriptions of
significant events in students’ lives. Students are asked
to think about noteworthy events they have experienced and
remember the feelings associated with them. The review,
which is a type of autobiography, should include as much
information from as many different times in the student’s
life as possible, including early memories as well as the
more recent past (Gladding, 1998). Events are described on
separate pages and need not be recorded chronologically.
Hobday and Ollier stated, “It is less of an emotional load
for the child if you move from difficult times to good
times” (p. 149). At the end of the activity, counselors
help students assemble the pages chronologically into a
book or folder. When they review the book together,
counselors encourage students to look for themes, patterns,
and strengths.
Past, Present, Future is another activity school counselors
can use to help students review ways they have changed and
will continue to change (Hobday & Ollier, 1999). In this
exercise, the student is asked to divide a large piece of
paper into four columns. The first column is used to record
relevant aspects of the child’s life, including friends,
habits, getting angry, having fun, living arrangements, and
other pertinent categories. The next three columns are
given the respective headings of “Past,” “Present,” and
“Future.” In the second column, the student writes a brief
description summarizing the way a particular aspect was
manifested in the past. Next, he or she writes about the
way the aspect is evidenced now. The final column is used
to describe the child’s realistic hopes and wishes. During
the process, the counselor helps the child notice ways he
or she has changed.
One aim of Past, Present, Future is to help students notice
how their lives are improving, so it is important to select
several areas in which they have been successful. If
students are not experiencing success in particular areas,
help them envision positive possibilities for the future.
Hobday and Ollier (1999) cautioned that some aspects of
students’ lives, such as parental relationships, might
deteriorate during certain developmental stages. For
example, parental relationships may become somewhat
strained during adolescence. The counselor can help
normalize what the adolescent is experiencing, pointing
toward the possibility of working toward closer
relationships with parents as adulthood approaches.
Instead of focusing on a broad time span, the counselor may
choose to focus on specific difficult situations the
student has faced. For example, counselors can encourage
students to create illustrated texts about traumatic or
painful experiences. The Pain Getting Better Book is an
example of an intervention of this nature (Mills & Crowley,
1986). Students objectify painful experiences by drawing or
sketching representations of what happened. Next, they
write about what they experienced and how they currently
view the situation. To help students recognize their
personal strengths and resources, counselors encourage them
to write or talk about what helped them overcome or cope
with what was experienced.
Letter Writing An activity that has been referenced many
times in the literature and has a wide range of
applications is letter writing (Riordan, 1996). Letter
writing can take a variety of forms, including counselorclient correspondence, letters written to specific
individuals, and letters written to abstract concepts such
as anger, grief, or fear.
Counselors working with individuals or groups of students
who have experienced the loss of a loved one can use letter
writing to help children accept the loss, remember the one
who died, and articulate feelings surrounding the loss. The
child is invited to write a letter to the person who died,
describing what he or she misses most about the person and
what life is like without them. To illustrate this process,
Bradley & Gould (1999) provided a case study about a young
girl, Sarah, whose grandfather had died. She felt sad
because she missed him and had not been able to tell him
goodbye. To help with the grief process, the counselor
suggested that Sarah write her grandfather a letter,
expressing all the things she hadn’t gotten to say. After
Sarah wrote the letter, she read it to the counselor and
said, “It’s not as good as telling him in person, but I
think he could hear me” (p. 93). Over the course of the
next few weeks, Sarah wrote several more letters to her
grandfather and, through that process and other
interventions, began to come to terms with her
grandfather’s death.
Letter writing can be especially helpful for students who
are angry about particular issues. For example, an
adolescent might be encouraged to write a letter to a
parent with whom he is having trouble communicating. Or a
child might write a letter to an absent parent, expressing
her wish to see the parent more frequently. In cases of
abuse, the child can write a letter to the offender,
sharing feelings about the abuse. In most cases, letters
are not mailed to the recipients but instead are used to
provide a way for the student to recognize and express
feelings and explore ways to cope more effectively.
Therapeutic Fairy Tales Writing a therapeutic fairy tale
allows students to project themselves into another time
dimension, where they are able to positively resolve
particular issues or conflicts (Gladding, 1997). The
activity is especially effective with groups, but also can
be used in individual counseling. Participants are asked to
complete the written exercise in 6 to 10 minutes, during
which time they do the following:
a.
set the scene in a place and time far away from
the here and now;
b.
within this setting, describe a problem or
predicament; and
c.
solve the difficulty in a positive and gratifying
manner, even if the solution seems unrealistic or bizarre.
(Hoskins, 1985)
After students write their stories, they are asked to read
them aloud to the group and/or the counselor. To process
what occurred during the experience, the counselor asks
facilitative questions such as:
a.
In what ways are you like the main character in
the story? In what ways are you different?
b.
In what way does the predicament affect the
characters? Is the predicament, or the resulting emotion,
familiar in any way?
c.
How is the solution pleasing? How is it
implemented? How does it compare with the way you typically
solve problems? (Gladding, 1998)
As the student reads the fairy tale, the counselor should
pay attention to the use of symbolic or metaphoric
language. Metaphors provide insight into how students view
the world and understand experiences. Counselors can
continue using these metaphors with the child or adolescent
to express empathic understanding (Bowman, 1995).
Group Exercises Written exercises can be particularly
valuable in group counseling (Jacobs, 1992). Carefully
selected exercises can help group members become more
involved and prevent them from feeling put on the spot.
Written activities provide material for discussion and give
students opportunities for rehearsal and insight (Wenz &
McWhirter, 1990).
Sentence completion exercises can facilitate movement
through the different stages of the group process. For
example, during the forming stage, members might be asked
to complete the following sentences:
In a new group, I feel __________.
When people first meet me, they __________.
In this group, I am most afraid that __________. (Jacobs,
1992)
During conflictual or storming stages, students can respond
to sentence stems such as:
“I feel annoyed when the leader _____________.”
“When people remain silent, I feel _____________.”
An effective way to help members put closure on group
processes is to create a collaborative poem by reflecting
on changes they have experienced in the group. The sentence
stem may be as simple as
“I __________.”
Gladding (1997, p. 93) shared the following example to
illustrate collaborative group poetry writing:
The Growth Group
As part of the group that was:
I gained insight into myself and others
I realized anew the power of people together
I was aware of new thoughts and differences
I grew in unexpected ways
I gained feelings of confidence and care
I realized I was a person of worth and substance
Now I am moving on!
A writing exercise that can be used to stimulate group
development and heighten intimacy and cohesion is the
Personal Logo (Wenz & McWhirter, 1990). In this exercise,
students draw a personal logo, describe it in a story, and
then share the picture and story with the group. Students
are asked to play with doodles they have always enjoyed
drawing until they develop a symbol that feels right for
them. After creating a logo, each group member is
encouraged to write a story about it. The story may take
the form of a fairy tale, a poem, or some other literary
creation of the student’s own choosing. Students then share
their logos and stories with the group. The counselor helps
members notice common themes while facilitating the
discussion of thoughts, feelings, and insights generated by
the exercise.
Another written activity for groups is the Epigram.
Epigrams are short, witty sayings or quotations that can be
used to highlight important issues for individual group
members (Wenz & McWhirter, 1990). Group leaders invite
students to select an epigram and then write about the
personal meaning it has for them. Wenz and McWhirter
suggested, “Do not search too hard for the perfect one—let
it find you. Copy it on a fresh piece of paper, then begin
to explore and write and wonder about it . . .” (p. 40). In
the group, students share their epigrams and selections of
their personal writings that they choose to read aloud.
Counselors help them process what was shared so that
members can transfer their insights and learnings to their
lives outside of the group (Kees & Jacobs, 1990).
Using written exercises in groups can facilitate trust
building and affiliation, generate energy and excitement,
and clarify issues and concerns. Sentence completion
activities, the Personal Logo, and Epigrams are just a few
of the many written exercises that can be implemented to
enhance the group process.
Storytelling
For young children and students who have an aversion to
writing, counseling interventions such as those just
described may not be appropriate. Instead, a more effective
creative intervention for these students is storytelling.
Storytelling can take many forms, including the
presentation of therapeutic metaphors by the counselor
(Kottman, 1995), narrative construction (White & Epston,
1990), and mutual storytelling (Gardner, 1971, 1975;
Kottman, 1995). In this section, attention will be directed
toward the art of mutual storytelling.
Mutual storytelling is a metaphoric counseling technique
developed by Dr. Richard A. Gardner (1971, 1975). In this
exercise, the counselor asks the child to tell a story that
has a beginning, middle, and end, as well as a moral or
lesson. Some children choose to talk into a tape recorder,
pretending to produce a make-believe television program. As
the story is told, the counselor notes its content and
possible meaning. The counselor comments positively on the
child’s story and then tells another story, using the same
characters, setting, and dilemma that were presented in the
original story. In retelling the story, the counselor
includes a better resolution of the conflict and identifies
more alternatives to problem solving. This process helps
the child become aware of the multiplicity of options and
recognize that behavior patterns can change.
Kottman (1995) recommended incorporating the use of puppets
or stuffed animals rather than simply asking young children
to tell a story. She invited children to choose a set of
puppets or animals and to pretend that they could talk.
Next, she asked them to tell a story using the characters.
To encourage the use of imagination, Kottman told the
children that the story could be something they had seen on
television or witnessed in real life. Some children may
have difficulty constructing a plot. If so, the counselor
can ask specific questions about what happens next or what
the characters said in a particular situation.
As children tell their stories, it is important to consider
how the tales metaphorically represent what is happening in
their lives. Kottman (1995) suggested using the following
questions to guide this process:
a.
Which character represents the child?
b.
Which characters represent significant people in
the child’s life?
c.
What is the overall affective tone of the story?
d.
How does the child view self, others, and the
world?
e.
What patterns and themes are presented?
f.
What strategies are used for resolving conflict?
g.
What might be a more constructive, courageous way
to handle the conflict?
h.
What might be more helpful patterns of
interacting or problem solving?
After reflecting upon these questions, the counselor
retells the story, without moralizing, interpreting, or
indicating the superiority of any specific problem-solving
method. Instead, through the retelling of the story, the
counselor helps the child gain insight into his or her
lifestyle and develop awareness of new perspectives and
possibilities. A CD-ROM version for the personal computer
called The Mutual Storytelling Game (Erford, 2000) helps
students construct backgrounds and offers diverse character
sets to facilitate storytelling.
Telling stories using puppets, stuffed animals, dolls, and
other toys also can enhance the counseling process.
Sometimes the stories are invented or fantasy based; other
times they focus on real-life situations. Through the
process of telling stories about actual concerns or
experiences, students can discover new problem-solving
methods. For example, a counselor was working with a thirdgrade student, Matt, who had been disciplined by the school
principal for hitting another student. The counselor used
several different stuffed animals to represent Matt, Matt’s
teacher, the principal, and the other student. Matt first
used the animals to tell the story as it actually happened.
Then he told the story again, but this time gave the story
a more positive outcome. By reenacting the event, Matt was
able to explore the feelings he’d experienced when the
other student angered him and then come up with
alternative, more positive solutions.
The counselor also used storytelling as an intervention
with a very young student, Andrea, who was extremely
fearful of the school’s fire alarm. Whenever the fire alarm
sounded, Andrea reacted by crying loudly and inconsolably.
Although her teachers had shown her the alarm mechanism and
explained its purpose, Andrea’s consternation was not
assuaged, and her teachers referred her for counseling.
When Andrea entered the counselor’s office, she immediately
began playing with the small animals that were stacked on
the toy shelf. After she had played awhile, the counselor
asked her to help tell a story with the animals. They made
up a tale about a little hippo who was afraid of loud
noises, especially alarms. The hippo’s friend, Mr. Jaguar,
showed the little hippo how alarms worked and even let her
press the button to activate an alarm. This made the little
hippo laugh, and from that time on, she was never
frightened by fire alarms again. Andrea seemed to enjoy
playing with the animals and telling the story with me.
Within a week, her teachers reported that Andrea’s fear of
the school’s fire alarm had subsided and her reactions to
fire drills were no longer extreme.
Storytelling, whether based on imagination, fantasy,
metaphor, or real life, provides a way for counselors to
help student clients see themselves more clearly. It also
provides a nonthreatening medium through which students can
examine their thoughts, feelings, actions, and choices.
Considerations for Therapeutic Writing and Storytelling
Although therapeutic writing and storytelling interventions
have a wide range of applications, there are some
precautions that need to be heeded, particularly in regard
to writing activities. Riordan (1996) pointed out the
importance of keeping the process interactive so that
writing is not used to avoid other appropriate actions. He
also recommended that counselors refrain from assigning
writing until they are sure that no issues will arise that
students are not prepared to handle. Furthermore,
counselors should take into account (a) the student’s
educational level, ability, and preferences, and
(b) whether the writing or storytelling is increasing
obsessive thinking about the problem in ways that are not
helpful. Guidelines such as these can help direct
counselors in using writing and storytelling as tools in
counseling.
CONCLUSIONS
Counseling interventions using expressive arts provide
engaging and effective ways for professional school
counselors to facilitate change in children and
adolescents. The visual arts, music, and therapeutic
writing and storytelling represent three of the many
categories of expressive arts that can be used to help
students prevent and resolve problems. Other creative art
forms that reach students in ways that go beyond simply
talking include imagery, dance, drama, puppetry, games, and
play.
In this chapter, specific ways to implement visual arts,
music, scriptotherapy, and storytelling into the counseling
process have been explored. These creative interventions
enable students to communicate emotions and concerns in
unique ways. They foster different ways of viewing the
world and consequently facilitate the development of new
perspectives and alternatives for behaving. By selecting
interventions carefully, based on students’ developmental
levels, counseling goals, and personal preferences,
professional school counselors can expand their repertoire
of procedures that can be employed effectively to promote
choice and change.
Figure 10–1
The Volcanocounseling interventions using expressive arts
Figure 10–2
Variation of the road map.
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