KISS Grammar
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by
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Free, from the KISS Grammar Web Site
www.KISSGrammar.org
This is the “Teachers’ Book” for a KISS Level One workbook. There will be nine of these
books, one each for students in grades three through eleven. (Students who have started KISS in
one grade should not repeat Level One in the next grade. Eventually, they should be able to pick
up with whatever KISS Level they were working on in one grade in the KISS book for the next
grade. Although the instructional materials are the same, the texts of which most exercises are
based change with the grade levels.)
This book contains some suggestions for teaching KISS Level One and the analysis keys for
the exercises. The keys in this book have been numbered to match the students’ workbook. Note
that in the printable books, instructional materials (and special notes for teachers) appear in green
text in the table of contents. The red text in the ToC leads to the background materials that are in
the “Master Books.”
© Ed Vavra
Oct. 28 2012
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Contents
Exercises in brackets have no analysis keys.
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Teeaacchheerrss aanndd PPaarreennttss ....................................................................................................................... 66
Applying KISS to Students’ Own Reading and Writing ................................................................... 7
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Notes for Teachers............................................................................................................................. 7
Additional Methods for Identifying Subjects and Finite Verbs ...................................... 11
Ex. 1 - Is It a Sentence? Adapted from Voyages in English - Fifth Year .................... 15
Ex. 2 - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri .......................................................................... 16
Ex. 3 - From Lassie, Come Home by Eric Knight ....................................................... 17
Ex. 4. a. From Lassie, Come Home by Eric Knight .................................................... 18
[Ex. 4. b. - Writing Sentences with Modal Helping Verbs] ........................................ 19
Ex. 5 - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri .......................................................................... 19
Ex. 6 - From “How Brave Walter Hunted Wolves” .................................................... 21
Ex. 7 - From The Secret Garden, by Frances Hodgson Burnett .................................. 22
Ex. 8 a - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri ....................................................................... 23
Ex. 8 b – “Horse Sense,” by a Sixth-Grade Writer...................................................... 24
Ex. 9 - Just for Fun - Why the English language is so hard to learn (# 1) ................... 25
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Notes for Teachers........................................................................................................................... 26
Ex. 1.a. Identifying Nouns and Pronouns - From Alice in Wonderland ...................... 31
Ex. 1.b. Based on “Perseus” by Charles Kingsley....................................................... 34
[Ex. 2 * Number - Creating Plurals] ............................................................................ 36
[Ex. 3 * Number - Irregular Plurals]............................................................................ 36
Ex. 4. Replacing Nouns with Pronouns - From Growth in English: Seventh Year ..... 36
Ex. 5.a. From Heidi by Johanna Spyri (Ex. 1)............................................................. 36
Ex. 5.b. From Heidi by Johanna Spyri (Ex. 2) ............................................................ 38
Ex. 6.a. Identifying Phrases 10 Sentences from “The Gorgon’s Head” ...................... 39
Ex. 6.b. Identifying Phrases A Passage from “The Gorgon's Head” ........................... 42
Ex. 7 Possessive Nouns and Pronouns Function as Adjectives ................................... 44
Ex. 8. Fill in the Blanks: From Heidi by Johanna Spyri .............................................. 45
[Ex. 9 Adjectives (Synonyms)] ................................................................................... 46
[Ex. 10 Adjectives (Antonyms)] .................................................................................. 46
Ex. 11.a. Adapted from The Mother Tongue, Book II................................................. 46
Ex. 11.b. Based on The Queen of the Pirate Isle, by Bret Harte ................................. 47
Ex. 12 From John Steinbeck’s The Red Pony ............................................................. 48
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Notes for Teachers—The Grammarians’ Secret ............................................................................. 50
Ex. 1 a - From The Secret Garden, by Frances Hodgson Burnett ............................... 58
Ex. 1 b - From the Writing of Sixth Graders ............................................................... 58
Ex. 1.c - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri ....................................................................... 59
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Ex. 1.d - Based on The Queen of the Pirate Isle, by Bret Harte .................................. 60
Ex. 2 - Based on Introductory Lessons in English Grammar ...................................... 61
Ex. 3 - Based on Introductory Lessons in English Grammar ...................................... 61
Ex. 4 - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri .......................................................................... 62
Ex. 5. - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri ......................................................................... 62
Ex. 6 - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri .......................................................................... 63
Ex. 7 - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri .......................................................................... 64
Predicate Adjective or Part of the Verb Phrase? (Background for Teachers) ................ 65
Ex. 8 - Based on “The Nightingale” From Stories from Hans Andersen .................... 66
[Ex. 9 - Writing Sentences with Complements] .......................................................... 66
Ex. 10 - A Passage for Analysis, From Chapter 22 of Heidi by Johanna Spyri .......... 66
Ex. 11 - Just for Fun: Tongue Twisters ....................................................................... 67
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Notes for Teachers........................................................................................................................... 68
Ex. 1 - From The Secret Garden, by Frances Hodgson Burnett .................................. 71
Ex. 2 - From Lassie, Come Home by Eric Knight ....................................................... 72
Ex. 3 - From At the Back of the North Wind, by George Macdonald .......................... 73
[Ex. 4 - Writing Sentences with Compounds] ............................................................. 74
Ex. 5 - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri .......................................................................... 74
Ex. 6 - From “How Brave Walter Hunted Wolves” .................................................... 77
Ex. 7 - A Riddle Poem from At the Back of the North Wind ....................................... 78
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Notes for Teachers........................................................................................................................... 79
Ex. 1 - Fill in the Blanks - Adapted from Introductory Lessons ................................. 84
Ex. 2. a. - Based on Introductory Lessons in English Grammar ................................. 84
Ex. 2. b. - From My Book of Favorite Fairy Tales by Edric Vredenburg ................... 85
Ex. 3 - Mama Skunk .................................................................................................... 87
Ex. 4 - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri .......................................................................... 88
Ex. 5 - Compound Objects of Prepositions ................................................................. 89
Ex. 6 - Notes for Teachers on Separated Objects of Prepositions .................................. 90
Ex. 6 - Based on Black Beauty, by Anna Sewell ......................................................... 92
[Ex. 7 - Writing Sentences with Compound Objects of Prepositions] ........................ 94
Ex. 8 - Adapted from Voyages in English - Fifth Year................................................ 94
Ex. 9 - From “Jack and His Golden Box” ................................................................... 94
Exercise 10 - The Logic of Prepositional Phrases .......................................................... 96
Ex. 10. a. - From Lassie, Come Home by Eric Knight ................................................ 96
Ex. 10. b. - From My Book of Favorite Fairy Tales by Edric Vredenburg ................. 98
[Ex. 11 - Adding Prepositional Phrases of Time and Space] .................................... 100
Ex. 12. Notes for Teachers: The Branching of Adverbial Prepositional Phrases ......... 100
[Ex. 12. a - Style—Left-, Right-, and Mid-Branching Prepositional Phrases] .......... 102
Ex. 12. b – “The Sheep and the Pig” from The ÆSOP for Children ......................... 102
Ex. 13 - Similes from The Hobbit, by J. R. R. Tolkien ............................................. 105
Ex. 14. a. - Aesop’s “The Swallow and the Crow” ................................................... 106
Ex. 14. b. From “Blue Beard” ................................................................................... 106
[Ex. 15 - Write, Revise, Edit, and Analyze (Describing an Event)] .......................... 107
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Notes for Teachers......................................................................................................................... 107
Ex. 1. Antecedents of Pronouns................................................................................. 110
Ex. 2 Fill in the Blanks – From “The Happy Prince,” by Oscar Wilde ..................... 112
Ex. 3. Pronouns as Subjects – From A Book of Myths, by Jean Lang ....................... 116
Ex. 4.a. Person, Number, and Case – Adapted from English for Use ....................... 118
Ex. 4.b. “The Story of the First Diamonds” by Florence Holbrook .......................... 119
Ex. 5 Pronouns: The Gender Question – From: Growth in English .......................... 120
[Ex. 6.a Writing Sentences with Personal Pronouns] ................................................ 122
[Ex. 6.b Personal Pronouns (Recipe Roster)] ............................................................ 122
[Ex. 7.a. Pronouns as Predicate Nouns--Adapted from Voyages in English] ............ 122
Ex. 7.b. Pronouns as Predicate Nouns Adapted from The New College Grammar] . 122
[Ex. 7.c. Pronouns as Predicate Nouns - * A Research Project] ............................... 124
Ex. 8.a. Identifying Tenses: From Lassie, Come Home, by Eric Knight .................. 124
Ex. 8.b. From A Book of Myths, by Jean Lang .......................................................... 125
Ex. 9. From Treasure Island, by Robert Louis Stevenson ........................................ 126
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Notes for Teachers......................................................................................................................... 128
Ex. 1 - “Dear John” -- The Importance of Correct Punctuation ................................ 131
Ex. 2 - Based on The Heroes, by Charles Kingsley .................................................. 133
Ex. 3 - Capitalization ................................................................................................. 133
Ex. 4 - Commas in a Series: Based on “How Perseus Vowed a Rash Vow” ............ 134
Ex. 5 - Commas in Addresses and Dates: From Voyages in English - Fifth Year .... 136
Ex. 6 - Apostrophes to Show Possession, From Heidi by Johanna Spyri ................. 137
Ex. 7 - Apostrophes in Contractions, From Heidi by Johanna Spyri ........................ 138
Ex. 8 - Quotation Marks ............................................................................................ 139
Ex. 9 - Replacing Punctuation & Capitalization, From Heidi by Johanna Spyri ...... 140
[Ex. 10 - Creating an Exercise] ................................................................................. 141
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Notes for Teachers......................................................................................................................... 141
Abstract and Concrete Words - Notes for Teachers ..................................................... 144
[Ex. 1 - Adapted from Child-Story Readers: Wonder Stories].................................. 146
[Ex. 2 - Common and Proper Nouns - Adapted from Voyages in English] .............. 146
[Ex. 3 - Synonyms] .................................................................................................... 146
[Ex. 4 - Antonyms] .................................................................................................... 146
Ex. 5 - FiB - Adapted from Voyages in English - Fifth Year .................................... 146
Ex. 6 - The Logic of Words and Phrases [Notes for Teachers] ................................. 147
[Ex. 7 - Suffixes] ....................................................................................................... 148
[Ex. 8 - Prefixes] ........................................................................................................ 148
[Ex. 9 - Roots] ........................................................................................................... 148
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The KISS Grammar Toolbox ........................................................................................................ 148
Using the KISS Analysis Keys ...................................................................................................... 150
Creating Directions for Your Students .......................................................................................... 151
Conjugation of the Verb “To Discover” ........................................................................................ 153
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The study of grammar is a science.
The teaching of grammar is an art.
Your primary objective in this level should be to enable your students to identify the most
common constructions in English sentences. If, on the way to that objective, you and your
students have time, you can have them explore some important points of punctuation, logic, and
style. (I would suggest, however, that most of the most important aspects of punctuation, logic,
and style in English sentences involve clauses, the subject of KISS Levels 3.1 and 3.2).
I strongly suggest you review the KISS Psycholinguistic Model with your students. (See the
“Printable Books Page.”) The model changes the study of grammar into the study of how the
human mind processes language, and it also validates (and sometimes challenges) the rules of
punctuation.
General Reminders:
1. Although the ability to identify constructions is essential, once students have the ability, such
exercises may become boring. You may therefore want to modify some of the directions.
For example, punctuation exercises often ask students to identify constructions as well as fix
the punctuation. You may want to change these to simply fixing and discussing the
punctuation. The same is true for some of the exercises on logic.
2. Emphasize the systematic method. College instructors in math, electronics, and a number of
other fields complain that students want the “answers” and ignore the methods by which
they can find the answers. If you emphasize the method of systematic analysis (described in
the students’ version), you will probably find that your students will do much better, much
faster. And you will be helping them learn how to work systematically.
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Applying KISS to Students’ Own Reading and Writing
The primary objective of KISS is to enable students to intelligently discuss the grammar of
anything that they read and especially anything that they write. Those who understand KISS
concepts could, theoretically, use the Master Books and then use only the students’ own writing
for exercise materials. But particularly in classrooms, this would be impractical.
Imagine the dilemma of a teacher with twenty students in classroom. The students have been
given the instructional material on subjects and verbs, and then the students immediately all try
to find the subjects and verbs in a short passage that they wrote. The teacher would go nuts
trying to check all of this. In other words, it makes much more sense for the students to all do a
few of the same exercise, an exercise that can then be reviewed in class. KISS primarily provides
the latter type of exercises.
Teachers should regularly supplement these exercises by having students analyze short
passages from their own writing. The students can simply apply the directions they have been
using to the analysis of their own writing. (In other words, if they are working at KISS Level
Three, they would analyze their own writing through clauses.) The students can then work in
small groups to check and discuss each others’ work. How often teachers should do this is an
aspect of the art of teaching. But the more you do this, the more that you will probably see
interested, motivated students.
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Notes for Teachers
The key to enabling students to understand the structure of their own writing is to enable
them to identify the subjects and finite verbs in it. Even if you have been fairly well-taught in
grammar, the odds are that you have never heard of “finite” verbs. That’s because almost all
instruction in grammar is really just an explanation of some grammatical terms. I am unaware of
any grammar textbook that even claims to try to give students a practical understanding of
grammar.
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Consider the typical instructions about subjects and “verbs.” Students are given some basic
definitions and are then asked to underline subjects once and “verbs” twice. But consider the
sentence:
Swimming is good exercise.
“Swimming” fits the typical definition of a verb, and thus many students would underline it
twice. But in this sentence, it is not a verb; it functions as a noun and is a subject. Or consider the
sentence:
They went to the store to buy some bread.
Here again, “buy” fits the typical explanation of a verb, but in this case, it functions as an adverb.
Or consider still another:
The way to win a man’s heart is through his stomach.
“Win” fits the typical definition of a verb, but in this case “to win” functions as an adjective to
“way.”
As you will learn if you stay with KISS, verbs can function as nouns, adverbs, or adjectives.
When they do so, they are called “verbals.” Those verbs that students are really expected to
underline twice are called “finite.” Defining a “finite verb” for beginners is extremely difficult-the definitions require an understanding of other grammatical terms. But the ability to recognize
finite verbs can be gained relatively easily by studying examples, or, in KISS practice, short
exercises.
The details of verbals are the focus of KISS Level Four, but some exercises (starting in
KISS Level 1.2) do attempt to help students recognize verbals just so the students do not
underline them twice. Here in KISS Level 1.1, our objective is to enable students to identify
verbs in the first place. This is one of the most difficult parts of studying grammar, for two
reasons. First, there are thousands of verbs in the language; and second, the same group of letters
can be either a noun or a verb -- or something else. Just think of words like “look,” “feel,”
“smile,” “xerox,” and even “like” itself.
Thus, in KISS Level 1.1 our objective is to help students develop a basic “sentence sense”
by giving them relatively short sentences (in short exercises) until they can almost automatically
underline finite verbs and their subjects. Remember, however, that students are expected to make
certain types of mistakes--such as underlining a verbal. On the other hand, once they have been
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taught that “am,” “is,” “are,” “was,” and “were” are always finite verbs, students should NEVER
fail to underline them twice.
Most textbooks provide a wide array of suggestions for identifying nouns and pronouns (for
subjects) and for identifying verbs. There is, however, little if any evidence that any of these
explanations are effective. See “Methods for Identifying Subjects and Finite Verbs,” below. If
they help, use them. You may find, however, that the sheer number of suggestions (and
exceptions within them) can be overwhelming. The objective of instruction (the “game,” so to
speak) ought to be the analysis of sentences. In many cases, however, far too much time is spent
on explanations of how to identify nouns, verbs, etc. There is a better way.
Start instruction, not with the parts of speech, but with the analysis of sentences. If you are
beginning in primary grades, you and your students have lots of time, so you can begin with very
simple sentences. You can limit instruction to just two or three of these exercises every week
until all (or at least almost all) of the students can do them almost without thinking. In the
process, you can teach students to identify nouns and verbs. The verbs, of course, they will be
underlining twice. But, instead of all those gimmicks for identifying nouns, students need simply
learn that nouns (and pronouns) are the words that function as subjects (or, when you get to
them, as objects of prepositions, etc.).
As always in grammar, terminology causes problems. At this point in their work, students do
not need to know terms such as “tense,” “helping verbs,” or “auxiliary” (another word for
“helping”). They should, however, learn the term “phrase.” A “phrase” is simply a group of
words that work together as a unit, but do not include a subject and (finite) verb pattern. At this
KISS Level, for example, students should learn to underline all the words in a verb phrase (such
as “would have been walking”). Exercises three through six focus on the various types of
helping verbs. But the purpose of the category names is to make sure that students are at least
exposed to the verbs that create various verb phrases. How often, for example, will students run
across “ought”? On the other hand, young writers will use “was going to…” and “kept on…”
fairly often. Thus, if we want students to be able to analyze their own writing, we need to pay
some attention to these verbs.
One of the problems in the grammar books is that they do not all agree on what is (and what
is not) a “helping” verb. Some books, for example, include “need” and “dare” among “helping”
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verbs--for reasons that are not given. But if “need” is a helping verb, why isn’t “want”? The
KISS Approach to this is, of course, alternative explanations. In sentences such as
He needed to go to the store.
He wanted to go to the store.
KISS allows students to consider “needed to go” or “wanted to go” as the finite verb phrase,
especially in this KISS Level 1.1. (Exercise five, “Other Helping Verbs,” focuses on this
question. In it, you should probably accept either explanation as correct. If a student underlined
“wanted” twice and does nothing with “to go,” that is fine. It is, of course, also fine if they
underline “wanted to go” twice.)
You may or may not want to use the instructional material for Exercise # 5. It describes
“start,” “continue,” “stop,” “like,” “love,” “hate,” “want,” and “try” as “helping verbs.” Instead,
you might want to have them use the instructional material for exercise seven, “Verbs as
Subjects or Complements,” in KISS Level 1.3 “Adding Complements.” The question here is,
how much new information can you give your students without overwhelming them? You will
almost certainly find that what students need here is practice. For justification for this approach,
see the essay on Jerome Bruner’s “spiral curriculum” in the Background Essays.
Exercise seven (“Fill-in-the-blanks with Verbs”) is as much an exercise in vocabulary as it
is an exercise in learning to identify verbs. It probably works best as an in-class activity. Give the
students time to work alone to fill in the blanks, and then have them share their choices with the
rest of the class. You might want to write the verbs on the board as the students give their
suggestions. That way, you can have students discuss which words are most effective. Exercise
eight is a short passage for analysis, and exercise nine is just for fun.
The most important things:
1. Focus students’ attention on how much they are learning.
2. Grammar should be meaningful and make sense. Students should understand why they are
learning it. (See the KISS psycholinguistic model.) And as students are learning it, the
definitions and exercises we give them should be sensible and useful.
3. Have fun! You may be surprised by the enjoyment that many students get out of simply
seeing how much they have learned.
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Find the Verb First
Different people’s minds work differently, and some people seem to find it easiest to
identify subjects first and then the verb that goes with them. If you are stumped, try that, but it
may be easier to identify verbs first. Several methods for identifying verbs have been proposed.
Individually, none of them seem to be successful, but each may help.
The first is the definition of verbs as words that “show action or state of being.” The
definition is basically true, but it is probably too vague—what is meant by “show,” and by the
even vaguer “state of being”? In
She plays baseball.
“plays” shows action, but in
She made three excellent plays.
it names what she made. The difference is that in the first example, “plays” predicates action,
whereas in the second it answers the question “She made what?” But this means that one must
understand the concept of predication, and be able to apply it to a particular sentence, before one
can use this part of the definition.
As for “state of being,” I never knew what that meant, and still don’t. (And I love
philosophy.) Fortunately, the verbs that show state of being are limited in number and almost
always used as finite verbs. They can simply be remembered:
am, is, are, was, were
Note that these words are extremely common. Students will do themselves a favor by
memorizing the small list. A little practice and some common sense should help students
recognize a few other common finite verbs:
can (when it does not mean the thing)
may (when it does not mean the month)
might (when it does not mean strength)
must (when it does not mean “necessity)
will (when it does not mean desire, or the legal document)
Suffixes such as “ing” and “ed” help to identify many words as verbs, but not every
word that ends in “ing” is a verb.
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Another simple way to check to see if a word CAN BE a verb is to use it to fill in simple
blanks to make acceptable sentences:
She/They ______.
She/They ______ it.
Generally speaking, only words that can function as verbs will make sense in the blanks, but that
does not mean that the word functions as a verb in the sentence you are analyzing.
Another way of telling if a word can function as a verb is to test whether or not it can have
number and tense. Grammatically, “number” refers to the difference between one (singular) and
more than one (plural):
He walks.
They walk.
Tense refers to the expression of time relationships:
Past: He walked. He was walking. He did walk.
Present: He walks. He is walking. He does walk.
Future: He will walk. He will be walking.
Suppose, for example, that you were attempting to decide if “time” is a verb in the following
sentence:
They time the contest.
In this sentence, you could change “time” to “timed” and still have a meaningful sentence. Thus
“time” here functions as a verb. But in the sentence “Do you have the time?” “time” does not
function as a verb because you cannot sensibly substitute “timed.”
Perhaps a more helpful guideline is that words that can be verbs do not function as verbs
when they are directly preceded by “a,” “an,” or “the,” or by possessives (his, their, Mary’s):
They made the play.
She opened a can.
It is Mary’s can.
The lawyer read the will.
His will was short.
Verb Phrases
A verb phrase, in the simplest sense, is a group of verbs that work as a unit:
They were working on the road.
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They would be working on the road for a long time.
She is going to go to the store.
He ought to read this book.
Bill has to do his homework.
As you will see in Level Four, verb phrases can be analyzed into smaller pieces, but at Level
Two, the students’ primary objective should be to identify all the verbs in a phrase as a part of
the phrase.
Sometimes the words in a phrase are separated from each other:
Would they like to come to supper?
She has often said that they would.
They do, in this case, have to go to court.
Finding Subjects
Always work one pattern at a time—find the verb, find its subject(s), and then find its
complement(s). I have seen many students who underline a verb here, another one there, then
perhaps a subject from a different pattern somewhere else. Such students never know when they
are done, and they almost never do a good job. Work systematically, sentence-by-sentence, one
pattern at a time.
If you find the finite verb first, you can use what they teach in middle and high school to
help you find its subject. Unfortunately, most textbooks don’t give students everything they
need. The books say, “Find the subject by making a question with ‘who’ or ‘what.’” If the
sentence is
Sharon likes hamburgers.
students are supposed to ask the question “Who likes hamburgers?” which will give them the
subject—“Sharon.” This works fine for baby sentences, and even for some sophisticated ones.
But what happens with:
Some of these concepts are difficult.
We ask the question—“Who or what are difficult?” And we get the answer —“concepts.” We
tell that to the teacher, and we’re told that we’re wrong. (Thanks a lot.) Actually, this scenario
does not happen very often, because most teachers use exercises in grammar books, and the
grammar books avoid such sentences in their exercises.
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And there is another problem:
It was the manager who caught the thief.
We ask “Who was the manager?” and we get the correct, if meaningless, “it.” We then ask “Who
caught the thief?” Obviously it was the manager—but that’s the wrong answer! “Manager” is the
meaningful answer, but the grammatical subject of “caught” is “who.”
Because of these problems, in addition to the “who or what + verb” question, we need two
additional rules:
1 If a verb is outside a prepositional phrase, its subject cannot be inside one.
In our first example (“Some of these concepts are difficult.”) this rule eliminates “concepts”
from consideration, and in effect forces students to the only word left, “some,” which is the
subject. Prepositional phrases between subjects and their verbs are fairly common, so students’
ability to identify prepositional phrases—KISS Level 1.5—will make Level Two easier.
For practical purposes, if students are working at Level Two, they can ignore anything and
everything in prepositional phrases as they look for subjects and verbs. Only one prepositional
phrase in two hundred involves subjects and verbs, a percentage so low that it is not worth
worrying about until students get to clauses—where the construction will become clear. (Again,
one thing at a time!)
2. The complement of one verb can NEVER function as the subject of another. There
are NO exceptions.
This rule, firmly based on our psycholinguistic model of how the human brain processes
language, resolves the second problem. In our example (“It was the manager who caught the
thief.”) “manager” is a predicate noun after “was,” so it cannot be the subject of “caught.” In
most cases, as in this one, students will be left with only one word, usually “who,” “which,” or
“that” which functions as the subject.
A Psycholinguistic Approach to Finding Subjects
The basic sentence pattern of any sentence is subject / verb / optional complement. We each
figured this out for ourselves, as babies, and to this day our brains still expect the same basic
pattern. Generally speaking, our brains will take the first noun phrase as the subject of a
sentence. As we grew older, however, we mastered a few exceptions. An important one involves
words that denote time:
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Sunday, we will watch the ballgame.
Sunday is my favorite day of the week.
English uses nouns that denote time as adverbs to indicate when the action of the verb will take
place. (This is one of the additional constructions explored in Level Five.) As a result,
readers/hearers have to wait until further into the sentence before deciding whether or not the
time-word is the subject. In the first example, as soon as a reader/hearer perceives “we,” “we” is
taken as the subject, and “Sunday” is processed as an adverb. But in the second example, the “is”
after “Sunday” confirms that “Sunday” is the subject of the sentence.
As explained in KISS Level One, prepositions never function as nouns. As a result, when
readers/hearers perceive a preposition at the beginning of a sentence, they expect the object of
that preposition before the subject of the sentence:
{In the winter}, they go sledding.
The initial preposition, in this case “in,” devours “winter” such that “winter” is not eligible to be
the subject of the sentence. So the next thing named, in this case “they,” is. We will learn about a
few other grammatical constructions that have this effect. But even without a conscious
awareness of those constructions, students may be able to use this rule and their knowledge of
English to help them identify subjects. With the exception of nouns that denote time, the brain
will tend to take the first “free” noun or pronoun as the subject of a finite verb. Questions
(Whom do you want?) are an exception to this rule. Other exceptions are explored in KISS Level
2.1.2 - Varied Positions in the S/V/C Pattern
Ex. 1 - Is It a Sentence? Adapted from Voyages in English - Fifth Year
Note that KISS Analysis Keys include the complete analysis of sentences.
1. Tom lives {in the mountains}. |
2. The squirrel up the tree
3. The boat down the river
4. I saw the elephant (DO). |
5. Rose studied her lesson (DO). |
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6. Food everywhere
7. I hear sweet music (DO). |
8. The Scouts built a fire (DO). |
9. Flying a kite
10. The poems of Joyce Kilmer
11. The book in the library
12. Several boys helped him (IO). |
13. They keep the streets clean [#1] . |
14. Along the muddy road
15. The fire engines whizzed by. |
16. To write a book
17. James good manners
18. George did the work (DO). |
19. Mary caught a fish (DO). |
20. Tom playing baseball
Note
1. The KISS explanation of this is that “streets” is the subject and “clean” is a predicate adjective in an
ellipsed infinitive (verbal) phrase -- “the streets *to be* clean.” The infinitive phrase functions as the
direct object of “kept.” See KISS Level 4.
Ex. 2 - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri
1. Her appetite grew amazingly. |
2. Why are his eyes so fierce (PA)? |
3. Peter had a hard time (DO) {with his goats} that day [NuA]. |
4. I am {with my grandfather} again. |
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5. All the perfume came {from the modest little brown flowers}. |
6. "Grandfather [DirA], our milk is the best [#1] {in all the world}." |
7. Heidi and her grandfather were back {on the Alp}. |
8. The grandfather was still {with the children}. |
9. Peter brought the letter (DO) up {with him} next morning [NuA]. |
10. Clara is so much better (PA). |
11. The following days were happier (PA) still {for Clara}. |
12. And now I am so hungry (PA) ! |
13. Mr. Sesemann always brought many lovely things (DO) home [NuA] {with him}. |
14. Your hands are as warm (PA) {as toast} [#2] ! |
15. Heidi was always busy (PA) {with the strange child}. |
Notes
1. In cases like this, many grammarians consider “the” plus an adjective as functioning as a
noun. Hence, “the best” could be considered a predicate noun here. Alternatively, “best” can
be considered an adjective to an ellipsed “milk.” That would make the ellipsed “milk” the
predicate noun. Note that the following prepositional phrase modifies the adjective “best.”
2. Some grammarians prefer to explain “as toast” as an ellipsed subordinate clause—“as toast *is
warm*.” In KISS, this is an acceptable alternative explanation. Note that in either case, the
second “as” construction modifies the first “as,” which modifies “warm.”
Ex. 3 - From Lassie, Come Home by Eric Knight
1. I'll go {to the market}. |
2. We've done the best (DO) [Adj. to "best" we can]. |
3. And still she had not closed the gate (DO). |
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4. What [#1] are you trying to do [#1] now? |
5. A young child does not have to undergo many dangerous experiences (DO) {in life}. |
6. It's going to walk {round this loch}? |
7. {In those trenches} they had had no warm hearths (DO). |
8. Well [Inj], a valuable dog will have owners (DO) somewhere. |
9. The one driving force {of her life} was wakened (P), | and it was leaving her (IO) no
peace (DO). |
10. Never before {in her five years} {of life} had she been out alone {at night}. |
Note
1. Most grammar textbooks would describe “What” simply as an interrogative pronoun, but note
that it simultaneously functions as the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) “to do.” The
infinitive functions as the direct object of “are trying.” With students working at KISS Level
1.1, I would also accept “trying to do” as the finite verb phrase.
Ex. 4. a. From Lassie, Come Home by Eric Knight
1. Her nose and ears would warn her (IO) [#1] {of any approaching danger}. |
2. She must keep away {from men}. |
3. Lassie ought to have some exercise (DO). |
4. It may live the night [#2]. |
5. This two-footed animal could never catch up [#3] {with her}. |
6. She didn't even need to put on [#3] speed (DO). |
7. Lassie did not seem to worry [#4] {about Hynes}. |
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8. She just kept on [#3] going {at a steady lope}, {down the path}, {over the lawn}. |
9. It would be a terrible waste (PN). |
10. Only once {in a while} could they see a glimpse (DO) {of the dog}. |
11. But it might need some help (DO). |
Notes
1. Some people may see “her” as a direct object, and at KISS Levels One and Two I would
simply accept that. At KISS Level Three students will begin to see clauses that function as
the direct object, as in “It would warn her that danger is approaching.” Once they can see
that clauses can function as the direct object of “warn,” students will probably better
understand why “her” would be an indirect object.
2. “Night” here explains not what it might live, but how long it might live. Thus it is not a direct
object but rather a noun used as an adverb.
3. Alternatively, “up” can be explained as an adverb. (See KISS Level 2.1.5 - Phrasal Verbs
(Preposition? Or Part of the Verb?) Note that at KISS Level 1.1, students are expected to be
confused by these.
4. Students working at KISS Level One will probably consider “did seem to worry” as the verb
phrase here. Whether or not “seem” is a helping verb here is a matter of debate. Once they
get to verbals, some people will prefer to see “did seem” as the finite verb and “to worry” as
a verbal (infinitive) that functions either as the direct object of, or as an adverb to, “did
seem.” Thus either explanation should be accepted.
[Ex. 4. b. - Writing Sentences with Modal Helping Verbs]
Ex. 5 - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri
Remember that the explanations as marked are considered acceptable at KISS Level One. In
later levels, students will be given other options, as suggested in the notes.
1. Heidi kept on asking {in her excitement}. [#1] |
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2. The old acquaintances immediately started gossiping {about their friends} {in the
neighborhood}. [#2] |
3. Wouldn't you like to hear something (DO) {about it}? [#3] |
4. *You* Stop trembling. [#4] |
5. The footpath begins to go steeply and abruptly {up the Alps}. [#5] |
6. And now you want to hand over the child (DO) {to this terrible old man}. [#6] |
7. Grandmother would love to see you (DO). [#7] |
8. I hate to rob her (DO) {of this pleasure}. [#8] |
9. A small, white goat, called Snowhopper [#9] , kept up bleating {in the most piteous
way}. [#10] |
10. Clara must try to stand longer this evening [NuA] {for me}. [#11] |
Notes
1. Some grammar books list “kept” and/or “kept on” among helping verbs. Alternatively,
“asking” can be explained as a verbal (gerund) that functions as the direct object of “kept.”
“On” may be considered part of the finite verb phrase or as an adverb. For more on this see
KISS Level 2.1.5 - Phrasal Verbs (Preposition? Or Part of the Verb?).
2. “Gossiping” can be explained as a gerund that functions as the direct object of “started.”
3. “To hear” can be explained as a verbal (infinitive) that functions as the direct object of “would
like.” This explanation would make “something” the direct object of the infinitive.
4. “Trembling” can be explained as a gerund that functions as the direct object of “Stop.”
5. “To go” can be explained as a verbal (infinitive) that functions as the direct object of “begins.”
6. “To hand over” means “to give,” so the “over” can be considered as part of this infinitive, or it
can be explained as an adverb. See KISS Level 2.1.5 - Phrasal Verbs (Preposition? Or Part
of the Verb?). The infinitive phrase would be the direct object of “want,” and “child”
becomes the direct object of the infinitive.
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7. “To see” can be explained as a verbal (infinitive) that functions as the direct object of “would
love.” “You” becomes the direct object of the infinitive.
8. “To rob” can be explained as a verbal (infinitive) that functions as the direct object of “hate.”
“Her” becomes the direct object of the infinitive.
9. “Snowhopper” is a retained predicate adjective after the passive gerundive “called.” The
gerundive phrase modifies “goat.” See KISS Level 5.7 - Passive Voice and Retained
Complements.
10. See Note 1.
11. “To stand” can be explained as a verbal (infinitive) that functions as the direct object of
“must try.”
Ex. 6 - From “How Brave Walter Hunted Wolves”
1. Walter is six years [NuA] old (PA), | and he must soon begin to go [#1] {to school}. |
He cannot read yet, | but he can do many other things (DO). |
2. That is [PN how I should shoot you (DO) [Adv. to "should shoot" if you were a
wolf (PN)]]! |
3. Indeed, some thought [DO that the brave boy boasted a little [NuA] ]; | but one must
indeed believe him (DO) [Adv. to "must believe" since he said so (DO) himself [#2] ]. |
4. I could manage very well alone {with three}, | but [Adv. to "might not have" if there
were more (PN)], I might not have time (DO) to kill them all [#3] [Adv. to "to kill"
before they ran away]. |
5. Down, Caro [DirA] ! |
[#4]
you ought to be rather ashamed (PA) [#5] to have put such a
great hero to flight [#6] ! |
Notes
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1. Alternatively, “to go” can be explained as an infinitive that functions as the direct object of
“must begin.”
2. “Himself” is an appositive to “he.”
3. The infinitive “to kill” functions as an adjective to “time.” “Them” is the direct object of the
infinitive; “all” can be explained as an appositive to “them” and/or as a post-positioned
adjective that modifies “them.”
4. I have marked this as a main clause because what precedes it means “You get down.” On a
quiz, I would not count this if students did not so mark it.
5. Alternatively, “ashamed” could be explained as part of the finite verb here.
6. The phrase “hero to flight” can be explained in a number of ways, but perhaps the simplest is
to consider “hero” the indirect and the infinitive “to flight” as the direct object of the
infinitive “to have put.” (Note, by the way, the interchangeability of the phrase—to have put
to flight such a great hero.”) The entire “to have put” phrase functions as an adverb to
“ashamed.”
Ex. 7 - From The Secret Garden, by Frances Hodgson Burnett
This exercise works best when the students in the class take ten minutes to fill in verbs
independently, and then work as a class to share and discuss what they came up with.
1. [DO [#1] "I don't know anything (DO) {about him},"] snapped Mary. |
2. The wind itself [#2] had ceased | [#3] and a brilliant, deep blue sky arched high {over the
moorland}. |
3. [DO [#1] "He does look rather better (PA), sir [DirA],"] ventured Mrs. Medlock. |
4. Mary flew {across the grass} {to him}. |
5. The wind swept {in soft big breaths} down {from the moor}. |
6. She put her hand (DO) {on his shoulder} and smiled the mist (DO) {out of her eyes}. |
7. [DO [#1] "I never thowt much [NuA] {o' thee}!"] he harangued. |
23
8. The train whirled him (DO) {through mountain passes and golden plains}. |
9. One morning [NuA] the rain streamed down unceasingly. |
10. Sometimes the stream made a sound (DO) rather {like very low laughter} [Adv. to
"made" as it bubbled {over and round stones}]. |
11. The afternoon was dragging {toward its mellow hour}. | The sun was deepening the
gold (DO) {of its lances}. |
Notes
1. For an alternative explanation of the clause structure, see KISS Level 3.2.3 - Interjection? Or
Direct Object?
2. "Itself" is an appositive to "wind." See KISS Level 5.4.
3. Note that the two main clauses are joined by "and"--without a preceding comma.
Ex. 8 a - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri
You may want to remind students, before they do this exercise, that they are expected to
make mistakes. This exercise includes numerous words among which the simple subjects and
verbs hide.
They started merrily {up the Alp}. | A cloudless, deep-blue sky looked down {on
them}, [Adv. (cause) to "looked" for [#1] the wind had driven away every little cloud (DO)
{in the night} ]. | The fresh green mountain-side was bathed (P) {in brilliant sunlight}, |
and many blue and yellow flowers had opened. | Heidi was wild (PA) {with joy} and
ran {from side} {to side}. | {In one place} she saw big patches (DO) {of fine red
primroses}, | {on another spot} blue gentians sparkled {in the grass}, | and everywhere the
golden rock-roses were nodding {to her}. | {In her transport} {at finding such treasures
[#2]
}, Heidi even forgot Peter (DO) and his goats (DO). | She ran far ahead {of him}
24
and then strayed away off {to one side}, [Adv. (cause) to "strayed" for the sparkling
flowers tempted her (DO) here and there]. |
Notes
1. See also KISS Level 3.2.2 - “So” and “For” as Conjunctions.
2. “Treasures” is the direct object of the verbal (gerund) “finding.” The verbal phrase functions
as the object of the preposition “at.” If students have not yet studied prepositional phrases,
they will probably be very confused by this.
Ex. 8 b – “Horse Sense,” by a Sixth-Grade Writer
My favorite show is "Horse Sense." (PN) | "Why?" (DO) might you ask | [ [#1]
Because it is a funny show (PN).] | And it has horses (DO) {in it}. | And I like horses
(DO). | It is {about two cousins} (PN). | They have to get along {with each other}. |
Their names are Andy (PN) and Matthew Lawrence (PN). | Andy works {on a farm}.
| Matt is a rich guy (PN) [Adj. to "guy" who lives {in Washington D.C.}] | Matt has to
go work {on the farm} [Adv. to "has to go" because he got {in trouble} {at his house}] |
and he has to go {to the farm} and help them (IO) work [#2]. | Andy and his mom are
going to lose the ranch (DO) [Adv. to "are going to lose" if Matt doesn't help them (IO)
get money [#3].] | But Matt has no clue (DO) {about what to do [#4]}. |
Notes
1. In discussing clauses with students, I would point out that this is a fragment, but it is an
acceptable one. It modifies the first main clause in the passage, and it is separated from it
because the writer wanted to raise the rhetorical question, "'Why?' might you ask?" The
easiest way to "correct" this fragment would be to precede it with something such as "It is
because . . ." But that would add words that are basically repetitious.
2. "Work" is a verbal (infinitive) that functions as the direct object of "help."
25
3. "Money" is the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) "get." The infinitive phrase functions as
the direct object of "help."
4. The verbal (infinitive) "to do" functions as an adjective to "what," which is the object of the
preposition "about."
Notes for and from the Pennsylvania 2000-2001
Writing Assessment Handbook Supplement
This is a sample based on Prompt #2 for “Style” with an assessment of 1. The handwriting
is legible. There are a few spelling and punctuation errors.
The reasons given in the Supplement for the assessment of 1 are:
There is minimal word choice in this paper about “horse sense.” The frequent use
of “And” and poor control of sentence formation critically detract from the tone
and voice. (p. 34)
Because errors are corrected in the versions used for exercises, and because this received a “1”
for style, the following is a more accurate transcript of the text:
My favorite show is horse Sense. Why might you ask. Because it is
a funny show. And it has horses in it. And i like hourses. It is about
two cousins. have to get a long with each other. And there names
are Andy and Mathew larwence. And Andy work on a farm. And
Matt is a rich guy how lives in washiton D.C. And Matt has to go
work on the farm. Because he got in trouble at his house and he
has to go to the farm and help them work. And Andy and his mom
are going to lose the ranch if Matt don’t help them get money. and
Matt has no clue what to do.
Ex. 9 - Just for Fun - Why the English language is so hard to learn (# 1)
1. The dump was so full (PA) [Adv. to "so" that it had to refuse more refuse (DO)]. |
2. He could lead [Adv. to "could lead" if he would get the lead (DO) out]. |
3. [Adv. to "didn't praught" If teachers taught,] why didn't preachers praught? |
26
4. [Adv. to "does eat" If a vegetarian eats vegetables (DO),] what (DO) does a
humanitarian eat? |
5. [Adv. to "dove" When *the dove was* [#1] shot at (P),] the dove dove {into the bushes}. |
Note
1. This is an example of a semi-reduced clause.
K
KIISSSS L
Leevveell 11.. 22..
A
Addddiinngg N
Noouunnss,, PPrroonnoouunnss,, A
Addjjeeccttiivveess,, A
Addvveerrbbss aanndd PPhhrraasseess
Notes for Teachers
In KISS Level 1.1, students learned to identify the basic subjects and verbs that are the core
of every sentence. In KISS Level 1.2 exercises one (a & b), two, three, and four enable
students to identify nouns and pronouns and to see that the words that function as subjects are
called nouns or pronouns. These are basic identification exercises. More advanced questions
about pronouns are explored in Level 1.6.
Once students can identify nouns and pronouns (as well as verbs), Exercise five turns to the
identification of adjectives and adverbs. Most textbooks include the KISS functional approach
to teaching adjectives and adverbs—“adjectives modify nouns and pronouns”; “adverbs modify
verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.” But the textbooks then focus on adverbs ending in “-ly,”
and/or explanations that adjectives and adverbs have comparative (“better”) and superlative
(“best”) forms. The textbooks then drop adjectives and adverbs and move on to something else.
In essence, students are taught the definitions, but they are never taught how to identify
adjectives and adverbs in real texts. Thus the definitions are never used, and students forget
them.
KISS reverses the typical textbook descriptions. Instead of “adjectives modify nouns and
pronouns,” KISS phrases the idea as “A word (or construction) that describes a noun or pronoun
functions as (and therefore is) an adjective.” This may not seem to be a major difference, but the
normal textbook definition actually assumes that one knows what an adjective is, and then it tells
27
one what it does. The KISS explanation, on the other hand, enables a person to look at a word in
a sentence and then determine that it is an adjective because it modifies a noun or pronoun.
Getting students to look at the question in this way prepares them to be able to identify all the
constructions that they will learn that also function as adjectives—prepositional phrases, clauses,
gerundives, and infinitives.
In learning to identify adjectives and adverbs, students should learn the two basic rules and
then do a few exercises based on them, exercises in which they draw an arrow from the adjective
or adverb to the word modified. It will, however, become extremely boring and repetitive if you
have students continue to identify all the adjectives and adverbs in everything they analyze. Once
students become comfortable with the concepts, you should probably stop requiring them to
identify every adjective and adverb in the texts they are analyzing. Obviously, students’
questions about the function of a particular word should be addressed, but otherwise the only
exceptions to the preceding suggestion are 1.) exercises that focus on the logic or style of
adjectives and adverbs, and 2.) assessment quizzes.
Exercise six introduces the concept of phrases and explains that a noun phrase consists of a
noun plus the adjectives that modify it and a verb phrase consists of a verb plus the adverbs that
modify it. The instructional material for this exercise also explains the related concepts of
“modification” and “chunking.”
The seventh exercise concerns the adjectival function of possessive nouns and pronouns. (In
part, this exercise shows students that words like “its” and “their” function as adjectives, as
opposed to the subject/verb function of “it’s” and “they’re.”) Textbooks disagree on whether
possessive nouns (Bill’s) are nouns or adjectives and whether possessives such as “his” and
“her” are pronouns or adjectives. Some textbooks do explain that grammarians disagree here, but
the underlying problem is the assumption that a word has to fit into one part of speech or
another. Many nouns, for example, also function as adjectives, and grammarians rarely discuss
them (town hall, garden tools, weather report). There is, therefore, no reason why possessive
nouns (Bill’s) cannot be considered as possessive nouns and/or as adjectives.
The problem about “his” and “her” is caused in part by the misperception that there must be
one (and only one) explanation in any particular case. A look at why grammarians disagree may
clarify the problem and explain why students should be allowed to give alternative explanations.
28
In a sentence such as “That book is his,” some grammarians will see “his” as a pronoun that
functions as a predicate noun. Other grammarians will see “his” as an adjective modifying an
ellipsed “book.” Still others will explain “his” as a predicate adjective. All three of these
explanations make sense, so by what right do teachers (or grammarians) claim that only the one
that they prefer is correct?
The next three exercises have a double function: 1.) reinforcing the identification of
adjectives and adverbs, and 2.) extending students’ vocabulary, and thus writing style. They are
most effective if students share their answers in class. The eighth exercise asks students to fill in
the blanks with adjectives and/or adverbs. The ninth and tenth exercises, which explain
synonyms and antonyms, ask students to think of synonyms (or antonyms) for a short list of
adjectives, and then to use the words in a short sentence.
A Note about Style
Some teachers instruct students to use more adjectives and adverbs; others tell students to
use fewer, and instead to use nouns and verbs that are more descriptive. Stylistic exercises on
adjectives and adverbs are important, but they should be based on real texts. Descriptive nouns
and verbs are usually better than non-descriptive, but the opposing “instruction” suggests that
some teachers are attempting to impose their own stylistics prejudices upon their students. A
better approach is to have students analyze short paragraphs in which writers use numerous (or
no) adjectives and/or adverbs. Discussion can focus on the effects of the use (or lack of use) of
adjectives and adverbs. By actually teaching students how to identify adjectives and adverbs in
real texts, KISS enables students to make their own decisions about the use of adjectives and
adverbs.
Exercises eleven (a & b) can be used as simple identification exercises, but they are
intended to be used as exercises in the logic of adjectives and adverbs. If you use them as such,
and if you have used other texts that deal with the kinds of adjectives and adverbs, you will
probably note a problem. Many texts treat the kinds (classes) of adjectives and adverbs as boxes
into which an adjective or an adverb can be dropped. For example, they present adverbs of time
and adverbs of degree, as if an adverb has to be one or the other. But in a sentence such as “They
never eat chocolate,” “never” denotes degree in time. Thus it can be seen as both an adverb of
29
time and as an adverb of degree. The more you study the logic of adjectives and adverbs, the
more you will probably agree that it is an extremely complex question.
That is, however, no reason for ignoring the question, even with very young students. The
foundation of the KISS Grammar approach to logic is David Hume’s argument that thought is a
matter of perception plus three categories of logical relationships—identity, extension in time or
space, and cause/effect. (For more on this, see “An Introduction to Syntax and the Logic of
David Hume” in the Background Essays.) Put somewhat differently, we can say that words
denote Hume’s “perceptions,” and the logical relationships denote the ways in which adjectives
and adverbs modify words. Thus, in “They searched everywhere,” “everywhere” modifies
“searched” in respect to space.
The logical relationships in KISS Level One are limited basically to identity, extension in
time or space, and adverbs of manner. (For Hume, who uses an Aristotelian concept of “cause,”
“manner” is a cause.) The reason for focusing on these is that weak young writers often fail to
include details of time, space, and manner. Bringing these logical relationships to the students’
attention may improve their writing.
The exercises on logic have a double function. For one, they foreshadow (and thus prepare
students for) the KISS exercises on the logic of prepositional phrases, subordinate clauses, etc.
(You will probably find that logical details of time, space, cause/effect are more frequently
expressed in prepositional phrases than they are in simple adjectives or adverbs.)
These exercises are also intended to apply directly to the students’ writing. Most textbooks
tell students, for example, that adjectives “add information” about the words they modify, but
these texts usually fail to point out that many adjectives “add information” by limiting other
possible interpretations. “They went to the brown house” means that they did not go to the white
house, the yellow house, or the pink house with purple polka-dots. In other words, many
adjectives restrict the meaning of the nouns they modify—they make the sentence more specific,
more exact.
The preceding may seem too simplistic to need teaching, but as a college writing instructor,
I’ll note that many college Freshmen fail to notice the differences among:
Lawyers are greedy.
A few lawyers are greedy.
30
Some lawyers are greedy.
Many lawyers are greedy.
Most lawyers are greedy.
All lawyers are greedy.
“Lawyers” implies “all,” and the failure of many students to make these distinctions may reflect
a much more significant problem with current political discourse. We have, for example,
conservatives complaining about “liberals” and liberals complaining about “conservatives” as if
our political discourse is a war between two monolithic sides. It is not, and to treat it as such
severely hampers rational political debate.
On a less political note, some students frequently write a topic sentence such as “The
symbols in ‘The Lost Phoebe’ emphasize the conflict of appearance vs. reality.” That statement
is simply not true. “Some,” “many,” perhaps “most” may do so, but the implied “all” do not. For
many college instructors, a student’s failure to make such distinctions automatically results in a
grade below “A.”
The twelfth exercise is a “Passage for Analysis.” This should be as much an exercise in
style as it is in analysis. You can supplement this exercise in numerous ways. Select a short
passage from what your students are reading. Have your students select passages (so that they
know that you are not cooking the books). Perhaps best of all, have your students analyze and
discuss a short selection from something that they themselves have written.
*****
The preceding discussion assumes that the students are beginning the KISS approach in
primary or middle grades. In working with college students, I may spend five minutes, in class,
explaining what adjectives and adverbs are, and then tell students that I will not expect them to
identify any of them. There simply is not sufficient instructional and homework time to cover
everything, and these students know that in “the old man,” for example, “the” and “old” form a
phrase with “man.” And they know that in “He ran quickly,” “quickly” goes with “ran.” The
concepts (“adjective” and “adverb”), however, appear when the students add prepositional
phrases, clauses and verbals to their analytical toolboxes. Basic work on adjectives and adverbs
makes the understanding of clauses and verbals much easier for students, but until our schools
31
adopt a systematic sequence for the study of grammar, middle and high school teachers can only
do so much.
Additional Exercises
The workbooks originally included additional exercises. Among them were separate
exercises on descriptive adjectives, on adjectives of quantity, on comparative adjectives (and
adverbs), on sentence-combining, on sentence de-combining with adjectives, on sentencebuilding with adjectives, and on sentence-building with adverbs. These can be found in the online collection for KISS Level 1.2. In the primary grades, spending three to six weeks (at two or
three exercises per week) on adjectives and adverbs may not be much of a problem. But if you
are starting in later grades, do you really want to devote that much time to adjectives and
adverbs? Do students really need exercises that name the types of adjectives? Do they need to be
taught how to create comparatives? Probably not.
A Note about “A,” “An,” and “The”
Some textbooks use the term “articles” for “a,” “an,” and “the,” and consider them a
separate part of speech. Some modern linguists also consider these three words as a separate part
of speech and call them “determiners.” A focus on these three words is important for non-native
speakers, but few if any native speakers have problems with them. Traditional grammars make
the distinction between the “definite article” (the) and the “indefinite articles” (a and an.) I’m not
sure that these different labels add anything to native speakers’ understanding of English, so
KISS simply considers them as adjectives.
Ex. 1.a. Identifying Nouns and Pronouns - From Alice in Wonderland
The objective of this and the following exercise is to familiarize students with the words that
typically function as pronouns. Because the grammar textbooks do not list all the words that can
function as pronouns, this can be difficult because many words function both as pronouns and as
adjectives. Making this distinction at this point in KISS Level 1.2 is not easy because students
have not yet been introduced to adjectives. Level 1.6 returns to the question of pronouns after
students have learned about adjectives and prepositional phrases.
32
Some students will have problems with recognizing “who,” “which,” and “that” when they
function as subjects in sentences such as “They saw the man who won the race.” When they ask
themselves the question “Who or what won the race?” they will see “man” as the answer to the
question. This problem is also addressed in Level 1.6, after students have learned to identify
complements and objects of prepositions, plus the rule that “The object of a preposition or the
complement of one verb can never be the subject of another verb. This rule stops students from
viewing “man” (or the object of any preposition) as the subject of “won,” and leaves them with
“who” as the only option.
These sentences contain a few constructions that students are
expected to get wrong. Be sure to remind them of that and focus their
attention on how much they get right.
1. She (PRN) had succeeded {in bringing herself (PRN) [#1] down} {to her [#2] usual
height}. |
2. "What (PRN; DO) do you (PRN) mean {by that (PRN)?" [ [#3] said the Caterpillar
(N), sternly]. | "*You* (PRN) [#4] (PRN) Explain yourself (PRN; DO)!" |
3. The judge (N), {by the way (N)} [#5], was the King (N; PN) | and he (PRN) wore his
crown (N; DO) {over his great wig (N) }. |
4. She (PRN) waited {for some time (N)} {without hearing anything (PRN) more [#6] }. |
5. Oh [Inj] , my poor little feet (N) [DirA], I (PRN) wonder [DO who (PRN) will put on
your shoes (N; DO) and stockings (N; DO) {for you (PRN)} [#7] now, dears (N)
[DirA]
]? |
6. "*You* (PRN) Let us (PRN) get [#8] {to the shore (N)} | and then I (PRN) 'll tell you
(PRN; IO) my history (N; DO). |"
7. She (PRN) looked up, | but it (PRN) was all dark (PA) overhead; | {before her (PRN) }
was another long passage (N) | and the White Rabbit (N) was still {in sight (N) }. |
33
8. "Mouse (N) [DirA] dear (N) [DirA]! *You* (PRN) Do come back again, | and we (PRN)
won't talk {about cats (N), or dogs (N) either }, [Adv. to "won't talk" if you (PRN)
don't like them (PRN; DO) ]!" |
9. "That (PRN) 's the jury-box (N; PN)," [ [#3] thought Alice (N) ]; | "and those twelve
creatures (N) [#9] ( [ [#10] some (PRN) were animals (N; PN) ] and [ some (PRN)
were birds (N; PN) ]) I (PRN) suppose [DO they (PRN) are the jurors (N;
PN) ]." |
10. "It (PRN) matters a good deal (N) [NuA] {to me (PRN) } [#11] ," [ [#3] said Alice (N)
hastily]; | "but I (PRN) 'm not looking {for eggs (N) }, [Adv. to "not" as it (PRN)
happens], | and [Adv. to "shouldn't want" if I (PRN) was], I (PRN) shouldn't
want yours (PRN; DO) | -- I (PRN) don't like them (PRN) raw [#12]." |
Notes
1. Expect students to underline "bringing" twice and then to be confused by its subject. It is a
verbal (gerund) that functions as the object of the preposition "in." "Herself" functions as the
direct object of "bringing."
2. "Her" her functions as an adjective to "usual height."
3. KISS explains this clause as an interjection. See KISS Level 3.2.3 - Interjection? Or Direct
Object?
4. This understood "You" is the focus of KISS Level 2.1.1.
5. The prepositional phrase "by the way" can be explained as an adverb and/or as an interjection.
6. See Note # 1. In this case, "anything" functions as the direct object of the gerund "hearing,"
and the gerund phrase functions as the object of the preposition "without." Grammarians will
give a variety of explanations for "more." Note that it could simply replace "anything" -"without hearing more." As a result, it could be considered an appositive for "anything."
That is not a particularly good explanation. Better explanations involve ellipsis and become
complex. The sentence means "anything more *than he had heard before*."
34
7. The prepositional phrase "for you" can be explained either as an adverb or an indirect object to
"will put on."
8. Expect students to be confused. "Get" is a verbal (an infinitive). "Us" is the subject of "get"
and the infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of "Let."
9. You will have a hard time finding an explanation for "creatures" in most grammar textbooks.
KISS explains it as an (unusual) appositive to the following "they." See KISS Level 5.4 Appositives.
10. Rhetoricians call constructions enclosed in parentheses like this "parenthetical
constructions." Instead of adding that additional term, KISS considers them to be a form of
interjections. Note that in this case "some" renames "creatures" and thus is also processed as
an appositive to it.
11. This "to me" is an interesting prepositional phrase in that, although it could be considered as
an adverb to "matters," it can also be seen as an indirect object after a verb that does not take
a direct object.
12. There are at least two ways of explaining "them raw." One is to consider it an ellipsed
infinitive phrase -- "them *to be* raw." In this perspective, "them" is the subject and "raw"
is a predicate adjective to the ellipsed infinitive "to be." The infinitive phrase is the direct
object of "don't like." The second way is to consider "them" the direct object of "don't like,"
and to view "raw" as a post-positioned adjective to "them." For more on this, see KISS
Level 5.5 - Post-Positioned Adjectives.
Ex. 1.b. Based on “Perseus” by Charles Kingsley
Perseus (N) wondered {at that strange cloud (N) }, [Adv. (cause) [#1] for there (PRN)
[#2]
was no other cloud (N, PN) all {round the sky (N) }]; | and he (PRN) trembled [Adv.
to "trembled" as it (PRN) touched the cliff (N, DO) below [#3] ]. | And [Adv. to "broke"
and "parted" as it (PRN) touched,] it (PRN) broke, and parted, | and {within it (PRN) }
appeared Pallas Athene (N), [Adv. to "appeared" as he (PRN) had seen her (PRN,
DO) {at Samos (N) } {in his dream (N) } ], and [#4] {beside her (PRN } a young man (N)
35
more light-limbed [#5] {than the stag (N) } [#6], [Adj. to "man" whose (PRN) [#7] eyes (N)
were {like sparks (N) } (PA) {of fire (N) } ]. | {By his side (N) } was a scimitar (N) {of
diamond (N) }, all [#8] {of one clear precious stone (N) }, | and {on his feet (N) } were golden
sandals (N), [Adj. to "sandals" {from the heels (N) } {of which (PRN) } grew living wings
(N) ]. |
Notes
1. See KISS Level 3.2.2 - “So” and “For” as Conjunctions.
2. For an alternative explanation, see KISS Level 2.1.3 - Expletives (Optional).
3. “Below” is a preposition with an ellipsed object (“it”). The prepositional phrase clearly
modifies “cliff,” even though its meaning is adverbial. This happens as a result of ellipsis. It
means “the cliff *which was* below *it*.” The adjectival clause is reduced to just the
preposition. [Note that most grammar textbooks never get near this type of construction.]
4. This “and” joins the two subjects of “appeared”—“Pallas Athene” and “man.”
5. “Light-limbed” is a Post-Positioned Adjective, a reduction of the adjectival clause—“*who
was* light-limbed.” See KISS Level 5.5 - Post-Positioned Adjectives.
6. Alternatively, “than the stag” can be explained as an ellipsed adverbial clause—“than the stag
*is light-limbed*.”
7. “Whose,” like “his” in the next sentence, is a possessive pronoun that functions as an adjective
(just as possessive nouns do).
8. “All” can be explained in at least two ways. For one, it can be explained as a pronoun that
functions as an appositive to “diamond.” Or it can be seen as an adverb (“completely”) that
functions as an adverb to the following prepositional phrase.
36
[Ex. 2 * Number - Creating Plurals]
[Ex. 3 * Number - Irregular Plurals]
Ex. 4. Replacing Nouns with Pronouns - From Growth in English: Seventh
Year
1. [DO "I told Mary (IO) [DO that I would help her (IO),"]] said Helen. |
2. What time [#1] will you be ready (PA), James [DirA]? |
3. The wife {of the witness} sat {behind him}. |
4. Mary and Jane said [DO they would serve {on the committee}]. |
5. The captain told the men (IO) [DO that they must be ready (PA) {at dawn}]. |
6. The leader insisted [DO that he had given the correct command (DO)]. |
7. Jack had the measles (DO) | and he was very sick (PA). |
8. Anna washed and ironed her dress (DO). |
9. The train is coming. | We can hear it (DO). |
10. Mother promised Jean (IO) and Jerry (IO) [DO that she would take them
(DO) {to the fair}]. |
Notes
1. “Time” can be explained as a Noun Used as an Adverb [See KISS Level 2.3.] or as the object
of an ellipsed preposition “At.”
Ex. 5.a. From Heidi by Johanna Spyri (Ex. 1)
Because the color codes should explain the function of most adjectives and adverbs, notes
have been used only for those cases that might require explanation. (Unlike the analysis keys for
most exercises, the functions of individual words within prepositional phrases are color coded
here.)
37
1. He did not often get such a treasure (DO), | and therefore [#1] his face was beaming |
and he laughingly dropped the money (DO) deep [#2] {into his pocket}. |
2. Heidi looked thoughtfully {at her fresh, new bed}. |
3. The strong wind nearly blew her (DO) {from her seat}. |
4. Suddenly she heard a loud, sharp scream (DO). |
5. Heidi suddenly wiped away her tears (DO), [Adv. (cause) to "wiped away" [#3] for she
had had a cheering thought (DO) ]. |
6. Blue and yellow flowers graciously greeted her (DO) {at every step}. |
7. The old grandmother alone [#4] stuck {to him} faithfully. |
8. She unexpectedly found herself (DO) {on a high white bed} {in a spacious room} [#5]. |
9. A black stream {of ink} flowed darkly {across the length} {of the room}. |
10. Clara had a pale, thin face (DO) {with soft blue eyes}, [Adj. to "eyes" which {at that
moment} were watching the clock (DO) impatiently]. |
Notes
1. Some grammarians call “therefore” a conjunctive adverb because it helps connect two main
clauses. Note that “and therefore” could be replaced by “so,” but so doing would make the
subordinate clause an adverbial clause of result.
2. Expect students who have not studied prepositional phrases to be confused by this. The adverb
“deep” modifies the following adverbial prepositional phrase.
3. See KISS Level 3.2.2 - “So” and “For” as Conjunctions.
4. If a student wanted to explain “alone” as an adverb to “stuck,” I would accept it, but I would
probably also ask the class how many of them see that as an acceptable explanation.
5. Because our brains tend to chunk constructions to the nearest thing that makes sense, I’ve
marked the “in” phrase as adjectival and embedded in the preceding phrase, and thus
modifying “bed.” I would also accept it as an adverbial phrase to “found.”
38
Ex. 5.b. From Heidi by Johanna Spyri (Ex. 2)
Because the color codes should explain the function of most adjectives and adverbs, notes
have been used only for those cases that might require explanation. (Unlike the analysis keys for
most exercises, the functions of individual words within prepositional phrases are color coded
here.)
1. Heidi could hardly tear herself (DO) away {from the pretty kittens}. |
2. They both played happily {with the two graceful creatures}. |
3. Sebastian obediently pulled the dirty street-boy (DO) {after him}. |
4. The grandmama, {with her kind and loving way}, immediately befriended the child
(DO). |
5. But poor Mr. Sesemann, unfortunately [#1], did not get his answer (DO), and had to
listen {to very long-winded explanations} {of the child's character}. |
6. He has a friendly laugh (DO) and wears a gold pendant (DO) {with a red stone} {on
his thick gold chain}. |
7. The slowly setting sun was shedding a golden light (DO) {over everything}. |
8. She would look {at the beautiful pictures} and read all the stories (DO) aloud {to
Clara}. |
9. Grandmama would quietly listen and explain something (DO) here and there. |
10. Sebastian was placing footstools (DO) {in front} {of nearly every armchair}, | and
Miss Rottenmeier walked {with great dignity} {about the house}, inspecting
everything [#2]. |
Notes
1. Although most grammars (including KISS) explain “unfortunately as an adverb, consider how
close it is to an interjection—it interjects the writer’s evaluation of the “not.”
2. “Everything” is the direct object of the verbal (gerundive) “inspecting.” The gerundive phrase
functions as an adjective to “Miss Rottenmeier.”
39
Ex. 6.a. Identifying Phrases 10 Sentences from “The Gorgon’s Head”
40
Complete Analysis Key
1. This fisherman was an exceedingly humane and upright man (PN). |
2. So [#3] this bad-hearted king spent a long while (DO) [#4] {in considering [#5] [DO what
[#1]
was the most dangerous thing [Adj. to "thing" that a young man could possibly
undertake ]] }. |
3. The bridal gift [Adj. to "gift" which [#6] I have set my heart (DO) {on presenting} {to
the beautiful Hippodamia}] is the head (PN) {of the Gorgon Medusa [#7] } {with the snaky
locks}. |
4. You must bring it (DO) home [NuA] {in the very best condition}, {in order} to suit the
exquisite taste [#8] {of the beautiful Princess Hippodamia}. |
5. The only good man {in this unfortunate island} {of Seriphus} appears to have been the
fisherman (PN). |
6. Medusa's snakes will sting him (DO) soundly!
7. The three sisters were really a very frightful and mischievous species (PN) {of dragon}. |
8. The teeth {of the Gorgons} were terribly long tusks (PN). |
9. Every feather {in them} was pure, bright, glittering, burnished gold (PN), | and they
looked very dazzlingly. |
10. Not only [#9] must he fight with [#10] and slay this golden-winged, iron-scaled, longtusked, brazen-clawed, snaky-haired monster (DO), | but he must do it (DO) {with
his eyes shut [#11] } . |
Notes
1. Expect some students to have problems identifying this “what” as the subject of “was.” A
section of Level 1.6 explores pronouns as the subjects of verbs in multi-SVC patterned
sentences in more detail.
41
2. That possessive nouns function as adjectives is the focus of exercise seven.
3. This “So” can be explained either as an adverb or as a coordinating conjunction. See KISS
Level 3.2.2 - “So” and “For” as Conjunctions.
4. I see “while” as referring to time, and thus answering the question “spent what?” If someone
prefers to see it as answering the question “how much?” and thus explaining it as a noun that
functions as an adverb, I would accept that.
5. “Considering” is a verbal (in this case, a gerund) that functions as the object of the preposition
“in.” The following “what” clause is the direct object of “considering,” and thus this
prepositional phrase continues to the end of this sentence.
6. This “which” functions simultaneously as the subordinating conjunction and as the direct
object of the gerund “presenting.” “Presenting” functions as the object of the preposition
“on.”
7. “Gorgon Medusa” can be considered a specific name, or, perhaps preferably, “Medusa” can be
seen as an appositive to “Gorgon.” See KISS Level 5.4 - Appositives.
8. “Taste” is the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) “to suit.” The infinitive phrase functions
as an adjective to “order,” in the prepositional phrase that functions as an adverb (of
purpose) to “must bring.”
9. “Not only . . . but (also) . . . ” functions as a coordinating conjunction.
10. This “with” is an ellipsed prepositional phrase—“fight with *the monster.”
11. “Eyes shut” is a noun absolute that functions as the object of the preposition “with.” See
KISS Level 5.8 - Noun Absolutes.
42
Ex. 6.b. Identifying Phrases A Passage from “The Gorgon's Head”
43
Complete Analysis Key
PERSEUS was the son (PN) {of Danaë}, [Adj. to "Danaë" who was the daughter
(PN) {of a king}]. | And [Adv. to "put" when Perseus was a very little boy (PN) ], some
wicked people put his mother (DO) and himself (DO) {into a chest}, and set them
(DO) afloat {upon the sea}. | The wind blew freshly, and drove the chest (DO) away
{from the shore}, | and the uneasy billows tossed it (DO) up and down; [#3] [Adv. to
"tossed" while Danaë clasped her child (DO) closely {to her bosom}, and dreaded [DO
of "dreaded" that some big wave would dash its foamy crest (DO) {over them both [#4] }
]]. | The chest sailed on, however, and neither sank nor was upset; [#3] [Adv. to "sailed"
until, [Adv. to "floated" when night was coming], it floated so [#5] {near an island}
[Adv. (result) to "so" that it got entangled (P) {in a fisherman's nets}, and was drawn (P)
out high [#6] and dry [#6] {upon the sand}]]. | The island was called (P) Seriphus (RPN)
[#7]
, | and it was reigned (P) over {by King Polydectes}, [Adj. to "King Polydectes" who
happened to be the fisherman's brother (PN)]. |
Notes
1. Because they have not yet studied prepositional phrases, most students will probably mark
“Danaë” as the subject of “was.” The use of pronouns as subjects in multi-SVC patterned
sentences is the focus of an exercise in KISS Level 1.6.
2. Expect students to be confused by “upset.” It can be viewed as part of a passive verb phrase or
as a predicate adjective. See “Predicate Adjective or Part of the Verb?” in KISS Level 1.3.
3. In this short passage, Hawthorne twice used semicolons to separate subordinate clauses from
their main clauses. You probably will not find this discussed in most grammar textbooks.
The semicolon before “until” is interesting because it tends to throw the subordinate clause
back over the verbs “sank” and “was upset” to the first verb in the sentence, “sailed.”
44
4. “Both” can be explained as a pronoun that functions as an appositive to “them.” See KISS
Level 5.4 - Appositives. Or it can be considered a post-positioned adjective to “them.” See
KISS Level 5.5 - Post-Positioned Adjectives.
5. The adverb “so” modifies the following prepositional phrase. (You will probably have a hard
time finding this explained in most grammar textbooks.)
6. “High” and “dry” are retained predicate adjectives in an ellipsed infinitive construction after
the passive “was drawn.” The active voice version would essentially be “The nets drew it
out *to be* high and dry.” Thus “high” and “dry” are predicate adjectives that describe “it”
(the chest) after the ellipsed infinitive. See “Retained Complements” in KISS Level 5.7 Passive Voice and Retained Complements.
7. Comparable to “high” and “dry,” “Seriphus” is a retained predicate noun after the passive
“was called.” The active voice version would be “They called the island *to be* Seriphus.”
Ex. 7 Possessive Nouns and Pronouns Function as Adjectives
1. The robin’s song reached the sick man’s darkened room (DO). |
2. June’s lovely days bring buds (DO) and flowers (DO). |
3. The brook’s clear surface reflected the moon’s silver rays (DO). |
4. The teacher’s explanation made the example clear [#1]. |
5. The flowers’ fragrance completely filled the invalid’s room (DO). |
6. Were John’s clothes well made (P)? |
7. The tree’s leaves absorb the atmosphere’s poisons (DO). |
8. The boy’s flesh was pierced (P). |
9. The graceful maple tree has shed its beautiful scarlet leaves (DO). |
10. The audience admired the lawyer’s speech (DO). |
Note
45
1. Expect students to be confused here. They will sense that the answer to “Made what?” is not
“example,” nor “clear,” but rather “example clear.” They will not, however, know how to
explain this. In KISS Level Four, they will learn that “example” is the subject of, and “clear”
is a predicate adjective after the ellipsed infinitive “to be.” The infinitive phrase functions as
the direct object of “made.”
Ex. 8. Fill in the Blanks: From Heidi by Johanna Spyri
Originals:
1. A tall girl, with light hair and rosy face, was clearly leaning on Heidi, whose dark
eyes sparkled with keen delight.
2. When Clara had looked a long time at the cloudless sky above and all the rocky
crags, she said longingly: "I wish I could walk round the hut to the fir-trees.
3. A beautiful bunch of wondrously blue gentians stood as if they had grown there.
4. A cool morning breeze fanned their cheeks, and the spicy fragrance from the firtrees filled their lungs with every breath.
5. Day after day the sun shone on a cloudless sky, and at night it would pour its
purple, rosy light down on the rocks and snow-fields till everything seemed to
glow like fire.
6. A strong wind was blowing, which at this moment violently closed the shop-door.
7. They had been sitting quietly for a few hours, drinking in the beauty about them,
when Heidi suddenly began to long for the spot where so many flowers grew.
8. Near together in big patches the bluebells were nodding gently in the breeze.
9. The poor boy was mightily bewildered, for he had dreamt that the rolling-chair
with the red cushions stood again before his eyes.
10. He had carefully gathered a glorious bunch of deep-blue gentians.
46
[Ex. 9 Adjectives (Synonyms)]
[Ex. 10 Adjectives (Antonyms)]
Ex. 11.a. Adapted from The Mother Tongue, Book II
Note that unlike most of the analysis keys, in this one the adjectives and adverbs within
prepositional phrases are color coded as individual words.
1. The starving [1] man then [2] ate greedily [3]. |
2. The three [4] men plodded wearily [5] back [6] {to their old [7] shack}. |
3. Mary explained her [8] problem (DO) very [9] clearly [10]. |
4. Jessica's [11] big [12] brown [13] eyes barely [14] saw the bird slowly [15] move [#1]. |
5. Bobby ran away [16] so [17] fast [18] [Adv. (result) to "so" that his [19] father did not [20]
see him (DO)]. |
1. starving
2. then
3. greedily
4. three
5. wearily
6. back
7. old
8. her
9. very
10. clearly
11. Jessica’s
12. big
13. brown
14. barely
15. slowly
16. away
17. so
18. fast
Adjective to “man”
Adverb to “ate”
Adverb to “ate”
Adjective to “men”
Adverb to “plodded”
Adverb to “plodded”
Adjective to “shack”
Adjective to “problem”
Adverb to “clearly”
Adverb to “explained”
Adjective to “eyes”
Adjective to “eyes”
Adjective to “eyes”
Adverb to “saw”
Adverb to “move”
Adverb to “ran”
Adverb to “fast”
Adverb to “ran”
Identity
Time
Manner
Identity
Manner
Space
Identity
Identity
Degree
Manner
Identity
Identity
Identity
Degree
Manner
Space
Degree
Manner
What kind of?
When?
How?
How many?
How?
In which direction?
What kind of?
Whose?
How much?
How?
Whose?
What kind of?
What kind of?
How much?
How?
Where?
How much?
How?
47
19. his
20. not
Adjective to “father”
Adverb to “see”
Identity
Degree
Whose?
How much?
Note
1. At this KISS Level, I would simply accept “bird” as the direct object of “saw.” If you are
having students identify subjects and verbs, expect them to have trouble with “move.” When
they get to KISS Level Four, they will learn that “bird” is the subject of the verbal
(infinitive) “move.” The infinitive phrase is the direct object of “saw.”
Ex. 11.b. Based on The Queen of the Pirate Isle, by Bret Harte
Note that unlike most of the analysis keys, in this one the adjectives and adverbs within
prepositional phrases are color coded as individual words.
1. I first [1] knew her (DO) {as the Queen} {of the Pirate [2] Isle}. |
2. {To the best} {of my [3] recollection} she had no reasonable [4] right (DO) {to that [5]
title}. |
3. Her personation {of a certain Mrs. Smith} was never [6] perfectly [7] appreciated (P) {by
her own circle}. |
4. Wan Lee's [8] silent, stolid, mechanical [9] performance {of a Pirate's duties} had been
their one delight (PN) and fascination (PN)! |
5. [DO [#1] "*You* Go {to bed} instantly [10] {without your supper},"] she said, seriously
[11]
.|
6. Thither [12] they solemnly [13] proceeded {along the ridge} {in single [14] file}. |
7. The eyes {of the four [15] children} became rounder (PA) and rounder (PA). |
8. The continual [16] traffic had gradually [17] worn a shallow gully (DO) {into the face}
{of the mountain}. |
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9. She felt very [18] lonely (PA) [#2], but was not [19] quite [20] afraid (PA); | she felt very
melancholy (PA), but was not entirely sad (PA). |
1. first
2. Pirate
3. my
4. reasonable
5. that
6. never
7. perfectly
8. Wan Lee’s
9. mechanical
10. instantly
11. seriously
12. Thither
13. solemnly
14. single
15. four
16. continual
17. gradually
18. very
19. not
20. quite
Adverb to “knew”
Adjective to “Isle”
Adjective to “recollection”
Adjective to “right”
Adjective to “title”
Adverb to “perfectly”
Adverb to “was
appreciated”
Adjective to performance”
Adjective to performance”
Adverb to “Go”
Adverb to “said”
Adverb to “proceeded”
Adverb to “proceeded”
Adjective to “file”
Adjective to “children”
Adjective to “traffic”
Adverb to “had worn”
Adverb to “lonely”
Adverb to “quite”
Adverb to “afraid”
Time
Identity
Identity
Identity
Identity
Time Degree
When?
Which?
Whose?
What kind of?
Which?
When? How often?
Manner Degree
How? How much?
Identity
Identity
Time
Manner
Space
Manner
Identity
Identity
Identity
Time; Degree
Degree
Degree
Degree
Whose?
What kind of?
When?
How?
Where?
How?
What kind of?
How many?
What kind of?
When? How much?
How much?
How much?
How much?
Notes
1. For an alternative explanation of the clause structure, see KISS Level 3.2.3 - Interjection? Or
Direct Object?
2. Some people will justifiably see “lonely” as an adverb here, but note that later in the sentence
we find “felt . . . melancholy,” and “melancholy” is not an adverb. Thus the preferred KISS
explanation here is to consider both “lonely” and “melancholy” as predicate adjectives in
palimpsest patterns. See KISS Level 2.1.4 - Palimpsest Patterns.
Ex. 12 From John Steinbeck’s The Red Pony
The referent of most adjectives and adverbs should be obvious, so notes are provided only
for questionable cases.
49
{In the humming heat} {of a midsummer afternoon} the little boy Jody [#1] listlessly
looked {about the ranch} {for something} to do [#2]. | He had been {to the barn}, had
thrown rocks (DO) {at the swallows' nests} {under the eaves} [Adv. to had thrown" until
every one {of the little mud houses} broke open (PA) [#3] and dropped its lining (DO)
{of straw and dirty feathers}]. | Then {at the ranch house} he baited a rat trap (DO) {with
stale cheese} and set it (DO) [Adv. to "set" where Doubletree Mutt, that good big dog
[#4]
, would get his nose snapped [#5] ]. | Jody was not moved (P) {by an impulse} {of
cruelty}; [#6] | he was bored (P) {with the long hot afternoon}. | Doubletree Mutt put his
stupid nose (DO) {in the trap} and got it smacked [#5], and shrieked {with agony} and
limped away {with blood} {on his nostrils}. | No matter [#7] [ where he was hurt (P) ], Mutt
limped. | It was just a way (PN) [Adj. to "way" he had]. | Once [ [#8] when he was
young (PA)], Mutt got caught (P) {in a coyote trap}, and always {after that} [#9] he
limped, even [#10] [Adv. to "limped" when he was scolded (P) ]. |
Notes
1. “Jody” is an appositive to “boy.” See KISS Level 5.4 - Appositives.
2. The verbal (infinitive) “to do” functions as an adjective to “something.”
3. How most grammarians would explain “open” is an interesting question. (You’ll have a hard
time finding some explanations in textbooks.) In KISS, this is simply a palimpsest pattern
with “broke” written over “became.” See KISS Level 2.1.4 - Palimpsest Patterns.
4. “Dog” is an appositive to “Doubletree Mutt.”
5. Expect students to be confused by this. Obviously, he is not going to get his “nose.” Thus
“nose” does not make sense as a direct object. At KISS Level 5.8, most people will probably
prefer to consider “nose snapped” as a noun absolute that functions as the direct object of
“would get.”
50
6. If you happen to be using this exercise with students who are working at KISS Level 3.1.1 Main Clauses, note how this semicolon separates two main contrasting main clauses—what
he was not, and what he was moved by.
7. This “No matter” construction is idiomatic (learned as a phrase rather than developed as a
grammatical construction. We can analyze it as an ellipsed noun absolute that functions as
an adverb to “limped” -- [Where he was hurt] *being” no matter *of relevance,” Mutt
limped.” See KISS Level 5.8 - Noun Absolutes.
8. This clause can be seen as adverbial to “Once,” and “Once” is adverbial to “got caught,” or the
clause can be seen as directly adverbial to “got caught.”
9. “After that” functions as an adverb to (limits) “always.”
10. Note how “even” modifies the following subordinate clause.
K
KIISSSS L
Leevveell 11.. 33.. A
Addddiinngg C
Coom
mpplleem
meennttss ((PPA
A,, PPN
N,, IIO
O,, D
DO
O))
KISS Level 1.3 may be the “make or break” point in using the KISS Approach
because (unlike most pedagogical grammars) it introduces students to procedures—
short sequences of questions—that they should use to identify the types of
complements (predicate adjectives, predicate nouns, indirect and direct objects).
Many students refuse to do this, but if they do not learn how to use sequences of
questions to analyze sentences, they will have major problems not only with most of
KISS Grammar, but also with math and many other subjects, including the writing
process. For more on this, see “Emphasizing the Analytical Process,” below.
Notes for Teachers—The Grammarians’ Secret
The “What”
Once students can identify most subjects and finite verbs in a sentence, the next step is to
add complements. A complement, very simply, is whatever answers the questions “Whom?”
or “What?” after a verb. As noted in the discussion of KISS differences, KISS offers the S/V/C
pattern as the basis of a sentence rather than the traditional “subject and predicate.” (See “The
Differences between KISS and Traditional Terms” in the Background Essays.) Traditional
grammar books rarely enable students to analyze complicated sentences because they basically
ignore complements. Thus they cannot give students an essential, invariable guideline—the
51
complement of one verb can never be the subject of another verb. As you will see as you get into
the analysis of complicated sentences, this guideline is extremely important.
Distinguishing the Types of Complements—The Grammarians’ Secret
Traditionally, grammarians have focused on categorizing words, not on analyzing sentences.
Because verbs are so central to the language, the grammarians have given them a lot of attention.
One of the things they have done is to put them into three categories—transitive, intransitive, and
“linking.” Following the grammarians, the textbooks have uselessly tortured students with
definitions of “transitive” and “intransitive,” and with lists of “linking” verbs. I say “uselessly”
because most college Freshmen cannot identify a verb in the first place, and because even many
teachers find the categories to be confusing. (I’m thinking of the teacher on NCTE-Talk who
advocated the teaching of grammar and asked why we no longer teach “transient” and
“intransient” verbs.) KISS skips this whole problem by simply using the methods that the
grammarians used to derive the three categories in the first place.
Grammarians noted that some verbs take indirect and/or direct objects -- Our cat brought us
(IO) a mouse (DO). They named these verbs “transitive.” They also noted that some verbs are
not followed by words that answer the questions “Whom?” or “What?” (She runs every day.)
They named these verbs “intransitive.” And they noted that some verbs take predicate nouns or
predicate adjectives. (She is a teacher (PN). She is smart (PA).) They categorized these verbs as
“linking.” Because most grammar textbooks do not teach students to identify complements in the
first place, they cannot use this method for teaching the three categories of verbs. But KISS does,
and thus KISS can.
The three categories of verbs are more important as vocabulary words than they are as
analytical tools, so KISS basically ignores them, opting for the sentence patterns instead. But if
you do want to teach students the differences among transitive, intransitive, and linking verbs,
begin with the normal KISS process for distinguishing complements, and then give the students
the information in the preceding paragraph.
Distinguishing the types of complements is not really necessary in order to understand the
syntactic connections in a sentence. It is, however, very important for helping students
understand the logic of sentence structure. Most important of all is an understanding of predicate
nouns. A predicate noun in some way equals the subject. (That is how KISS teaches it. See the
52
instructional material.) Students, however, often use the pattern improperly. One student, for a
simple example, wrote, “The practice room is the only time I can get away.” But a room is not a
time. Thus the primary reason for having students distinguish the types of complements is to help
them keep the logic of their writing clear.
I might note, by the way, that S/V/PN patterns are also the expected beginning sentences of
formal definitions. In upper level courses, some students lose a lot of credit because, when asked
to define a term, they will explain what it does, where it is, why it works, but they never give the
instructor the required information regarding what it is.
If you are working with randomly selected texts, tell students that there are some
complements that you expect them to miss. Among these are infinitive phrases:
Gerald wanted Bill to leave.
Students will clearly see that the answer to the question “Gerald wanted what?” is “Bill to
leave,” but “Bill to leave” is not a simple complement. Thus they will be confused. Similarly,
they will be confused by clauses:
Geraldine hoped that Sunday would come soon.
When they first start exploring for complements, students will be looking for single words. The
clause will confuse them.
I would strongly suggest that you not try to teach them infinitives, clauses, etc. at this point.
If you do, you will be following in the footsteps of most grammar textbooks—trying to teach
everything at once and effectively teaching nothing. On the other side of the question, students
should be expected to identify all of the single-word complements in any sentence:
Susan played baseball (DO) in the morning, tennis (DO) in the
afternoon, and soccer (DO) in the evening.
Technically, such compounding is the focus of KISS Level 1.4, but most students should have
little trouble with the underlying idea, even though they may not remember the term
“compound” at this point.
Emphasizing the Analytical Process
and
Teaching Students How to Think Better
53
Many students strongly resist learning to use an instructional sequence—a set series of
questions—to arrive at the answer to a problem. This has been noted by Arthur Whimbey in
Blueprint for Educational Change, by Jane Healy in Endangered Minds, and by many others.
Failure to master the very idea of using a process to figure out the answer to a problem accounts
in large part for the problems that students have with math. (Remember how math teachers
typically insist that students “show their work”?) As Art Whmiby notes, “strong” students break
any task down into steps; “weak” students think that one either knows the answer or one does
not.
In Endangered Minds: Why Children Don’t Think—and What We Can Do About It, Jane
Healy discusses the following question (p. 189):
National Math Assessment:
Sample Question
Only 6.4% of the 17-year-olds could solve multi-step problems like
this one:
R
S
40
35
25
15
T
V
W
In the figure above, R, S, T, V, and W represent numbers. The
figure is called a magic square because adding the numbers in any
row or column or diagonal results in the same sum. What is the
value of R? 30; 40; 50; can’t tell.
Source: “The Mathematics Report Card: Are We Measuring-Up?”
54
As the figure notes, “Only 6.4% of the 17-year-olds could solve multi-step problems like this
one.”
The point here is that simply understanding the importance of solving multi-step problems is
a foundation stone of a good education. In some cases, as in math and in KISS Grammar,
students can actually be given the specific series of steps. Note that in the math problem above,
however, that students have to figure it out for themselves. By giving students the specific steps,
and by forcing students to learn and use those steps, KISS can both make such problems easier
and help students understand the importance of using steps to solve problems.
In the teaching of writing, “the writing process” has been a major focus for the last two
decades. Most weak writers believe that writing a paper is a one-shot deal. One simple sits down
and writes it. Good writers, however, know that good writing requires a process—brainstorming,
tentative outlining, drafting, revising, perhaps more brainstorming, revising again, and finally
editing. It is, however, one thing to “teach” the process; getting students to use it is something
entirely different.
Some of my college Freshmen have explained that resistance to process results from
laziness, irresponsibility, or the distraction of too many college parties. Some educators have
argued that our educational system itself reinforces the belief in facts—the “right” answers.
Perhaps many students logically use this focus on facts to justify their resistance to learning a
process. After all, if the answers are what are important, why waste time and effort learning a
process? A process is not an answer.
I have belabored this point because in KISS Level 1.3, students should be encouraged to
learn the first of several processes (sets of steps) that make grammar much easier to understand.
If, in other words, you can convince students to learn and use these steps, you may be able to
convince them that other processes (in math, writing, etc.) can also be very useful. In still other
words, you may be able to teach students how to think better.
The “How”
As noted above, KISS Level 1.3 is the first of many KISS Levels that really depend on
students learning how to use a multi-step approach to getting the “right” answer. In fact, this
level includes two steps, the second of which itself is a series of steps. The first step is to identify
55
complements as complements. To identify complements, students need to memorize and learn to
use the following:
To find a complement of a verb, ask the question “whom or what?” after the verb.
Note that the question must be “whom or what?” Other questions, such as “how?” “when?”
“where?” or “why?” will identify adverbs, but not complements.
The second step is to identify the types of the complements. The instructional material for
students includes some examples, but the sequence itself is:
1. If nothing answers the question “Verb + whom or what?”, the pattern is S/V. [STOP:
You have your answer.]
2. If the word that answers the question describes the subject, the pattern is S/V/PA.
[STOP: You have your answer.]
3. If the word that answers the question is a noun (or pronoun) that renames the subject
and the verb implies an equality or identity between subject and complement, the
pattern is S/V/PN. [STOP: You have your answer.]
4. If a word or construction answers the question is not a predicate noun or predicate
adjective, it has to be an indirect or direct object. An indirect object indicates the
person “for” or “to” whom something is done. [STOP: You have your answer.]
5. Any other complement has to be a direct object.
Remember that “complement” is simply one word which can be used instead of repeating the
five possibilities: Zero Complement, Predicate Adjective, Predicate Noun, Indirect and/or Direct
Object. Note too that the sequence is an exercise in Boolean logic that can also be illustrated as a
flow chart.
Ideally students should start by studying the instructional materials for both identifying
complements and for identifying their type. Personally, I would not ask students to memorize the
instructional material before they start doing exercises. Simply let them use the instructional
material as they do the first few exercises—most students will probably absorb the sequence in
this way. At some point, however, you may want to give a quiz to see if they have it. The
answers to such a quiz can be “short-hand”—“describes subject = PA” etc.
Because some students have trouble both with multi-step procedures and with limiting the
question for a complement to “whom or what?” you may want to separate instruction into two
56
parts. Thus, you can have the students simply label complements as “C” in a few exercises. Once
students are fairly comfortable with identifying complements as complements, give them the
sequence for identifying the types of complements.
In either case, you will probably find that all students will learn faster if you review two or
three exercises in class. Indeed, some students will not learn to use the procedure unless you use
it to review some exercises in class. Many students also like to use the KISS Grammar Game.
(See “An Overview of the Types of KISS Exercises,” in the Background Essays.)
Empress upon students the importance of working systematically. Systematic thinking is
another skill that many students lack. Students should first find the verb, then the subject(s) of
that verb, then any complements for that verb. Then they should check for any other verbs in the
sentence. If there is one, they should underline it, find its subject(s) and its complement(s). If
there are none, they should go on to the next sentence. (Once they add prepositional phrases to
their analytical toolboxes, students should begin by finding all the prepositional phrases in a
sentence first, and then the verb/subject/complement patterns.)
A systematic approach to one’s task is a key characteristic of good thinking. It will also
make it much easier to understand sentence structure. If you do not emphasize systematic
thinking, you will find that many students will underline a verb here, a subject three sentences
further into the text, etc. In essence, they will be looking to identify individual words rather than
patterns. Pattern recognition is another major skill of good thinkers. Don’t forget to remind the
students that there are mistakes that they are expected to make at this level.
Another Problem — Predicate Adjective or Part of the Verb Phrase?
If you have students analyze randomly selected texts, including samples of their own
writing, you will run into another problem that is rarely, if ever, discussed in grammar textbooks.
Consider the following two sentences:
1. He was worried about the game.
2. The Eagles were defeated by the Patriots.
In (1), “worried” describes the emotional state of “He” more than it denotes any particular
action. But in (2), “were defeated” denotes a specific action performed by the Patriots. Thus
some grammarians would consider “worried” a predicate adjective, whereas “were defeated”
should be considered as a finite verb in the passive voice.
57
In effect, the two constructions, S/V/PA and passive voice slide into each other, and thus
how you should explain it depends on how you interpret the sentence. Passive voice is, I should
note, an “advanced” question (KISS Level 5.7). But at Level 1.3, the problem is that some
students will mark both “worried” and “defeated” as predicate adjectives. At this level, therefore,
I would gently nudge students toward considering these predicate adjectives that are based on
verbs to all be part of the finite verb. Once students learn about passive voice, they can begin to
deal with the “passive voice or predicate adjective” problem. (This is, you may have noted,
another application of Jerome Bruner’s concept of the “spiral curriculum.”)
The Sequence of the Thirteen Exercises in KISS Level 1.3
Exercise One (a-d) present students with sentences that have a mix of complements. If you
can get students to remember and use the analytical process, you should be able to skip exercises
two through six, each of which focuses on a specific type of complement.
Exercise seven (“Verbs as Subjects or Complements”) introduces students to relatively
simple sentences such as “Swimming is good exercise.” or “They like hiking.” Technically,
“Swimming” and “hiking” are verbals (verbs that function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs), but
students do not need to know that yet. (Distinguishing finite verbs from verbals is the focus of
KISS Level 2.1.6.) But even very young students, if they analyze their own writing, will run
across sentences in which a verbal functions as a subject or a complement. Thus the purpose of
this exercise is to introduce the idea. In sentences such as “Swimming is good exercise,” most
students will automatically guess that “Swimming” is the subject. Thus this exercise simply
confirms that they are right.
Exercise eight is on the “predicate adjective or part of the verb” problem. Nine invites
students to write sentences using various types of complements. Ten presents a passage for
analysis (as opposed to isolated sentences). Eleven is a “Just for Fun” practice exercise.
Remember that the on-line section for this KISS Level includes additional exercises (most of
which are used in other grade-level books). Another excellent way of teaching students is to have
them make similar exercises for their classmates, preferably based on what they are reading.
Finally, to end this KISS Level, have students analyze a short passage of their own writing.
58
Ex. 1 a - From The Secret Garden, by Frances Hodgson Burnett
1. The robin was very pert (PA) and lively (PA). |
2. She was making heaps (DO) {of earth and paths} {for a garden} [#1]. |
3. I am Mary Lennox (PN). |
4. You are going {to your uncle}. |
5. It actually gave Mary (IO) a queer feeling (DO) {in her heart}. |
6. They were obsequious (PA) and servile (PA). |
7. A man gave me (IO) a ride (DO) {in his cart}. |
8. He lives {in a great, big, desolate old house} {in the country}. |
9. Basil was a little boy (PN) {with impudent blue eyes and a turned-up nose}. |
10. But the flower-beds were bare (PA) and wintry (PA). |
Note
1. Note that the prepositional phrase “for a garden” can be seen as explaining the purpose—and
thus as an adverb to “was making.” It can, however, also easily be seen as modifying the
“heaps” and/or “earth and paths.” From this perspective it would function as an adjective.
The same alternatives apply to “in her heart” in the fifth sentence.
Ex. 1 b - From the Writing of Sixth Graders
1. That day was rainy (PA) and cold (PA). |
2. I was {in a cast} {for six months}. |
3. It is a great show (PN). |
4. He saved us (DO) {from a black bear}. |
5. We were cold (PA), | and the day was getting late (PA) [#1]. |
59
6. I gave you (IO) enough reasons (DO). |
7. His family lives {in the back} {of the house}. |
8. That's my first reason (PN). |
9. Boy Meets World teaches people (IO) important lessons (DO) {about life}. |
10. {On the way} back [#2] {to our camp} I heard a threatening growl (DO). |
Notes
1. Some people will see “late” as an adverb here, and I would accept that response. It depends on
whether one sees “late” as answering the question “What?” or “When?’
2. “Back” clearly modifies “way,” so it is an adjective to it.
Ex. 1.c - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri
1. Grandmother [DirA], shall I read you (IO) a song (DO) {from your book} now? |
2. Why have you come down here? |
3. Suddenly the doctor raised his finger (DO). |
4. This book became her dearest treasure (PN). |
5. Miss Rottenmeier told him (IO) her fears (DO) {about Heidi's mind}. |
6. His brain got dizzy (PA). |
7. Grandmother's blindness was always a great sorrow (PN) {to the child} [#1]. |
8. Not a sound came {from the street}. |
9. My poor eyes can neither see the snow (DO) nor the light (DO). |
10. [Adv. to "was" Though his hair was grey (PA)], his face was still fresh (PA), | and
his eyes were lively (PA) and kind (PA). |
60
Notes
1. Alternatively, “to the child” can be explained as an adverb to “was.” (Note that it could be
moved to the beginning of the sentence.)
Ex. 1.d - Based on The Queen of the Pirate Isle, by Bret Harte
Note that this exercise challenges students by giving them multiple S/V/C patterns in the
same sentence, even before the students have studied compounding in Level 1.4. Praise the
students who do not simply stop after identifying one pattern.
1. {At supper}, she timidly asked Bridget (IO) a question (DO). |
2. It wasn't a dead man (PN), | it wasn't an animal (PN), | it wasn't a baby (PN)! |
3. She had borrowed {from another's fiction}. |
4. This last infamous suggestion fired the corsair's blood (DO). |
5. The last act was reckless (PA) and irretrievable (PA), | but it was vague (PA). |
6. The eventful day dawned {without any unusual sign} {of importance}. |
7. It was her real existence (PN). |
8. Long waves {of spicy heat} rolling [#1] {up the mountain} {from the valley} brought her
(IO) the smell (DO) {of pine trees and bay}. |
9. {For a moment} the good men held their breath (DO) {in helpless terror}. |
10. She was only nine years [NuA] old (PA). |
11. The entrance {of Polly's mother} {at this moment} put an end (DO) {to Polly's
authority} and dispersed the pirate band (DO). |
Notes
1. “Rolling” is a verbal (gerundive) that modifies “waves.” Expect most students to be confused
by it—KISS does not introduce the finite verb/verbal distinction until Level 2.1.6 -
61
Distinguishing Finite Verbs from Verbals. I wondered about including this sentence, but it
gives you the opportunity to remind students that they are expected to make some mistakes
(and not others).
Ex. 2 - Based on Introductory Lessons in English Grammar
1. The knife was sharp (PA) and keen (PA). |
2. The winter winds are cold (PA) and fierce (PA). |
3. John had been faint (PA) and ill (PA). |
4. Tomorrow we shall be gay (PA) and happy (PA). |
5. The people {of New England} are frugal (PA) and industrious (PA). |
6. Our baby is roguish (PA), winsome (PA), and pretty (PA). |
7. The prince was young (PA) and charming (PA). |
8. The poor beggar’s footstep is lagging (PA) and weary (PA). |
9. *You* Always be careful (PA) {of the feelings} {of others}. |
10. The day is long (PA) and dark (PA) and dreary (PA). |
Ex. 3 - Based on Introductory Lessons in English Grammar
1. My mother is the kindest and dearest friend (PN) {in all my troubles}. |
2. Caesar was undoubtedly a statesman (PN) and a warrior (PN). |
3. The present {from my uncle} was a genuine surprise (PN) {to me}. |
4. A battle {in these times} is a fearful scene (PN). |
5. Little folks are sincere believers (PN) {in Santa Claus}. |
6. Apples and peaches are delicious fruit (PN). |
62
7. The beautiful silver moon is a dead world (PN). |
8. Kings and queens are generally unhappy people (PN). |
9. New York and London are very big and wonderful cities (PN). |
10. Julius Caesar was a very famous Roman general (PN) and emperor (PN). |
Ex. 4 - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri
1. Why do the mountains have no names (DO), grandfather? [DirA] |
2. Sometimes the grandfather would make small round cheeses (DO). |
3. I have never heard the name (DO) before. |
4. Heidi shook her head (DO) doubtfully {at these prospects}. |
5. Suddenly Heidi remembered all the happenings (DO) {of the previous day}. |
6. "Where are you taking the child (DO), Deta [DirA]?" |
7. The girls always spent their evenings (DO) together. |
8. She nearly made a hole (DO) {in my head} just now. |
9. That night [NuA] {at supper} Miss Rottenmeier watched Heidi (DO) constantly. |
10. Mr. Sesemann then explained the circumstances (DO). |
Ex. 5. - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri
1. I shall also give you (IO) a big piece (DO) {of bread}. |
2. Heidi gave him (IO) her hand (DO). |
3. Deta gave Heidi (IO) another blow (DO). |
4. Nobody can ever show me (IO) the light (DO) again. |
63
5. Grandmother [DirA], I shall tell grandfather (IO) {about it}. |
6. Mother and I wish you (IO) a good-afternoon (DO). |
7. Heidi [DirA], *you* bring the goats (IO) some salt (DO). |
8. She had gone {to the housekeeper} and told her (IO) all (DO) {about Heidi}. |
9. You might bring her (IO) some soft white rolls (DO) {of bread}. |
10. The child told him (IO) now {about all the happenings} {of the day}, and especially
{about the wonderful fire}. |
Ex. 6 - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri
1. The wind often blew {in violent gusts} up there. |
2. The sun was already sinking down {behind the mountains}. |
3. {At last} even Peter could not come any more. |
4. Two winters had nearly passed. |
5. The spring was coming again. |
6. The goats ran {after her} {like little dogs}. |
7. Snowdrops were peeping {through the ground}. |
8. Heidi did not stop {at once}. |
9. A ghost is {in the house}. |
10. This cottage rattles and creaks, | and [Adv. to "comes" when the wind blows,] it
comes in {through every chink}. |
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Ex. 7 - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri
(Verbs as Subjects or Complements)
Note: Verbals as subjects and complements are relatively rare, so some of the sentences in
this exercise were made up. For example, I did not find a single infinitive that functions as a
subject in the text of Heidi.
1. Bringing Grandmama soft rolls [#1] {of bread} pleased Heidi (DO). |
2. The children had planned to take (DO) her [#2] {by surprise}. |
3. He could not help thinking (DO) {of the policeman}. |
4. To sit alone day [NuA] {after day} made Peter sad [#3]. |
5. Clara's greatest wish is to be (PN) able to walk [#4]. |
6. Climbing the mountain [#5] up {to the hut} was difficult (PA). |
7. She wanted to see (DO) the happiness [#6] {of her son}. |
8. Heidi really liked living (DO) {on the mountain} {with her Grandfather and the goats}. |
9. Her favorite activity was going (PN) {up the mountain} {with Peter and the goats}. |
10. To live here {in the Alps} would be very good (PA) {for Dr. Classen}. |
Notes
1. “Grandmama” is the indirect and “rolls” is the direct object of the gerund “Bringing.”
2. “Her” is the direct object of the infinitive “to take.”
3. Expect “Peter sad” to somewhat confuse students. Most grammarians consider “peter” to be
the direct object of “made” and “sad” to be an “objective complement.” You can use this
explanation if you wish, but KISS offers an alternative that eliminates the need for
“objective complement.” In the KISS explanation, “Peter” is the subject and “sad” is a
predicate adjective to an ellipsed infinitive “to be”—“made Peter *to be* sad.” The entire
infinitive phrase is then the direct object of “made. “ For more on this, see “ellipsed
infinitives” in KISS Level Four.
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4. “To walk” is an infinitive that functions as an adverb to the adjective “able.” “Able functions
as a predicate adjective to the infinitive “to be.” Thus, the entire “to be” phrase is the
predicate noun to “is.”
5. “Mountain” is the direct object of “Climbing.”
6. “Happiness” is the direct object of “to see.”
PPrreeddiiccaattee A
Addjjeeccttiivvee oorr PPaarrtt ooff tthhee V
Veerrbb PPhhrraassee?? ((B
Baacckkggrroouunndd ffoorr T
Teeaacchheerrss))
There are several things that we need to keep in mind here:
1. KISS may be the only pedagogical grammar that even attempts to teach students how
to analyze the structure of their own sentences.
2. We are dealing here with an advanced question related to passive voice, the focus of
KISS Level 5.7. Most textbooks can’t even teach students to identify verbs in the
first place. As a result, they do very poorly with passive voice and don’t even address
this question.
3. Students are much smarter than we usually give them credit for.
Students unintentionally suggested the need for this exercise as they analyzed randomly selected
sentences. For example, in the sentence “This castle is enchanted,” some students will label
“enchanted” as a predicate adjective. As the instructional material suggests, this is a valid
explanation. It is, after all, an “enchanted castle.” But these same students will tend to eliminate
traditional passive voice by labeling all such sentences in the same way.
A primary purpose of this exercise is to stop the students from doing the latter, while
simultaneously recognizing the students’ intelligence. Passive voice is an important stylistic and
semantic concept. But to understand passive voice, students need to recognize that the verbs in
question are part of the verb phrase. I’d suggest, therefore, that you use this exercise to explain
that there are times when a verb (technically a “verbal”) can function as a predicate adjective, but
at the same time encourage them, for now at least, to consider these verbs as part of the verb
phrase.
Put differently, seeing these verbs as predicate adjectives is a fine point, but it is a fine point
that many students will see for themselves. Because they will do so, we need to address the
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question. Most textbooks, however, do not consider these verbs as predicate adjectives. They
consider all of the sentences in these exercises as passive voice. (In KISS statistical studies, they
are all counted as passive voice.) Let’s give students credit for their intelligence and address the
question.
Ex. 8 - Based on “The Nightingale” From Stories from Hans Andersen
1. The nightingale was always put (P) {above everything else}. |
2. It has never been presented (P) {at court}. |
3. The palace had been brightened (P) up {for the occasion}. |
4. They were all dressed (P) {in their best}. |
5. The emperor was charmed (P). |
6. A ribbon was tied (P) {round its neck}. |
7. A new emperor was already chosen (P). |
8. The real nightingale was banished (P) {from the kingdom}. |
9. Everybody's eyes were turned (P) {towards the little grey bird}. |
10. Cloth had been laid (P) down {in all the rooms and corridors}. |
[Ex. 9 - Writing Sentences with Complements]
Ex. 10 - A Passage for Analysis, From Chapter 22 of Heidi by Johanna Spyri
The sky was a deep blue (PA), | and the snow {on the peaks} was glistening. | The
eagle was floating {above the rocky crags}. | The children felt [#1] wonderfully happy
(PA) [#1]. | Now and then one [#2] {of the goats} would come and lie down {near them}. |
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Tender little Snowhopper came oftener {than any} [#3] and would rub her head (DO)
{against their shoulders}. |
Notes
1. Some students will feel that “happy” answers the question “felt how?” and not “felt what?”
Tell them that they are good thinkers. The problem here is that “happy” is an adjective.
KISS therefore explains this as a palimpsest pattern, with “”felt” written over “were.” (See
KISS Level 2.1.4 - Palimpsest Patterns.) Tell the students that they are expected to run into
some problems and that they will study palimpsest patterns in KISS Level Two.
2. Expect some students to consider “goats” the subject. Again remind them that they are
expected to make mistakes and that they will be studying prepositional phrases in KISS
Level 1.5. (Now you see why KISS insists on the importance of students’ being able to
recognize prepositional phrases.
3. Alternatively, “than any” can be explained as an ellipsed subordinate clause—“than any *of
the other goats came*.”
Ex. 11 - Just for Fun: Tongue Twisters
1. Old oily Ollie oils old oily autos (DO). |
2. Sly Sam slurps Sally's soup (DO). |
3. The two-twenty-two train tore {through the tunnel}. |
4. Ed had edited it (DO). |
5. Crisp crusts crackle crunchily. |
6. Twelve twins twirled twelve twigs (DO). |
7. What time [#1] does the wristwatch strap shop shut? |
8. Are our oars oak (PA)? |
9. Chop shops stock chops (DO). |
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10. The ochre ogre ogled the poker (DO). |
Note
1. This can be explained as a Noun Used as an Adverb, but some people might feel more
comfortable if they assume an ellipsed "At" here, thereby making it a prepositional phrase.
K
KIISSSS L
Leevveell 11..44.. -- C
Coooorrddiinnaattiinngg C
Coonnjjuunnccttiioonnss aanndd C
Coom
mppoouunnddss
Notes for Teachers
Objectives
The exercises on compounds are intended to help students identify all the components in a
compound. (You’ll find that if you do not reinforce the idea, some students will find one of
several compounds--and stop there.) But because compounding is an important stylistic aspect of
writing, most of these exercises are intended to provide stylistic models for writing. Their
objective is to nudge students toward giving specific examples in their writing. Instead of writing
“We bought groceries,” students should be able to give specifics, such as E. B. White’s”
A bird doesn’t have to go to a supermarket and buy a dozen eggs and a pound of
butter and two rolls of paper towels and a TV dinner and a can of Ajax and a can of
tomato juice and a pound and a half of ground round steak and a can of sliced peaches
and two quarts of fat-free milk and a bottle of stuffed olives.
(See Exercise # 5 from The Trumpet of the Swan.) The ability to support abstract statements is
not just an aspect of good writing, it is imperative to inductive thinking. Too many people make
general statements, and, if asked for specifics, are unable to give any.
What Is a “Coordinating” Conjunction?
At some point in their work, students should learn the name “coordinating conjunctions.”
But I doubt that they absolutely need this term when they are working at this KISS Level. Most
grammar textbooks get things backwards -- they teach the term, but students rarely get the
concept. Often, the concept should come first, then the name. Teaching in this way is relatively
simple -- have the students learn and remember that
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“And,” “or,” and “but” join equal grammatical things.
“Things” here means words or constructions that have the same grammatical function -- subjects
to subjects, verbs to verbs, prepositional phrases to prepositional phrases, etc.
Some textbooks add “either ... or” and “neither ... nor” to the list, but these are simply
emphatic (“either”) and negated (“neither”) version of “or.” “And” and “or” are sweet little
words that always and only behave as coordinating conjunctions. “But” is the bad boy of the
group -- it also functions (relatively rarely) as an adverb (meaning “approximately”) or as
preposition (meaning “except”). For students, this presents a problem. We tell students that when
it means “except,” “but” functions as a preposition. The problem is that it also usually means
“except” when it functions as a conjunction. We can see this best, perhaps, by considering the
logical functions of these words.
The Logic of “And,” “Or,” and “But”
“And,” “or,” and “but” are what philosophers would now call “logical operators” in
“whole/part” logical relationships. “And” joins “parts” into a logical “whole.” In “Bill, Toni, and
Mary” went fishing,” the “and” creates a “whole” group. Thus we can replace “Bill, Toni, and
Mary” with “They.” “Or” divides a group into parts -- “Bill, Toni, or Mary went fishing.” “But”
extends this whole/part logical relationship to imply both a whole and an excepted part of that
whole. “Bill and Toni went fishing, but Mary didn’t.”
Another way of looking at this is to consider the compounded subjects as individual
sentences:
Bill went fishing, and Toni went fishing, and Mary went fishing. =
They went fishing.
As noted above, if we form a group from individual parts, we can combine the sentences and
substitute “They” for the subject. If, however, we divide or separate the parts of the whole, each
part has to be named:
Bill went fishing, or Toni went fishing, or Mary went fishing. =
Bill, Toni, or Mary went fishing.
Look at what happens, however, when we use “but” to make an exception to the implied
whole.
“Bill went fishing, and Toni went fishing, but Mary didn’t.” becomes
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Everyone but Mary went fishing.
The coordinating conjunction has become a preposition.
The preceding is important for two reasons. First, teachers should expect students to have
problems with “but,” and they should understand why. Second, the logical relationships
discussed here are fundamental. At the college level, many students study logical fallacies, either
in a composition or in a philosophy course. “And,” “or,” and “but,” as noted above, are what
philosophers call “logical operators.” They are fundamental for understanding many, if not most,
of the logical fallacies. [For more on this, the web version includes a link to a study of “The
Logic of Compounding Main Clauses in ‘The Yellow Dwarf’.”]
“So” and “For” as Coordinating Conjunctions
Some readers may have been taught that “so” and “for” are also coordinating conjunctions.
In KISS, they can be, but they can also be subordinating conjunctions. Unlike “and,” “or,” or
“but,” “so” and “for” (when used as conjunctions) imply a cause/effect, not a part/whole logical
relationship. We therefore need to look at “so” and “for” with the other subordinating
conjunctions (such as “because” and “since”) that denote logical connections other than
part/whole. This double perspective on “so” and “for” is the focus of KISS Level 3.2.2 - “So”
and “For” as Conjunctions.
A Brief Overview of the Sequence of Exercises
The objective of the first exercise is simply to remind students that in analyzing sentences,
they should include all the parts of a compound. Exercises two through six focus on writing
style. Exercise two and exercise three focus respectively on compound finite verbs and
compound complements because these are the two parts of a sentence that are most often
compounded. Their objective therefore is to nudge students toward compounding. Exercise four
asks students to write sentences with compounds. Five is a sentence combining exercise; six asks
students to de-combine. Exercise seven provides students with a real-text short passage for
analysis. Exercise eight (“Treasure Hunt” and “Creating an Exercise”) invite students to explore
texts to find examples of compounding.
If you are pressed for time, you might be able to skip this sub-level altogether or have the
students do just one exercise on mixed compounds.
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Suggested Directions for Analytical Exercises
1. Underline verbs twice, their subjects once, and label complements (PA, PN, IO, or DO).
Once the students have started on prepositional phrases, change this to:
1. Place parentheses ( ) around each prepositional phrase.
2. Underline verbs twice, their subjects once, and label complements (PA, PN, IO, or DO).
Probable Time Required:
It depends on your students. The concept itself is simple, so as soon as your students start
getting all the members of compounds, move on. (Remember that they should be expected to get
all the compounds in everything that they analyze from this point on.)
You may want to do one or two simple exercises, then add prepositional phrases to the
students’ analytical toolbox, and then come back to these exercises.
Ex. 1 - From The Secret Garden, by Frances Hodgson Burnett
1. Do you want toys (DO), books (DO), dolls (DO)? |
2. Mary was imperious (PA) and Indian (PA), and {at the same time} hot (PA) and
sorrowful (PA). |
3. The spade, and hoe, and fork were very useful (PA). |
4. Sometimes the rook flapped his black wings (DO) and soared away {over the treetops} {in the park}. |
5. He was rather a nervous man (PN). |
6. Then she ran lightly {across the grass}, pushed open [#1] the slow old door (DO) and
slipped {through it} {under the ivy}. |
7. Sometimes I think [DO perhaps I'm a bird (PN), or a fox (PN), or a rabbit (PN), or a
squirrel (PN), or even a beetle (PN)] [#2] . |
8. A boy, and a fox, and a crow, and two squirrels, and a new-born lamb, are coming
to see me [#3] this morning [NuA]. |
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9. Dickon has brought the fox (DO) and the crow (DO) and the squirrels (DO) and a
new-born lamb (DO). |
10. {In India} she had always been too hot (PA) and languid (PA) and weak (PA) to
care [#4] much [NuA] {about anything}. |
Notes
1. In KISS Level 4, “open” is explained as a predicate adjective in an ellipsed infinitive
construction—“door *to be* open.” That makes the entire “door open” the direct object of
“pushed.”
2. Remind students that KISS exercises are designed to present them with things they have not
yet studied. They may be able to figure some of them out, but they are expected to make
mistakes.
3. At this KISS level, I would accept “coming to see” as the verb phrase and “me” as its direct
object. In KISS Level 4, students will learn that “me” is the direct object of the verbal
(infinitive) “to see.” The infinitive phrase functions as an adverb (of purpose) to “are
coming.”
4. Expect students to be confused here. In KISS Level 2.1.6, students will learn to distinguish
finite verbs from verbals. “To care” is a verbal (infinitive) that functions as an adverb (of
result) to “too.”
Ex. 2 - From Lassie, Come Home by Eric Knight
1. The younger man lifted the rifle (DO) quickly, cuddled the stock (DO), and fired. |
2. They would stretch out [#1] their hands (DO) and snap their fingers (DO) and call
{in kindly tones}. |
3. Lassie sank, plunged a moment [NuA], and then fell {on her side}. |
4. The two old people brought Lassie (DO) {into the warmth} {of the hearth} and laid
her (DO) {on the rug}. |
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5. Lassie accepted these men (DO), but responded {to none} {of them}, nor went
[Adv. to "went" where they could touch her (DO)], nor answered any (DO) {of
their commands}. |
6. The people did not move suddenly or shout noisily or throw things (DO) [Adj. to
"things" that hurt]. |
7. The dogs, then the men, tumbled out, and raced away {after Lassie's tracks}. |
Note
1. “Out” can be considered part of the verb or as an adverb. See KISS Level 2.1.5 - Phrasal
Verbs (Preposition? Or Part of the Verb?).
Ex. 3 - From At the Back of the North Wind, by George Macdonald
1. Then Ruby was so lazy (PA) and fat (PA). |
2. The rabbits looked very sober (PA) and wise (PA). |
3. {In a loft} {in the barn} they kept hay (DO) and straw (DO) and oats (DO) {for the
horses} [#1]. |
4. The room had a bright light (DO) and a warm fire (DO) {in it}. |
5. And how thin (PA) and weak (PA) you grew {in the beautiful blue cave} {in the side}
{of the ice}. |
6. North Wind swept the people (DO) all {into their homes} and the bad smells (DO)
{out of the streets}. |
7. The wind down below [#2] was making waves (DO) {in the ripe grain} and ripples
(DO) {on the rivers and lakes}. |
8. He kept picturing {to himself} the many places (DO), lovely and desolate [#3], the hill
sides (DO) and farm yards (DO) and tree-tops (DO) and meadows (DO) [#4]. |
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9. He could hear the straining (DO) {of the masts}, the creaking (DO) {of the boom},
and the singing (DO) {of the ropes} {with the roaring} {of the wind}; [#5] also the surge
(DO) {of the waves} {past the ship's sides} and the thud (DO) {of the waves} {against
the hull} {of the ship}. |
10. So {on a certain day}, Diamond's father took his mother (DO) and Diamond (DO)
himself [#6] and his little brother (DO) and sister (DO) and Nanny (DO) and Jim
(DO) down {by train} {to "The Mound."} |
Notes
1. This “for” phrase can be described as adjectival to “hay,” “straw” and “oats,” and/or as
adverbial to “kept.”
2. “Down” and “below” here function as adjectives in that they describe the wind. A more
technical explanation involves the ellipsis of a subordinate clause that would describe
“wind”—“The wind *which was* down below *them* . . . .” See KISS Level 5.5 - PostPositioned Adjectives.
3. “Lovely” and “desolate” are post-positioned adjectives to “places.”
4. When they study appositives (KISS Level 5.4), some students will prefer to explain
“(hill)sides,” “yards,” “tree-tops,” and “meadows” as appositives to “places.”
5. This semicolon (and the following “also” were probably used to separate “surge” from
“wind.” Without the semicolon, it would be very easy to read “surge” as another object of
the preposition
of”—“of the wind and the surge.”
6. “Himself” is an appositive to “Diamond.”
[Ex. 4 - Writing Sentences with Compounds]
Ex. 5 - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri
In the 1970’s and 80’s sentence-combining became an educational fad. The idea was to get
students to write longer main clauses (w/mc—words per main clause). The fad has basically died
75
out because the exercises were not geared to an understanding of natural syntactic development.
As a few educators finally pointed out, students understood the idea of “longer,” but they could
not control the grammatical constructions that they were being asked to use. As a result, they
made more fundamental errors in sentence structure and punctuation.
KISS avoids this problem by emphasizing sentence-combining in the context of
constructions that students are actually learning to identify. Note the difference in w/mc in the
following sentences, based simply on compounding. Spreading a few such sentences through a
student’s writing not only increases average words per main clause, but it may also add more
details—students may begin to create compounds not just by combining what they would
normally write—they may begin to add new ideas as compounds.
Example: The little Fawn drew near. | She looked at the Prince quietly. | [5.5 w/mc]
The little Fawn drew near and looked {at the Prince} quietly. | [11 w/mc]
Probable Responses
1. He did not speak. | But he kept his eyes fastened [#1] {on the ground}. | [6.5 w/mc]
He did not speak, but kept his eyes fastened [#1] {on the ground}. | [12 w/mc]
2. The grandfather milked a full bowl [#2] {from the white goat}. | He cut a piece (DO)
{of bread} {for the child}. | And he told her (IO) to eat [#3]. | [8.3 w/mc]
The grandfather milked a full bowl [#2] {from the white goat}, cut a piece (DO)
{of bread} {for the child}, and told her (IO) to eat [#3]. | [23 w/mc]
3. The grandfather put {into the bag} a piece (DO) {of bread}. | And he put in a slice
(DO) {of cheese}. | [9 w/mc]
The grandfather put {into the bag} a piece (DO) {of bread} and a slice (DO) {of
cheese}. | [15 w/mc]
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4. Her face was as red (PA) {as a lobster} [#4]. | Her neck was as red (PA) {as a lobster}
[#4]
. | And her arms were as red (PA) {as a lobster} [#4]. | [8.3 w/mc]
Her face, neck and arms were as red (PA) {as a lobster} [#4]. | [11 w/mc]
5. She has Adelheid's fine limbs (DO) and black eyes (DO), | and she has curly hair
(DO) {like Tobias and the old man} [#5]. | [9.5 w/mc]
She has Adelheid's fine limbs (DO) and black eyes (DO), and curly hair (DO)
{like Tobias and the old man} [#5]. | [17 w/mc]
6. Sunshine had come again {into the blind woman's life}, | and it made her days less
dark and dreary [#6]. | [9 w/mc]
Sunshine had come again {into the blind woman's life}, and made her days less
dark and dreary [#6]. | [17 w/mc]
7. The days are so long (PA), | and they are dreary (PA). | [4.5 w/mc]
The days are so long (PA) and dreary (PA). | [7 w/mc]
8. Miss Rottenmeier yawns {behind her book}. | And Mr. Candidate yawns {behind
his book}. | [6.5 w/mc]
Miss Rottenmeier and Mr. Candidate both [#7] yawn together {behind their
books}. | [11 w/mc]
9. A boy had a barrel-organ (DO) {on his back}. | And he had a curious animal (DO)
{on his arm}. | [8.5 w/mc]
A boy had a barrel-organ (DO) {on his back} and a curious animal (DO) {on his
arm}. | [15 w/mc]
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10. She has curly hair (DO). | She has black eyes (DO). | And she talks {in a funny
way}. | [5 w/mc]
She has curly hair (DO), black eyes (DO) and talks {in a funny way}. | [12 w/mc]
Notes
1. One can explain “eyes” as the direct object of “kept” and “fastened” as a gerundive that
modifies “eyes.” (See KISS Level 4.) At KISS Level 5.8, some people will prefer to see
“eyes fastened” as the core of a noun absolute that functions as the direct object of “kept.”
2. The best way to explain “bowl” may be as a Noun Used as an Adverb, but I would also accept
it as a direct object of “milked.” (It depends upon whether one sees it as meaning “how
much” or “what.”)
3. “To eat” is a verbal (infinitive) that functions as the direct object of “told.” “Her” functions
simultaneously as the indirect object of “told” and as the subject of “to eat.”
4. Some grammarians will probably claim that “as a lobster” is actually an ellipsed subordinate
clause—“as a lobster *is red*.” Either way, the construction connects to the previous “as.”
Note how the uncombined version is more emphatic.
5. Some people will see this prepositional phrase as adjectival to “hair,” and others will see it as
adverbial to “has.” Reasons here can become very technical, so KISS accepts either
explanation.
6. Expect students to be confused here. They will sense that the direct object of “made” is “days
less dark and dreary,” but will not know how to explain that phrase. In KISS Level Four
they will learn that “days” is the subject of and “dark” and “dreary” are predicate adjectives
to an ellipsed infinitive “to be”—“made her days *to be* less dark and dreary.” The ellipsed
infinitive construction is the direct object of “made.”
7. Some grammarians will consider “both” to be an adjective, and others will see it as an
appositive. [See KISS Level 5.4.]
Ex. 6 - From “How Brave Walter Hunted Wolves”
Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky, the founders of developmental cognitive psychology, both
suggest that mastery of a concept involves the ability to undo a mental process. The undoing of
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sentence-combining is de-combining. Thus most sentence combining exercises in KISS are
paired with a de-combining exercise.
This is the analysis of the original. The decombined sentences are simply a matter of
dropping the commas and putting “. He” in front of each verb..
He can turn cartwheels (DO), stand {on his head}, ride see-saw (DO), throw
snowballs (DO), play ball (DO), crow {like a cock}, eat bread (DO) and butter (DO)
and drink sour milk (DO), tear his trousers (DO), wear holes (DO) {in his elbows},
break the crockery (DO) {in pieces}, throw balls (DO) {through the windowpanes},
draw old men (DO) {on important papers}, walk {over the flower-beds}, eat himself sick
[#1]
{with gooseberries}, and be well [#2] {after a whipping}. |
Notes
1. Traditional grammars consider “himself” to be the direct object of “eat” and “sick” to be an
“objective complement.” KISS allows an alternative explanation, thereby eliminating
objective complements. Thus “sick” can be considered a predicate adjective after an ellipsed
infinitive (*to be*). “Himself is the subject of that infinitive, and the infinitive phrase is the
direct object of “eat.”
2. Some grammarians will probably consider “well” to be functioning as an adverb to “be”;
others will consider it a predicate adjective. Thus either explanation should be accepted.
Note, by the way, that the initial “can” carries across all the verbs.
Ex. 7 - A Riddle Poem from At the Back of the North Wind
I have only one foot (DO), but thousands (DO) {of toes}; |
My one foot stands but never goes. |
I have many arms (DO) | and they are mighty (PA), all; [#1] |
And hundreds (DO) {of fingers} large and small [#2]. |
{From the ends} {of my fingers} my beauty grows, |
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I breathe {with my hair} | and I drink {with my toes}. |
{In the summer}, {with song} I shake and quiver, |
But {in winter}, I fast and groan and shiver. |
Notes
1. This semicolon closes this main clause. The next line can be explained in two ways. If the
students just look at the meaning, it is clear that “hundreds of fingers” is another direct
object of “have.” If they feel uncomfortable with this explanation, you can point out that
they have not studied it yet, but “hundreds” can be seen as the direct object of an ellipsed “I
have.” Such ellipsis is more typical of poetry than it is of prose.
2. Students will probably recognize “large” and “small” as adjectives that modify “fingers.” (In
KISS Level 5.5, KISS explains them as “Post-Positioned Adjectives,” reductions of a
subordinate clause—“fingers *which are* large and small.”
K
KIISSSS L
Leevveell 11.. 55.. A
Addddiinngg SSiim
mppllee PPrreeppoossiittiioonnaall PPhhrraasseess
Notes for Teachers
If you are not familiar with prepositional phrases,
you might want to look at the instructional material (on the next pages) first.
There are several approaches to helping students remember the words that can function as
prepositions. These include games, paper flags with the prepositions on them (made by the
students), and a list of prepositions set to the tune of "Yankee Doodle." You can find these in the
Appendix to the Printable Book for this level. In essence, this is a question of what works most
effectively for you and your students.
I usually give students the instructional material on identifying phrases (See Exercises 1 &
2, below.), and tell them to study it and then have it in front of them as they do exercises--until
they no longer need it. Level 1.5 is devoted to "simple" prepositional phrases in the sense that it
avoids complexities, such as the "to" problem that are the focus of KISS Level 2.2. Once they
learn to identify prepositional phrases, students should always begin the analysis of a sentence by
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placing the prepositional phrases in parentheses. Otherwise, as sentences become more
complicated, they will incorrectly mark the object of a preposition as the subject or complement
of a verb.
Determining Your Objective(s)
Your primary objective should be to work with students until they can put parentheses
around every simple prepositional phrase in any sentence. If you do not have the time to do more
than that, you shouldn't have any problem moving on to higher KISS Levels. As the following
overview of the exercises in KISS Level 1.5 suggests, you should be able to skip the exercises
devoted to writing and logic.
Consider, however, the style of students' writing. In the 80s and 90s, for example, English
educators placed great stress on trying to get young students to write longer sentences.
Unfortunately, these educators had little sense of how writing "grows" naturally. Nor did they
pay much attention to prepositional phrases. The odds are, however, that young students'
sentences increase in length because the better writers include more details by adding more
prepositional phrases. Eventually, I hope to study this statistically by exploring samples of
students' writing from the documents from state assessment reports. Many states put scored
essays written by students in these documents. It will thus be possible to calculate the number of
prepositional phrases (per main clause) used by the students who received high scores compared
to those who earned low scores. Meanwhile, you can consider this yourself simply by looking at
these samples. For more on this, see the booklet on KISS Level 6.5 Statistical Stylistics.
An Overview of the Exercises in KISS Level 1.5
Exercises 1 through 6 focus on identification.
Exercise 1 asks students to fill in the blanks with prepositions and then identify the
prepositional phrases. The primary objective is to help students recognize words that can
function as prepositions. Note that you can have your students create additional exercises for
their classmates. They can select a short paragraph and replace the prepositions with blanks.
Exercises 2 a & b have students identify the phrases and their functions as adjectives or
adverbs. In other words, in these two exercises students will be looking beyond simple
identification to exploring how phrases chunk (connect) to the other words in the sentence. These
two exercises (and the two later exercises on logic) ask students to draw an arrow from the
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preposition to the word that the phrase modifies. I would not, however, ask students to draw
these arrows in any other exercises. Once students have learned that prepositional phrases chunk
to other words in the sentence, drawing arrows to the words that phrases modify becomes
busywork and also clutters the analysis. Questions, of course, should always be addressed, and
the Analysis Keys to the KISS exercises include notes on interesting or unusual cases.
In most cases, seeing how prepositional phrases function as adjectives or adverbs to other
words in a sentence is relatively easy, but sometimes it is not. Denise Gaskins, a member of the
KISS list, offered the following suggestion for the difficult cases:
1. Read the sentence with the prepositional phrase.
2. Read the sentence without the prepositional phrase.
3. Identify where the meaning changes between the two sentences.
In the sentence, “They had posted the first positive numbers in over a year,” the word that
changes meaning is “first.” Without the prepositional phrase, it seems to mean “the first ever,”
which is quite a bit different from the original sentence. Therefore, the phrase modifies “first.”
Accepting alternative explanations is very important in dealing with prepositional phrases.
Consider the sentence:
The ground was soon wet under the oak tree.
Some people will see the phrase "under the oak tree" as modifying the predicate adjective "wet."
Others will see it as modifying the verb "was," and still others will see it as identifying what
"ground" is meant (and thus as an adjective to "ground"). One might easily argue that it modifies
all three. Thus any one of these answers should be accepted. The important point is that each
explanation meaningfully connects to another word or phrase in the sentence.
Exercise 3 is a joke that shows how prepositions without objects often function as simple
adverbs.
Exercise 4 presents an alternative explanation that lets students see that some prepositional
phrases can function as indirect objects--"They gave the award to James."
Exercise 5 - Compound Objects of Prepositions. In a sentence such as "They played with
Bill and Bob," many students will place parentheses around "with Bill" and miss the compound - "with Bill and Bob." This exercise reminds students to watch for compounds.
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Exercise 6 - Separated Objects of Prepositions. As students become more mature writers,
some of their prepositional phrases will have compound objects and the objects themselves will
be modified or otherwise elaborated. The result can separate the later complements from the
preposition. In analyzing these sentences, students can become confused. To make the analysis
clearer for them, I allow them to write in *ellipsed* prepositions. For example:
I have worked {for Bonanza} {in both Lock Haven and Williamsport PA,}
{*for* Burger King} {in both Omaha NE and Williamsport PA}, {*for*
McDonalds} {in Birmingham AL}, {*for* Taco Bell} {in Winchester VA}, and
{*for* Papa John’s Pizza and Joey’s Six Pack and Deli} both {on Washington
Boulevard} {in Williamsport PA}.
Exercises 7 through 13 all focus on writing and logic.
Exercise 7 asks students to write sentences that include prepositional phrases with
compound objects.
Exercise 8 - Rewriting Adjectives as Prepositional Phrases - is, as its name suggests,
aimed at helping students improve their syntactic fluency.
Exercise 9 - Sentence-Combining and Prepositional Phrases - builds on the sentencecombining that students did with adjectives and adverbs in KISS Level 1.3. To adults, these
exercises may seem simplistic, but a major complaint of many college professors is that students
write sentences in cement. They are, in other words, complaining that students never change,
never combine (or de-combine) a sentence once it has been written. These little steps in KISS
Level One are intended to accustom students to the very idea of revising what they have written.
Exercises 10 (a & b) - The Logic of Prepositional Phrases - introduce students to David
Hume’s three fundamental logical categories—identity, extension in time and space, and
cause/effect. Hume’s three categories underlie almost all of the KISS connections between
sentence structure and logic. (For more on this, see the essay on David Hume in the Background
Essays.) As the next exercise suggests, this material is also intended to help students write better.
Exercise 11 - Adding Prepositional Phrases of Time and Space - asks students to apply
some of what they learned from the preceding two exercises. Teachers often tell students to put
more details into their writing, but “details” is a very abstract concept. Much of what teachers are
looking for can be supplied by prepositional phrases that logically “identify” other words, or add
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information about the time and place in which the students’ stories are set. Once students can
identify prepositional phrases and see what the phrases modify, the idea of adding “details” by
adding prepositional phrases is much more concrete. Logic can be a complicated question, but,
following Bruner's idea of a spiral curriculum, it can also be very simple.
Exercise 12 a & b - Style - Left, Right, and Mid-Branching Phrases - shows students
how adverbial modifiers can easily be moved "left" (before the S/V pattern), "right" (after the
S/V pattern) or "mid" (between the subject and verb) to add variety to, and shift focus in,
sentences.
Exercise 13 - Style - Sentence Models for Writing with Style - are short selections that
use prepositional phrases in interesting ways. It will take some time to find additional exercises
for different grades, but consider the following from E. B. White's The Trumpet of the Swan:
Louis liked Boston the minute he saw it from the sky. Far beneath him was a
river. Near the river was a park. In the park was a lake. In the lake was an island.
On the shore was a dock. Tied to the dock was a boat shaped like a swan. The
place looked ideal. There was even a very fine hotel nearby.
Students are asked to analyze the passage and then try to write a similar passage on a topic of
their own. Note also that this passage is a beautiful example of parallel construction. The second,
third, fourth, fifth, and sixth sentences each begin with an adverbial prepositional phrase,
followed by the verb, which is followed by the subject.
Exercises 14 (a & b) - Passages for Analysis - help students to see that what they are
learning applies to real texts.
Exercise 15 - Write, Revise, Edit, Analyze -- Describing an Event is the same in each
grade level. Students are asked to write a description of an event, revise it (especially by adding
prepositional phrases), and then analyze their own writing.
Suggested Directions for Analytical Exercises:
1. Place parentheses ( ) around each prepositional phrase.
2. Underline verbs twice, their subjects once, and label complements (“PA,” “PN,” “IO,” or
“DO”).
Probable Time Required:
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For many students, this will require a lot of practice. In part, it depends upon how quickly
they can learn to recognize the words that can function as prepositions, and how quickly they can
learn, and learn to use, the directions for identifying prepositional phrases.
Ex. 1 - Fill in the Blanks - Adapted from Introductory Lessons
Various prepositions will work in these sentences.
1. We went {on the ship} and sailed {through the bay} and {toward the ocean}. |
2. A pleasant path lies {near the grove} {by the meadows}. |
3. A missionary had lived {among Indians}. | He talked {to us} {about their habits}. |
4. They walked {along the river bank} {until late} {in the afternoon}. |
5. The travelers drew {near the city}, | and many beggars swarmed {around them} and
asked {for alms}. |
6. {During the dinner}, an impolite boy left the table (DO) {without permission}. |
7. The picnic was held (P) {near a grove} {of pines} {beside the lake}. |
8. We rowed our boat (DO) {up the stream}, {against the current}. |
9. Sam jumped {on the train} and was quickly carried (P) {into the city}. |
10. The ancient prophets looked {past the present} {toward the future}. |
Ex. 2. a. - Based on Introductory Lessons in English Grammar
1. Why did Henry and your cousin {from the country} leave the city (DO) so suddenly
{without any explanation}? |
2. The terrified passengers dressed hastily and came {on deck}. |
3. Tina fed {with crumbs} and warmed the starving sparrow (DO). |
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4. Did you practice your lesson (DO) {on the violin} faithfully today? |
5. Visitors {from many different countries} attend the receptions (DO) {at the White
House}. |
6. The fern seeks the shade (DO) and shuns the sunshine (DO). |
7. Cotopaxi is the highest and most terrible volcano (PN) {in the world}. |
8. The strong and stalwart oak tree catches the dew (DO) {in its many dainty cups}. |
9. Cluck-a-luck sat {on a high fence}, and crowed, and tumbled backward, and broke
her neck (DO). |
10. Strains {from a distant guitar} floated languidly and dreamily {to my ear}. |
Ex. 2. b. - From My Book of Favorite Fairy Tales by Edric Vredenburg
Note: You can use this exercise for the logic, as well as for the functions, of prepositional
phrases. I have included below suggestions for answers. Remember that there are numerous,
different ways to see what questions phrases answer. The point is that the logic of almost every
phrase can be explained in terms of the questions on the instructional materials. And those
questions cover a nice range of logical relationships. Discussions of differences help us
understand how other people think.
1. {By day} [Adv. (when?) to "must run"] again must you run {through the forest} [Adv.
(where?) to "must run"] {as a Fawn} [Adv. (under what condition?) to "must run"]. | ["The
White Fawn"]
2. {For this reason} [Adv. (why?) to "changed"] I changed myself (DO) {into the little
rabbit} [Adv. (how?) to "changed"] , and ran {to you} [Adv. (where?) to "ran"] {in my
distress} [Adv. (why? and/or under what condition?) to "ran"] . | ["Prince Chéri"]
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3. "We will lead our children (DO) away, quite early {in the morning} [Adv. (when?) to
"early" or to "will lead"], {into the thickest part} [Adv. (where?) to "will lead"] {of the
wood} [Adj. (which?) to "part"] ." | [Hansel and Grethel"]
4. Then he picked up a sack (DO) {of jewels} [Adj. (what kind of?) to "sack"] , and
slipped {out of sight} [Adv. (where?) to "slipped"] {behind a piece} [Adv. (where?) to
"slipped"] {of rock} [Adj. (what kind of?) to "piece"]. | ["Snow-White and Rose-Red"]
5. {Beyond himself} [Adv. (under what condition?) to "commanded"] {with fury} [Adv. (why?)
to "Beyond himself"], Chéri commanded his foster-brother to send soldiers to bring
Suliman [#1] {to him} [Adv. (where?) to "to bring"] {in chains} [Adv. (under what
condition?) to "to bring"], {like a criminal} [Adv. (how?) to "to bring"]. | ["Prince Chéri"]
6. The Fairies endowed the little Princess (DO) {with beauty, and virtue, and health} [Adv.
(how?) to "endowed"] . | ["The White Fawn"]
7. Then he fetched a sack (DO) {of pearls} [Adj. (what kind of?) to "sack"] [Adj, to "sack"
that lay {among the rushes} [Adv. (where?) to "lay"] ], and hobbled off and
disappeared {behind a large stone} [Adv. (where?) to "disappeared"]. | ["Snow-White
and Rose-Red"]
8. So {in a carriage} [Adv. (How?) to "departed"] {like a large dark box} [Adj. (what kind of?)
to "carriage"], shut up [#2] {with her Lady} [Adv. (under what condition?) to "shut up"] {in
Waiting} [Adj. (what kind of?) to "Lady"] and {*with* her two Maids} [Adv. (under what
condition?) to "shut up"] {of Honour} [Adj. (what kind of?) to "Maids"], Giroflée and
Longue Epine [#3], Princess Desirée departed {for Prince Guerrier's Court} [Adv. (to
where?) to "departed"]. | ["The White Fawn"]
9. The Queen's attendants were {in a serious state} [Adv. (under what condition?) to "were"]
{of anxiety} [Adj. (what kind of?) to "state"] {at the prolonged absence} [Adj. (what kind
of?) to "anxiety"] [#4] {of Her Majesty} [Adj. (whose?) to "absence"] . | ["The White Fawn"]
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10. The beard was fixed (P) {in a gash} [Adv. (where?) to "was fixed"] {in the tree trunk}
[Adj. (which?) to "gash"] , | and the tiny fellow was hopping to and fro, {like a dog}
[Adv. (how?) to "was hopping"] {at the end} [Adj. (what kind of?) to "dog"] {of a string}
[Adj. (what kind of?) to "end"]. | ["Snow-White and Rose-Red"]
Notes
1. “Suliman” is the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) “to bring.” That infinitive phrase
functions as an adverb (of purpose) to the infinitive “to send.” “Soldiers” is the direct object
of “to send,” and “foster-brother” is simultaneously the subject of “to send” and the indirect
object of “commanded.” The direct object of “commanded” is the “to send” infinitive phrase
(including its subject).
2. “Shut up” (enclosed) is a gerundive that modifies “Princess Desirée.”
3. “Giroflée” and “Longue Epine” are appositives to “Maids.” Consider how confusing this
passage is to students who have trouble understanding appositives. And note how far one
has to go into the sentence before hitting the subject.
4. Some people may prefer to see “at the prolonged absence” as adverbial to “were” in that it
also answers the questions “When were they in that state?” and “Why were they in that
state?”
Ex. 3 - Mama Skunk
Mama Skunk was worried (P) [Adv. to "was worried" because she could never
keep track (DO) {of her two children}]. | They were named (P) In (RPN) and Out
(RPN) [#1], | and [Adv. to "was" whenever In was in], Out was out; | and [Adv. to "was"
if Out was in], In was out. | One day [NuA] she called Out (DO) in {to her} and told
him (IO) to go out and bring In [#2] in. | So [#3] Out went out | and {in no time} {at all} he
brought In (DO) in. |
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"Wonderful!" (DO) said Mama Skunk. | "How, {in all that great forest}, could
you find him (DO) {in so short a time}?" |
[DO [#4] "It was easy (PA),"] said Out. | "In stinct. [#5] " |
Notes
1. Technically, these are retained predicate nouns after the passive "were named." [The active
voice version would be "She named them *to be* In and Out." For more on this, see KISS
Level 5.7 - Passive Voice and Retained Complements.] Here in KISS Level One, however, I
would expect students to label them simply as predicate nouns. If they follow the procedure,
they should ask, "They were named what?" The answer to that question is "In" and "Out."
And because "In" and "Out" are the same as (equal) "They," these complements would be
predicate nouns.
2. Expect students to be confused here. "To go" and "bring" are verbals (in this case, infinitives
that function as the direct object of "told"). Students will get to distinguishing finite verbs
from verbals in KISS Level 2.1.6, so here they are expected to make mistakes. ("In" is the
direct object of the verbal "to bring.")
3. Alternatively, "So" can be viewed as a coordinating conjunction. See KISS Level 3.2.2 - "So"
and "For" as Conjunctions.
4. KISS Level 3.2.3 - Interjection? Or Direct Object? gives an alternative explanation for this
clause structure.
5. The grammatical error here is, of course, essential to the joke.
Ex. 4 - From
Heidi by Johanna Spyri
Suggestion: Have the students discuss the acceptability of the revised versions. Do they
sound like acceptable English sentences? (Many do, but some raise questions.)
1. Aunt Deta has left a bundle (DO) {for you} (IO). |
Aunt Deta has left you a bundle.
2. {At last} she had found a splendid chance (DO) {for Heidi} (IO). |
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At last she had found Heidi a splendid chance.
3. Heidi might bring a lovely present (DO) {to the grandmother} (IO). |
Heidi might bring the grandmother a lovely present.
4. "A gentleman {with white hair} sends his regards (DO) {to you} (IO), Mr.
Sesemann [DirA]." |
A gentleman with white hair sends you his regards, Mr. Sesemann.
5. She talked {to Heidi} (IO) [#1] and amused her (DO) {in various ways}. |
[This one cannot be rewritten as a single-word indirect object.]
6. Brigida now showed Heidi's feather hat (DO) {to the old man} (IO) and asked him
to take it [#2] back. |
Brigida now showed the old man Heidi's feathered hat and asked him to take it back.
7. Clara gave many messages (DO) {to him} (IO) {for Heidi} [#3]. |
Clara gave him many messages for Heidi. [Note how, out of context, either version entails
an ambiguity--were these Clara's messages to Heidi, or were they messages that Heidi
wanted sent?]
Notes
1. Many grammarians would probably prefer to explain “to Heidi” as an adverb, but in KISS,
either explanation is acceptable.
2. Expect students to be confused here. “It” is the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) “to take.”
“Him” is simultaneously the indirect object of “asked” and the subject of the infinitive. The
infinitive phrase is the direct object of “asked.”
3. This phrase modifies “messages.”
Ex. 5 - Compound Objects of Prepositions
1. Aunt Sally read us (IO) a story (DO) {about ghosts, goblins, and witches}. |
2. They saw the skunk (DO) {behind the trees and bushes} [#1]. |
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3. Andrea wanted a day (DO) {of peace and quiet}. |
4. The road {into Winchester and Wellsboro} is not safe (PA). |
5. It was a big contest (PN) {between Jan and Bob} [#2]. |
6. The evenings {during August and September} are beautiful (PA). |
7. A breakfast {with cereal, milk, and fruit} is good (PA) {for you}. |
8. The streets {around the school and playground} are always busy (PA) {with traffic}. |
9. The days {before Christmas, Thanksgiving, and my birthday} are usually exciting (PA). |
10. The accident happened {near the corner} {of Via Bella and Roosevelt Ave}. |
Notes
1. This phrase can be seen as an adverb to “saw” and/or an adjective to “skunk.”
2. This phrase can be seen as an adverb to “was” and/or an adjective to “contest.”
E
Exx.. 66 -- N
Nootteess ffoorr T
Teeaacchheerrss oonn SSeeppaarraatteedd O
Obbjjeeccttss ooff PPrreeppoossiittiioonnss
One of the complexities of prepositional phrases involves separated objects. In analyzing
randomly selected texts, these complexities appear fairly rarely, and thus when students should
be introduced to them must be decided by teachers. These notes, therefore, are intended to help
teachers be aware of what is involved.
Let’s face it, humans are smart and economical. If something is understood, we don’t take
the trouble to spell it out. Consider the following sentence from Sherwood Anderson’s “The
Egg”:
The local freight train came in and the freight crew were fed.
It’s obvious that the train came “in” to the station, but the last part of the preposition and the rest
of the phrase are simply ellipsed. Students can deal with sentences such as this by considering
the preposition as part of the verb phrase or as an adverb, but it might be a good idea to spend a
little time discussing them in terms of ellipsis.
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Sometimes two prepositional phrases are combined and the object of one can be considered
as ellipsed — “They walk {to and from school.}” I would not expect students to spell out the
ellipsis here — I note it simply because some people are temporarily confused by it. Note also
that phrases with compound objects can be considered in terms of the preposition and
conjunction being ellipsed — “They went to school and the playground” equals “They went to
school and to the playground.” Here again I would not expect students to discuss ellipsis, but
sometimes ellipsis can help students better see the relationships among words. This happens
when objects of compounded phrases are themselves modified—
They went to school where they practiced for a play
and the playground where they played baseball.
In analyzing cases such as this, most students find it much clearer if they add an “ellipsed”
preposition—
They went {to school} [where they practiced for a play]
and {*to* the playground} [where they played baseball]. |
Confusion May Result from Separating Compound Objects of Prepositions
Separated objects of prepositions may confuse readers. Fortunately, the problem is rare, and
it probably appears most frequently in complicated texts. But one of the purposes of teaching
grammar is to help students navigate the sentence structure of such texts. The following example,
which is very complex, also illustrates the often associated problems of vocabulary and context.
Consider the function of the bold “and the proof” in the second sentence in following
passage from F. M. Cornford’s From Religion to Philosophy: A Study in the Origins of Western
Speculation (Dover Publications, 2004, 183):
The two theories make their appearance at the same time, and both alike belong to
the scientific tradition. Plato, who condemned both alike as atheistical and
immoral, devoted the argument of the Republic to the refutation of political
Atomism and the proof that the State is natural, and, if reconstructed on ideal
lines, might embody the same principle of Justice that rules through every part of
the cosmos.
Which preposition (“to” or “of”) governs the object “proof”?
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The question is crucial because it makes the difference between two distinctly opposing
interpretations: “Plato devoted the Republic to the proof . . . .” or “Plato devoted the Republic to
the refutation of the proof. . . .” Obviously, Cornford, as he wrote the sentence, knew which he
meant. But readers, in addition to having to deal with the vocabulary, must also call on their
previous knowledge of the subject matter, and even then they may not be sure. Although I have
read a fair amount of and about Plato, I’m still only guessing when I say that Cornford probably
meant “and to the proof.” Had Cornford added the preposition, readers would not have to guess.
Two lessons can be drawn from this passage. First, in reading difficult texts, students should
always remember that their difficulties may not be their fault—the sentence structures may be
ambiguous. Second, in writing, be careful that separated objects of prepositions don’t confuse
your readers. In case of doubt, insert the intended preposition before the compound objects.
As a final note, the sentence from Cornford is similar to what linguists call “garden path
sentences.” The origin of that label might be interesting to trace. For many people, “cul-de-sac”
might be more meaningful. The idea is that sentences are understood to lead us to a meaning—a
place. A “garden path” (cul-de-sac) leads, but to a dead end. Thus it forces readers to turn
around, go back, and look for a different way. Wikipedia.org, which gives a nice explanation of
them, includes the following example: “The old man the boat.” In garden paths, we initially read
the text other than the way intended by the writer. Thus, readers will tend to process “man” as
the subject. The result is that the sentence does not make sense. In our example, we must go back
and figure out that “man” is being used as a verb—“The old (people) man the boat.” Note that
the Cornford example is not really confusing in this way. Some people will interpret it as “to the
proof” and others may interpret it as “to the refutation of the proof” without ever sensing the
syntactic ambiguity.
Ex. 6 - Based on Black Beauty, by Anna Sewell
1. Still, he had his own ways (DO) {of making me understand [#1] {by the tone} {of his
voice} or {*by* the touch} {of the rein} }. |
2. {At the distance} {of a mile or two} {from the village} we came {to a pretty, low house},
{with a lawn and shrubbery} {at the front} and {*with* a drive} {up to the door}. |
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3. One mile {of such traveling}, {with a weight to draw [#2] } and {*with* no firm footing},
would take more (DO) {out of us} {than four} [#3] {on a good road}. |
4. They are always talking {about "keeping the horse [#4] well {in hand}" } and
{*about* "holding a horse [#4] up,"} just [Adv. to "are talking" as if a horse was not
made (P) to hold himself [#5] up]. |
5. {By this time} we were well used (PA) {to the roar} {of heavy guns}, {*to* the rattle} {of
musket fire}, and {*to* the flying} {of shot} {near us}; | but never had I been {under
such a fire} [Adv. to "such" as we rode through {on that day}]. |
6. Then came up a broad-faced man, dressed [#6] {in a great gray coat} {with great gray capes
and great white buttons}, {*in* a gray hat}, and {*in a blue comforter} loosely tied [#7]
{round his neck}; | his hair was gray (PA), too; | but he was a jolly-looking fellow
(PN), | and the other men made way (DO) {for him}. |
Notes
1. “Me” is the subject of the verbal (infinitive) “understand.” The infinitive phrase is the direct
object of the verbal (gerund) “making,” which functions as the object of the preposition
“of.”
2. The verbal (infinitive) “to draw” functions as an adjective to “weight.” The comma after
“traveling” leads me to explain the “with” phrases as adjectival to “mile,” but I would also
accept them as adverbial to “traveling.”
3. Alternatively, “than four” can be explained as an ellipsed subordinate clause—“than four
*miles* on a good road *would take out of us*.”
4. “Horse” is the direct object of the verbal (gerund) “keeping” which functions as the object of
the preposition “about.” The following phrase is the same construction.
5. “Himself” is the direct object of the infinitive “to hold.” The infinitive phrase functions as an
adverb to “was made.”
6. The verbal (gerundive) “dressed” modifies “man.”
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7. The verbal (gerundive) “tied” modifies “comforter.”
[Ex. 7 - Writing Sentences with Compound Objects of Prepositions]
Ex. 8 - Adapted from Voyages in English - Fifth Year
Suggestion: Have the students discuss any differences of meaning that they sense in the two
versions. For example, in # 10, “American poet” suggests nationality, whereas “poet of
America” implies that he wrote about (and somehow captured the nature of) America.
1. The wind blew violently. |
The wind blew with violence.
2. Edward answered politely. |
Edward answered in a polite way. or “with politeness”
3. Rita dances gracefully. |
Rita dances with grace.
4. He speaks truthfully. |
He speaks in truth.
5. The waves dashed furiously. |
The waves dashed in fury.
6. A brick wall surrounds the yard (DO). |
A wall of brick surrounds the yard.
7. The Aronsons' yard is beautiful (PA). |
The yard of the Aronsons is beautiful.
8. Important business delayed the messenger (DO). |
Business of importance delayed the messenger.
9. Robert painted a beautiful picture (DO). |
Robert painted a picture of beauty.
10. Robert Frost was an American poet (PN). |
Robert Frost was a poet of America.
Ex. 9 - From “Jack and His Golden Box”
1. {At last} he found the castle (DO). | It was the castle (PN) {of the king} {of the
frogs}. | [8 W/MC]
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{At last} he found the castle (DO) {of the king} {of the frogs}. | [12 W/MC]
2. It was the second morning (PN). | The frog came up {with the little box}. | [6.5
W/MC]
{On the second morning} the frog came up {with the little box}. | [12 W/MC]
3. The gentleman and all his guests had left. | They went {for the hunt}. | [6.5 W/MC]
The gentleman and all his guests had left {for the hunt}. | [11 W/MC]
4. They dropped the golden box (DO). | It went {to the bottom} {of the sea}. | [6.5
W/MC]
They dropped the golden box (DO) {to the bottom} {of the sea}. | [11 W/MC]
5. There {on guard} {at the gate} was one {of the frogs}. | He had a gun (DO) {on his
shoulder}. | [9 W/MC]
There {on guard} {at the gate} was one {of the frogs} {with a gun} {on his shoulder}. |
[17 W/MC]
6. Jack had the mouse (DO). | He put it (DO) {into his pocket}. | [5 W/MC]
Jack put the mouse (DO) {into his pocket}. | [7 W/MC]
[Note that this could also be combined as “Jack had the mouse and put it into his pocket.”
But in order to put it, he must have had it. Thus the compound verb is, in essence,
redundant.]
7. Then they ran off. | They had the castle (DO). | They went {at full speed}. | [4.3
W/MC]
Then they ran off {with the castle} {at full speed}. | [10 W/MC]
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E
Exxeerrcciissee 1100 -- T
Thhee L
Looggiicc ooff PPrreeppoossiittiioonnaall PPhhrraasseess
The teaching of logic is as troubled as is the teaching of grammar. Just like the pedagogy of
grammar, that of logic is mired in terminological questions. And, just as the linguists who
dominate the teaching of grammar love to “teach” advanced topics and to ignore the basics, so
do the professors of logic. But logic can be simple. This is somewhat illustrated by the
instructional material (below) on “What Prepositional Phrases Can Add to a Text.” This type of
instruction has long been included in grammar textbooks. For reasons explained in the
background essay (“An Introduction to Syntax and the Logic of David Hume”), KISS prefers
Hume’s three categories (identity, extension in time or space, and cause/effect) -- which are even
simpler than what is usually taught.
Ex. 10. a. - From Lassie, Come Home by Eric Knight
This type of close analysis raises as many questions as it answers, so remember that it is
intended to get students thinking about the range of information that prepositional phrases can
add to texts. Try to focus students' attention on the adverbial phrases that add information about
when and where (Hume's "time" and "space") and on the adjectival phrases that, to use Hume's
term, "identify."
1. {In a small village} [#1] {like Greenall Bridge} [Adj. to "village" -- What kind of village?] ,
everyone knew the business (DO) {of everyone else} [Adj. to "business" -- Whose
business?] . |
2. {For a long time} [Adv. to "was" -- When?] there was nothing (PN) {but the sound} [#2]
{of their breathing} [Adj. to "sound" -- What kind of sound?]. |
3. Hyne's small, thin figure {in its checked coat, riding breeches, and cloth leggings}
[Adj. to "figure" -- What kind of figure?] halted {for a moment} [Adv. to "halted" -When? How long?] {near the door} [Adv. to "halted" -- Where?] . |
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4. She faded {through a gap} [Adv. to "faded" -- Faded where?] {in a hedge} [Adj. to "gap" -What kind of gap?] and shot away {from the road} [Adv. to "shot" -- Shot away
where?] up {into the bleak back-country} [Adv. to "shot" -- Shot up where?]. |
5. {Without pausing} [#3], he went {past the shops} [Adv. to "went" -- Went where?] {on High
Street} [Adj. to "shops" -- Which shops?] , {through the village} [Adv. to "went" -- Went
where?] {to the little lane} [Adv. to "went" -- Went where?] going [#4] {up the hillside}
[Adv. to "going" -- Going where?], {up the lane} [Adv. to "going" -- Going where?] and
{through a gate} [Adv. to "going" -- Going where?], {along a garden path} [Adv. to
"going" -- Going where?] , and then {through the cottage door} [Adv. to "going" -Going where?]. |
You might want to ask students why Knight used so many phrases that indicate “where”?
Some students may think that there are too many, but they do have an effect on readers.
What, for example, do they suggest about “he”? (For one thing, they suggest that “he”
knew exactly where he was going, and probably why.) [This question is, of course, better
when the sentence is viewed in context.]
6. {Throughout the long winters} [Adv. to "would argue"-- Argue when?], {at the small inn}
[Adv. to "would argue"-- Argue where?] {by the loch} [Adj. to "inn" - What inn?] ,
McBane would argue {for hours} [Adv. to "would argue" -- How long?] [DO that his
Mr. Freeth was one (PN) {of Britain's greatest landscapists} [Adj. to "one" -- One
what?] ]. |
Notes
1. Placed where it is, and separated from “everyone” by a comma, this phrase would probably be
explained as adverbial to “knew” by many grammarians. But by the time that readers get to
it, “knew” will already have a subject—“everyone.” Thus is answers “where?” to “knew,”
but it also explains “which” “everyone” is meant. Note how the two phrases, if they were
placed after “everyone” and not separated by commas, would be taken as adjectival to
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“everyone.” If they were separated by commas (everyone, in a small village . . . , knew . . . .)
the first phrase would more likely be considered as adverbial to “knew.”
2. “But” explains “what kind of ‘nothing’” in the sense of stating a specific exception to it.
3. “Without pausing” is clearly adverbial to “went,” the the question it answers is a matter of
opinion. Some people would say “When?” In another sense, it answers the question “How
long?” (Very quickly). The important point to emphasize is that the phrase adds details
about the location in time. [”Pausing” is a verbal, in this case a gerund that functions as the
object of the preposition.)
4. “Going” is a verbal. It is a gerundive (verbal adjective) that describes “lane.”
Ex. 10. b. - From My Book of Favorite Fairy Tales by Edric Vredenburg
1. Only {at night} [Adv. (when?) to "should be opened"] should the dark carriage be
opened (P) . | ["The White Fawn"]
2. Copies {of the Princess's portrait} [Adj. (which?) to "Copies"] were carried (P) {to all the
Courts} [Adv. (where?) to "were carried"] {in the world} [Adj. (which?) to "Courts"]. |
["The White Fawn"]
3. The cottage stands {under three great oak trees} [Adv. (where?) to "stands"]. | ["Little Red
Riding Hood"]
4. The cradle was ornamented (P) {with rubies and diamonds} [Adv. (how?) to "was
ornamented"]. | ["The White Fawn"]
5. Then, {for the first time} [Adv. (when?) to "saw"], the Princess Desirée saw the light
(DO) {of day} [Adj. (what kind of?) to "light"] !!! | ["The White Fawn"]
6. The king's daughter should not die, but fall asleep {for a hundred years} [Adv. (how
long?) to "fall asleep"] . | ["Sleeping Beauty"]
7. {In the evening} [Adv. (when?) to "returned"], she returned {to her attendants} [Adv.
(where?) to "returned"]. | ["The White Fawn"]
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8. Suliman had often dared to tell the Prince (IO) {of his faults} [Adv. (what?) to "dared
to tell"] [#1] . | ["Prince Cheri"]
9. How cheerful (PA) everything is {around you} [Adv. (where?) to "is"] {in the forest}
[Adv. (where?) to "is"]. | ["Little Red Riding Hood"]
10. The two sisters went {to the brook} [Adv. (where?) to "went"] to catch fish [#2] {for
dinner} [Adv. (why?) to "to catch" and/or Adj. (what kind of?) to "fish"]. | ["Snow-White
and Rose-Red"]
11. The Wolf, however, ran straight {to the house} [Adv. (where?) to "ran"] {of the old
grandmother} [Adj. (whose?) to "house"]. | ["Little Red Riding Hood"]
12. So she roved about {by herself} [Adv. (under what condition?) to "roved"], and poked
{at all the rooms and chambers} [Adv. (where?) to "poked"]. | ["Sleeping Beauty"]
13. Then, {with three waves} [Adv. (how?) to "caused"] {of a wand} [Adj. (what kind of?) to
"waves"], the Fairies caused a high tower to spring [#3] up. | ["The White Fawn"]
Notes
1. “Dared to tell of his faults” raises some technical questions. Of all the questions normally
associated with adjectives and adverbs, “of his faults” most closely answers “What?” But it
is “what?” in the sense of “about,” i.e., a generalization rather than “what?” in the direct
sense of a direct object. You might want to use this one as a chance to show students of the
gray areas in the
”rules” of grammars.
2. “Fish” is the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) “to catch.” The infinitive phrase functions
as an adverb (of purpose) to “went.”
3. “Tower” is the subject of the verbal (infinitive) “to spring,” or, if you prefer, “to spring up.”
The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of “caused.”
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[Ex. 11 - Adding Prepositional Phrases of Time and Space]
E
Exx.. 1122.. N
Nootteess ffoorr T
Teeaacchheerrss:: T
Thhee B
Brraanncchhiinngg ooff A
Addvveerrbbiiaall PPrreeppoossiittiioonnaall PPhhrraasseess
With these exercises, we are in the subjective area of style. One problem of many weak
writers is that they begin almost every sentence with the simple subject and verb. Some teachers
attempt to get students to vary their sentences by opening with a prepositional phrase. Typically,
the problem for the students is that they do not know what prepositional phrases are. In the KISS
Approach, of course, students have learned to identify prepositional phrases. As a result, these
exercises on variety should be much more successful.
Like many things in life, this question can be either very simple or extremely complex. How
complex you want to make it is up to you and your students. You can, for example, ask students
to indicate just the type of branching in each of the indicated phrases in each sentence, or you
can have students subjectively rate the “normality” of the branching of each phrase, and then
have a class discuss this aspect of branching for emphasis.
The instructional material for students suggests that many things affect branching. Asking
students to rate and discuss the types of branching may lead the students to find some of these
causes. (It would probably be possible, given lots of time, to catalog a list of reasons for different
branching. But it is probably better to have students explore the question for themselves.)
In Level 1.5 on the KISS web site, you can find an analysis of the 35 adverbial phrases in
Flora J. Cooke’s version of “Philemon and Baucis.” Twenty-seven of the phrases branch to the
right; seven, to the left, and one is mid-branching. This analysis takes up a lot of space, so I have
decided not to include it in the printable books. That analysis, time-consuming as it was, misses
some obvious cases in which, for example, left-branching is normal:
For example, he wrote an excellent paper about fishing. [10]
In this sentence, mid-branching would also be almost normal:
He, for example, wrote an excellent paper about fishing. [10]
Right-branching is probably less effective in this sentence:
He wrote an excellent paper about fishing, for example. [5]
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Phrases such as “for example,” or “in other words,” indicate the purpose of what follows, and
many writers use these phrases as transitions near the beginning of the sentence.
Mid-branching phrases are of particular interest for two reasons. First, be careful about
pushing weak writers to use mid-branching. Many weak writers, especially young ones, are still
developing the connection between subject and verb. Words that separate the two may be more
confusing than helpful.
Second, have older, more experienced writers seriously consider the effects of heavy midbranching. Both Joseph Williams and Richard Lanham, two well-respected writers on style,
suggest that even experienced writers should not separate subjects from their verbs by inserting
long mid-branching modifiers.
Although it pertains more to subordinate clauses than it does to phrases, you may want to
have your students discuss another question. Francis Christensen, a well-known writer about
teaching grammar, advocated sentence-combining exercises that teach students to make their
sentences longer and more complex by right-branching. His argument was basically that rightbranching is the norm. But in Tough, Sweet, and Stuffy, Walker Gibson suggested that leftbranching implies a more organized mind. His argument is that in order to left branch, the writer
has to already have in mind what the branch is going to branch from. In other words, Gibson
suggested that right-branching can simply result from the writer’s tacking one idea after another.
Even though the following exercises focus on prepositional phrases (and students have not
yet even begun to study clauses), you may find this to be an interesting question for your
students. Consider, for example, the following sentence from “The Sheep and the Pig”:
One day a shepherd discovered a fat Pig in the meadow where his Sheep were pastured.
Even though your students have not studied clauses, when they attempt to left-branch “in the
meadow,” some students will probably move “where his Sheep were pastured” with it:
One day, in the meadow where his Sheep were pastured, a shepherd discovered a fat Pig.
Gibson’s argument is that one can easily write, “One day a shepherd discovered a fat Pig,” and
only then, before putting down the period, think about adding “in the meadow where his Sheep
were pastured.” But one really can’t write “One day, in a meadow where his sheep were
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pastured” without already knowing what “in a meadow” will modify. Thus one must be able to
hold the whole sentence in mind as one begins to write it.
Note that the KISS position on this is that Gibson has an interesting idea, an idea that, in the
KISS Approach, students can explore and take their own positions on. (Christensen’s idea has
always bothered me because he basically forces a style on students without students even being
able to recognize subordinate clauses or consider options.)
As a final question, consider the mid-branching version of this sentence:
One day a shepherd, in the meadow where his Sheep were pastured, discovered a fat Pig.
Is the mid-branching too long? At this point, all I can say is that it depends on the intended
readers. There is a fair amount of evidence that young readers will have trouble connecting the
subject to the verb. On the other end, most experienced readers will have no trouble with it.
Unfortunately, because of the confusion over grammatical terminology, little research has been
done on questions like this. But the questions are important because, as noted above, if we push
weak writers into writing sentences like this, we may just confuse them. Don’t fool with Mother
Nature.
[Ex. 12. a - Style—Left-, Right-, and Mid-Branching Prepositional Phrases]
Ex. 12. b – “The Sheep and the Pig” from The ÆSOP for Children
Remember, there are no “right answers” here. The object of the assignment is to have the
students discuss their impressions of the effects of the different branching options. Some of the
students may also want to discuss moving some of the other constructions—including
subordinate clauses that they have not yet studied.
One day a shepherd discovered a fat Pig in the meadow (1) where his Sheep were pastured.
One day a shepherd discovered a fat Pig in the meadow where his Sheep
10
were pastured.
One day in a meadow a shepherd discovered a fat Pig where his Sheep were
9
pastured.
L
or
7
One day in the meadow where his Sheep were pastured, a shepherd
R
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discovered a fat Pig.
One day a shepherd in a meadow discovered a fat Pig where his Sheep were
pastured.
8
M
or
One day a shepherd, in the meadow where his Sheep were pastured,
5
discovered a fat Pig.
The first thing we need to note is that in the right-branching version “meadow” is
modified by the adjectival “where” clause. This defines the meadow, so we get “the
meadow” instead of “a meadow,” as we can in both the left- and mid-branching
versions. When the “where” clause is separated from “meadow,” it becomes an
adverbial clause that modifies “discovered.” [Note, by the way, that the original could
easily have been “in a meadow where his Sheep were pastured.” But “One day a
shepherd discovered a fat Pig in the meadow.” (without the “where” clause) would
raise the question “What meadow?”]
The first left-branching version moves only “in the meadow,” and left-branching
adverbial phrases of time and place are less common than right-branching, but not
enough to draw a major emphasis.
The second versions of both the left- and mid-branching options carry the “where”
clause with the prepositional phrase. This leaves the final position in the sentence,
which itself can be emphatic, with the word “Pig.” Thus “Pig” gets slightly more
attention.
In the first mid-branching version “in a meadow” becomes adjectival to
“shepherd.” Theoretically, it could be set off in commas. That would be unusual—
attracting more attention, but also making in more likely to be read as adverbial to
“discovered.” The second mid-branching option raises the question of a relatively long
separation of the subject and verb.
He very quickly captured the porker, which squealed at the top (2) of its voice the moment the
Shepherd laid his hands on it.
He very quickly captured the porker, which squealed at the top of its voice
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the moment the Shepherd laid his hands on it.
L 0
He very quickly captured the porker, which, at the top of its voice, squealed
the moment the Shepherd laid his hands on it. As usual, the mid-branching is
M
7
less common and in this case tends to put more focus on “at the top of its
voice.”
Left branching simply does not work in this case because the subject is also the
conjunction “which,” which refers to “porker.”
R
You would have thought, to hear the loud squealing, that the Pig was being cruelly hurt. But in
spite (3) of its squeals and struggles to escape, the Shepherd tucked his prize under his arm (4)
and started off to the butcher’s in the market place.
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But in spite of its squeals and struggles to escape, the Shepherd tucked his
10
prize under his arm and started off to the butcher’s in the market place.
But the Shepherd tucked his prize under his arm in spite of its squeals and
R
8
struggles to escape, and started off to the butcher’s in the market place.
But the Shepherd, in spite of its squeals and struggles to escape, tucked his
M
7
prize under his arm and started off to the butcher’s in the market place.
Left-branching works best here because putting the phrase at the beginning makes
a clearer and smoother transition from the “squealing” and from the idea of the Pig
being cruelly hurt expressed in the preceding sentence. Right-branching creates a long
string of phrases that awkwardly separates the compound verbs “tucked” and “started.”
Mid-branching” makes a closer connection between the Shepherd and his “spite,” but,
in addition to the separation of subject and verb, it also places the noun “Shepherd”
between the “its” and its antecedent in the preceding sentence.
L
But in spite of its squeals and struggles to escape, the Shepherd tucked his
10
prize under his arm and started off to the butcher’s in the market place.
But in spite of its squeals and struggles to escape, under his arm the
L
6
Shepherd tucked his prize and started off to the butcher’s in the market place.
But in spite of its squeals and struggles to escape, the Shepherd, under his
M
2
arm, tucked his prize and started off to the butcher’s in the market place.
If there were a reason to emphasize “under his arm,” the mid-branching would do
it most forcefully simply because it is the least used branching position. The same is
true for the left-branching, but to a lesser degree.
The Sheep in the pasture were much astonished and amused at the Pig’s behavior (5), and
R
followed the Shepherd and his charge to the pasture gate (6).
The Sheep in the pasture were much astonished and amused at the Pig’s
9
behavior, and followed the Shepherd and his charge to the pasture gate.
At the Pig’s behavior, the Sheep in the pasture were much astonished and
L
10
amused, and they followed the Shepherd and his charge to the pasture gate.
The Sheep in the pasture, at the Pig’s behavior, were much astonished and
M
5
amused, and they followed the Shepherd and his charge to the pasture gate.
Moving “at the Pig’s behavior” creates a sequence of three finite verbs—were
much astonished and amused and followed. The first two of these verbs are in passive
voice. The third is in active, but with the prepositional phrase moved, it can too easily
be processed as another passive. Thus I have given it its own subject.
I like the left-branching better here because it forms a better transition from the
preceding sentence. The Sheep have been out of the picture since the first sentence, so
beginning the sentence with the Sheep is somewhat of a disconnect. The midbranching, although acceptable, puts too much focus on the prepositional phrase, a
phrase whose purpose is mainly to serve as a transition.
R
105
The Sheep in the pasture were much astonished and amused at the Pig’s
10
behavior, and followed the Shepherd and his charge to the pasture gate.
L 0
The Sheep in the pasture were much astonished and amused at the Pig’s
M
1
behavior, and to the pasture gate followed the Shepherd and his charge.
Left-branching simply will not work here because the phrase modifies the third of
three compounded verbs. Mid-branching would work, if there were some reason for
emphasizing “to the pasture gate.”
R
“What makes you squeal like that?” asked one of the Sheep. “The Shepherd often catches
and carries off one of us. But we should feel very much ashamed to make such a terrible fuss
about it like you do.”
“That is all very well,” replied the Pig, with a squeal and a frantic kick (7).
“That is all very well,” replied the Pig, with a squeal and a frantic kick.
10
“That is all very well,” with a squeal and a frantic kick, replied the Pig.
1
“That is all very well,” replied, with a squeal and a frantic kick, the Pig.
3
Both the left- and mid-branching versions would be very unusual. In this case, the
mid- is probably more normal because it keeps “replied” immediately after the
quotation.
R
L
M
“When he catches you he is only after your wool. But he wants my bacon! gree-ee-ee!”
It is easy to be brave when there is no danger.
Ex. 13 - Similes from The Hobbit, by J. R. R. Tolkien
The imagination required to use this sentence as a model should delight creative students-and frustrate those with analytical minds (like mine).
The Arkenstone was {like a globe} [#1] {with a thousand facets}; | it shone {like silver} {in
the firelight}, {like water} {in the sun}, {like snow} {under the stars}, {like rain} {upon the
Moon}! |
Notes
1. The phrase “like a globe” can be described as adverbial to “was” and/or a predicate
adjective to “Arkenstone.” The embedded phrases in the second main clause (“in the firelight,”
“in the sun,” “under the stars,” and “upon the Moon”) must be seen as adjectival to the preceding
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nouns. [The Arkenstone is not “in the firelight,” etc. Note that each of these embeddings is a
reduction of a subordinate clause:
It shone,
like silver *shines* in the firelight,
like water *shines* in the sun,
like snow *shines* under the stars,
like rain “shines” upon the Moon!
Ex. 14. a. - Aesop’s “The Swallow and the Crow”
THE SWALLOW and the Crow had a contention (DO) {about their plumage}. |
The Crow put an end (DO) {to the dispute} {by saying [#1]}, [DO of "saying" "Your
feathers are all (PA) very well (PA) [#2] {in the spring}], but [DO of "saying" mine
protect me (DO) {against the winter}]." |
Fair weather friends are not worth (PA) much [NuA]. |
Notes
1. Gerund—Object of “by.”
2. Note the use of “well” (instead of “good”) as a predicate adjective.
Ex. 14. b. From “Blue Beard”
{After that} they went up {into the two great rooms}, [Adj. to "rooms" where the
best and richest furniture was.] | They could not sufficiently admire the number (DO)
and beauty (DO) {of the tapestry, beds, couches, cabinets, stands, tables, and lookingglasses}, [Adj. to "looking-glasses" {in which} you might see yourself (DO) {from head}
{to foot}.] | Some {of them} were framed (P) {with glass}, | others *were framed* (P)
{with silver}, plain and gilded [#1]. |
Note
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1. “Plain” and “gilded” are post-positioned adjectives modifying “silver” -- “with silver *some of
which was* plain and *some of which was* gilded.” “Plain” and “gilded,” in other words,
can be seen as embedded in the phrase. Should a student include “plain and gilded” in the
prepositional phrase, I would simply accept it.
[Ex. 15 - Write, Revise, Edit, and Analyze (Describing an Event)]
K
KIISSSS L
Leevveell 11.. 66.. C
Caassee,, N
Nuum
mbbeerr,, aanndd T
Teennssee
Notes for Teachers
Although KISS is primarily focused on syntax (how words relate to each other to create
meaning), students should have a basic understanding of case (nominative, possessive,
objective), number (singular vs. plural) and tense (past, present, future). This section of KISS
Level One focuses on explanations and exercises on these questions. The instruction is important
because students will need them for two reasons—to learn to avoid errors, and to be able to
follow directions.
Some of the errors are usage errors—“Billy and me went fishing.” In this instance, “me,” an
objective case pronoun is used where a nominative case (“I”) is the standard. Ironically, some
students may make this error because they have been taught not to use “I.” They have been so
taught because students are not generally well taught about grammatical “person.” “Person”
refers almost exclusively to personal pronouns. (See the instructional material, below.) Students
should know what grammatical “person” means because in some college courses, such as civil
engineering or human services, they will be instructed not to use “first person” in their papers.
Students have reported having to rewrite papers, or even, in some cases, losing a letter grade on
papers because they were told not to use—“first person.” Not knowing what that means, they
used it, and suffered.
“Tense” can become a maze of grammatical categories -- see, for example, the conjugation
of the verb “discover.” The major practical problem for some students, however, is that they
“shift” tenses—from past to present, etc., and teachers mark this as a “tense shift.” Once students
realize what the teachers mean, they do not have much trouble learning to fix (or better, avoid)
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the error, but that means that they need to know the differences among “past,” “present,” and
“future” tenses. Instead of teaching this to future teachers, some idiotic “professors” teach
students that there is no future tense. (They claim this because unlike past and present tenses, the
future tense always requires a helping verb. The instruction, however, does not help students in
some courses where they may be directed to use future tense in some assignments.)
In addition to “tense shifts,” some students have problems with “pronoun shifts.” This
means that they shift from “I,” to “you,” to “he” without reason. Here again, the question is
primarily one of understanding the grammatical terms. Once they do, they usually can see and
understand any problems.
The Exercises in KISS Level 1.6
Exercise # 1 - The Antecedents of Pronouns
Once students can identify pronouns, they can begin to understand the question of
antecedents. Note that the instructional material points out that some “antecedents” come after
their pronouns, and that some pronouns do not have antecedents.
Exercise # 2 - The Antecedents of Pronouns - Fill-in-the-Blanks
This is a simple practice exercise.
Exercise # 3 - Pronouns as Subjects in Multi - S/V/C Sentences
This exercise focuses on pronouns such as “who,” “which” and “that” that can also function
as subordinating conjunctions. In a sentence such as “They saw the mouse that ate the cheese,”
some students will find the verb “ate,” ask “Who or what ate?” and conclude that the subject is
“mouse.” Students should have been taught that neither the complement of a verb nor the object
of a preposition can function as the subject of a verb, but some students will forget. Thus this
exercise gives them practice on identifying “who,” “which,” and “that” as subjects.
Exercise # 4 - Pronouns—Person, Number, and Case
This exercise focuses on the personal pronouns and adds the concept of “case.” Different
grammar books use different terms for the cases, and some grammar books claim that there are
more than three. KISS uses the terms “nominative,” “possessive,” and “objective.” Exercise 4a
consists of ten sentences—in an attempt to include as many different pronouns as possible.
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Exercise 4b consists of a short text—to show how the antecedents of many pronouns appear in
previous sentences.
Exercise # 5 - Pronouns: The Gender Question
This exercise addresses the problem of using masculine or feminine pronouns in sentences
such as “Everyone should bring his/her book.” It is a question of usage rather than syntax, but
students should be made aware of the question.
Exercise # 6 (a & b) - Writing Sentences with Personal Pronouns
In these two exercises, students are asked to write sentences using various personal
pronouns, and then to label the person, number, and case of each pronoun.
Exercise #7a - Pronouns as Predicate Nouns
Pronouns as predicate nouns raise questions of usage and sometimes of meaning. This
exercise focuses on “SAE” (Standard American English) that students are expected to use in
formal writing.
Exercise # 7b * - Pronouns as Predicate Nouns (Choose)
This exercise, the same in every grade level, is like those “(who/whom)” exercises that
many of us had to do in school—and some students may still have to do. The difference is that in
KISS students should already have learned to identify subjects and complements. Thus they will
be able to understand why direct objects, for example, are in objective case. The exercise also
includes some sentences in which either objective or nominative case can be used.
Exercise # 7c *- Pronouns as Predicate Nouns—A Research Project
Students are invited to use the sentences in exercise # 7b as a survey, asking a number of
other people to make the choices. The students can then discuss the results and explore a
difference between formal and informal styles.
Exercise # 8a - Identifying Tenses
This is the first KISS exercise on identifying past, present, and future tenses.
Exercise # 8b - Changing to a Different Tense
For practice, students are given a short passage (or several sentences) in one tense, and they
are asked to rewrite the sentences in the two other tenses.
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Exercise # 9 - Person, Number, Case, and Tense reviews the primary concepts covered in this
section.
Ex. 1. Antecedents of Pronouns
1. Frank’s kite flew so high (PA) [Adv. to "so" that he could scarcely see it (DO)]. |
The antecedent of “he” is “Frank’s.”
The antecedent of “it” is “kite.”
2. “Children [DirA],” [ [#1] said Aunt Sue], “you must be quiet (PA) {at your play}, | or I
shall send you (DO) {to bed}.” |
The antecedent of “you,” “your,” and “you” is “Children.”
The antecedent of “I” is “Aunt Sue.”
3. King Midas valued his royal crown (DO) [Adv. to "valued" because it was made (P)
{of gold}]. |
The antecedent of “his” is “King Midas.”
The antecedent of “it” is “crown.”
4. The sun was shining {on the sea},
Shining [#2] {with all his might}; |
He did his very best (DO) to make
The billows smooth and bright [#3]. |
The antecedent of “his” is “sun.”
The antecedent of “He” and “his” is “sun.”
5. The wind blew {with all his strength} a cold blast (DO); | but the fiercer [#4] he blew,
[Adv. (result) to "the fiercer" the tighter [#4] did the man clasp his cloak (DO) {around
him}]. |
The antecedent of “his” is “wind.”
The antecedent of “he” is “wind.”
The antecedent of the second “his” is “man.”
The antecedent of “him” is “man.”
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6. “What a selfish dog (PN) you are!” [ [#1] said the ox]; | “you can not eat the hay (DO)
yourself [#5], | nor will you let me eat it [#6] .” |
The antecedent of “you” throughout the text is “dog.”
The antecedent of “yourself” is the “you” that functions as the subject of this clause.
The antecedent of “me” is “ox.”
The antecedent of “it” is “hay.”
7. The herald bade Cinderella sit [#7] down {on a stool} {in the kitchen}, and himself [#8]
put the slipper (DO) {on her pretty little foot}, [Adj. to "foot" which it fitted exactly]. |
The antecedent of “himself” is “herald.”
The antecedent of “her” is “Cinderella.”
The antecedent of “which” is “foot.” Note how this “which” functions simultaneously as
the subordinating conjunction and the direct object of “fitted.”
The antecedent of “it” is “slipper.”
Notes
1. KISS explains this clause as an interjection. For more on this question, see KISS Level 3.2.3 Interjection? Or Direct Object?
2. “Shining” is a verbal (gerundive) that modifies “Sun.”
3. “Smooth” and “bright” are predicate adjectives after an ellipsed infinitive, the subject of which
is “Billows”—“Billows *to be* smooth and bright.” This infinitive phrase functions as the
direct object of the infinitive “to make.” The infinitive phrase functions as an adverb of
purpose to “did.”
4. “The” makes the adjective a noun, which is here functioning as an adverb to “blew.” “The
tighter” then functions as an adverb that makes an adverbial clause to “the fiercer.” Note the
similarity to the “as . . . as” and “more ... than” constructions.
5. “Yourself” is an appositive to “you.” See KISS Level 5.4 - Appositives.
6. “Me” is the subject and “it” is the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) “to eat.” The infinitive
phrase functions as the direct object of “will let.”
7. “Cinderella” is the subject of the infinitive “sit.” The infinitive phrase functions as the direct
object of “bade.”
8. “Himself” is an appositive to “herald.” Note how it is used here to make the herald (and not
Cinderella) the subject of “put.”
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Ex. 2 Fill in the Blanks – From “The Happy Prince,” by Oscar Wilde
The Original Sentences
[There are, of course, other pronouns that would be correct. For example, in number six,
“It is curious” could be “That is curious.”]
1.
The boy was tossing feverishly on his bed, and the mother had fallen asleep, she was so
tired.
2.
One night there flew over the city a little Swallow. His friends had gone away to Egypt
six weeks before, but he had stayed behind, for he was in love with the most beautiful Reed. He
had met her early in the spring as he was flying down the river after a big yellow moth, and had
been so attracted by her slender waist that he had stopped to talk to her.
3.
“It is curious,” he remarked, “but I feel quite warm now, although it is
so cold.”
4.
At noon the yellow lions come down to the water’s edge to drink. They have eyes like
green beryls, and their roar is louder than the roar of the cataract.
5.
“Why can’t you be like the Happy Prince?” asked a sensible mother of her little boy who
was crying for the moon.
6.
“Alas! I have no ruby now,” said the Prince; “my eyes are all that I have left. They are
made of rare sapphires, which were brought out of India a thousand years ago. Pluck out one of
them and take it to him. He will sell it to the jeweller, and buy food and firewood, and finish his
play.”
7.
So the Swallow plucked out the Prince’s eye, and flew away to the student’s garret. It
was easy enough to get in, as there was a hole in the roof. Through this he darted, and came into
the room. The young man had his head buried in his hands, so he did not hear the flutter of the
bird’s wings, and when he looked up he found the beautiful sapphire lying on the withered
violets.
8.
Early the next morning the Mayor was walking in the square below in company with the
Town Councillors. As they passed the column he looked up at the statue: “Dear me! how shabby
the Happy Prince looks!” he said.
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“How shabby indeed!” cried the Town Councillors, who always agreed with the Mayor;
and they went up to look at it.
9.
“Bring me the two most precious things in the city,” said God to one of His Angels; and
the Angel brought Him the leaden heart and the dead bird.
“You have rightly chosen,” said God, “for in my garden of Paradise this little bird shall
sing for evermore, and in my city of gold the Happy Prince shall praise me.”
Analysis Key
1.
[#1]
2.
The boy was tossing feverishly {on his bed}, | and the mother had fallen asleep, |
she was so tired (PA). |
One night [NuA] there [#2] flew {over the city} a little Swallow. | His friends had
gone away {to Egypt} six weeks [NuA] before, | but he had stayed behind, [Adv. (cause) to
"had gone" [#3] for he was {in love} {with the most beautiful Reed}]. | He had met her
(DO) early {in the spring} [Adv. (time) to "had met" as he was flying {down the river}
{after a big yellow moth},] [#4] and had been so attracted (P) {by her slender waist} [Adv.
(result) to "so" that he had stopped to talk [#5] {to her}]. |
3.
"It is curious (PA)," [ [#6] he remarked], | "but I feel quite warm (PA) now,
[Adv. (concession) to "feel" although it is so cold (PA)]." |
4.
{At noon} the yellow lions come down {to the water's edge} to drink [#7] . | They
have eyes (DO) {like green beryls}, | and their roar is louder (PA) {than [#8] the roar} {of
the cataract}. |
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5.
"Why can't you be {like the Happy Prince} [#9] ?" [ [#6] asked a sensible mother {of
her little boy} [Adj. to "boy" who was crying {for the moon}]]. |
6.
"Alas! [Inj] I have no ruby (DO) now," [ [#6] said the Prince]; | "my eyes are all
(PN) [Adj. to "all" that I have left [#10] ]. | They are made (P) [#11] {of rare sapphires},
[Adj. to "sapphires" which were brought (P) {out of India} a thousand years [NuA] ago. |
*You* Pluck out one (DO) {of them} and take it (DO) {to him}. | He will sell it (DO)
{to the jeweller}, and buy food (DO) and firewood (DO), and finish his play (DO)." |
7.
So [#3] the Swallow plucked out the Prince's eye (DO), and flew away {to the
student's garret}. | It was easy (PA) enough to get [#12] in, [Adv. (cause) to "easy" as there
[#2]
was a hole (PN) {in the roof}]. | {Through this} he darted, and came {into the room}. |
The young man had his head buried [#13] {in his hands}, [Adv. (result) to "buried" so [#3] he
did not hear the flutter (DO) {of the bird's wings}], | and [Adv. to "found" when he
looked up] he found the beautiful sapphire lying [#14] {on the withered violets}. |
8.
Early the next morning [NuA] the Mayor was walking {in the square} below [#15] {in
company} {with the Town Councillors}. | [Adv. (time) to "looked up" As they passed the
column (DO) ] he looked up {at the statue}: | "Dear me! [Inj] how shabby (PA} the
Happy Prince looks!" [ [#6] he said]. |
"How shabby indeed!" (DO) cried the Town Councillors, [Adj. to "Town
Councillors" who always
agreed {with the Mayor}]; | and they went up to look [#16] {at it}. |
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9.
" *You* Bring me (IO) the two most precious things (DO) {in the city}," [ [#6]
said God {to one} {of His Angels}]; | and the Angel brought Him (IO) the leaden heart
(DO) and the dead bird (DO). |
"You have rightly chosen," [ [#6] said God], "[Adv. (cause) to "rightly" for [#3] {in
my garden} {of Paradise} this little bird shall sing {for evermore}], | and {in my city} {of
gold} the Happy Prince shall praise me (DO)." |
Notes
1. Technically, this is a comma-splice (two main clauses joined by just a comma). It is, however,
a fairly common splice even among professional writers when the second clause can be seen
as an adverbial clause of cause.
2. For alternative explanations of this “there,” see KISS Level 2.1.3 - Expletives (Optional).
3. See also KISS Level 3.2.2 - “So” and “For” as Conjunctions.
4. I’m assuming that the comma after “moth” signals the end of this clause. Some people,
however, may see the following “and” as joining “was flying” and “had been so attracted.”
That would mean that the “was flying” clause ends at the end of the sentence.
5. The verbal (infinitive) “to talk” functions as an adverb (of purpose) to “had stopped.”
6. KISS explains this clause as an interjection. See KISS Level 3.2.3 - Interjection? Or Direct
Object?
7. The verbal (infinitive) “to drink” functions as an adverb (of purpose) to “come.”
8. Some grammarians prefer to explain this “than” as a subordinate conjunction in an ellipsed
subordinate clause—“than the roar of the cataract *is loud*.” Either explanation is
acceptable.
9. Alternatively, “like the Happy Prince” can be explained as a predicate adjective.
10. In subordinate clauses, the direct object of the verb is often simultaneously the subordinating
conjunction. (Consider—“He is the one whom I saw.”) The same thing happens here, but it
probably happens less frequently with “that”—I have that left. (Within the clause, of course,
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“that” replaces “my eyes.”) From this perspective, “left” can be explained as a verbal
(gerundive) that modifies the direct object “that.”
11. “Made” can also be explained as a predicate adjective. See Exercise # 10 in KISS Level 1.2
Adding Complements (PA, PN, IO, DO).
12. The verbal (infinitive) “to get (in)” functions as a delayed subject—“To get in was easy
enough.” See KISS Level 5.6 - Delayed Subjects and Sentences.
13. “Buried” can be explained as a verbal (gerundive) that modifies the direct object “head.”
KISS Level 5.8 - Noun Absolutes offers a more meaningful explanation. He did not have his
head. Most people have their heads. What he had was his “head buried (in his hands).” Thus
at Level Five KISS suggests that “head buried” is a noun absolute that functions as the direct
object of “had.”
14. As in note # 13, “sapphire lying” can be explained as a noun absolute that functions as the
direct object of “found,” or “lying” can be considered a gerundive that modifies the direct
object “sapphire.” In the case, the latter explanation probably makes more sense, but I would
not take the time to argue the point.
15. “Below” is a preposition in an ellipsed phrase that modifies “square”—“in the square below
*the statue.”
16. The verbal (infinitive) “to look” functions as an adverb (of purpose) to “went.”
Ex. 3. Pronouns as Subjects – From A Book of Myths, by Jean Lang
1. Stark (PA) and grim (PA) was the three-headed watchdog, Cerberus [#1], [Adj. to
"Cerberus" which guarded the door (DO)], | and {with the growls and the furious
roaring} {of a wild beast} athirst [#2] {for its prey} it greeted Orpheus (DO). |
2. She was the fairest thing (PN) {on earth}, worthy (PA) [#3] indeed {of the deathless
gods} [Adj. to "gods" who had created her (DO)]. |
3. And still do we watch the butterfly (DO), [Adj. to "butterfly" which is her emblem
(PN)], bursting [#4] {from its ugly tomb} {in the dark soil}, and spreading joyous white
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and gold-powdered wings [#4] {in the caressing sunshine}, {amidst the radiance and the
fragrance} {of the summer flowers}. |
4. All the heroes gazed {at her} {with eyes} [Adj. to "eyes" that adored her beauty
(DO)]. |
5. Great (PA) was the shout [Adj. to "shout" that rose {from those} [Adj. to "those" who
still lived [Adv. to "lived" when that grim hunt thus came {to an end}]]]. |
6. {Upon the earth}, and {on the children} {of men} [Adj. to "men" who were {as gods} {in
their knowledge and mastery} {of the force} {of fire}], Jupiter had had his revenge
(DO). |
7. {From her bed} sprang Althæa, | and, heedless {of the flames}, she seized the burning
wood (DO), trod {on it} {with her fair white feet}, and poured {on it} water (DO)
[Adj. to "water" that swiftly quenched its red glow (DO)]. |
8. Telamon rushed on to destroy the filthy thing [#5] [Adj. to "thing" that would have
made carrion (DO) {of the sons} {of the gods}]. |
9. The merchants wondered [DO who could be the one (PN) [Adj. to "one" {upon
whom} Pygmalion lavished the money (DO) {from his treasury}]]. |
10. And {from the trees} sang birds {with song} more sweet [#6] {than any} [Adj. to "any"
that (DO) Psyche had ever known], and [#7] {with brilliant plumage} [Adj. to
"plumage" which (DO) they preened caressingly [Adv. to "preened" when they had
dipped their wings (DO) {in crystal-sparkling fountains}]]. |
Notes
1. “Cerberus” is an appositive to “watchdog.”
2. “Athirst” is a post-positioned adjective to “beast.”
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3. The lack of an “and” between “thing” and “worthy” implies that “worthy” presents not another
attribute, but another perspective on “the fairest.” In other words, it tends to turn “worthy”
into an appositive. to “the fairest.”
4. “Wings” is the direct object of “spreading.” “Bursting” and “spreading” can be explained as
verbals (gerundives) that modify “butterfly.” [At KISS Level Five, some people will prefer
to explain “butterfly ... bursting ... and spreading” as the core of a noun absolute that
functions as the direct object of “watch.” See KISS Level 5.8 - Noun Absolutes.
5. “Thing” is the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) “to destroy.” The infinitive phrase
functions as an adverb of purpose to “rushed on.”
6. “Sweet” is a post-positioned adjective to “song.”
7. This “and” creates a parallel construction with two “with” phrases, each of which is modified
by a clause (or clauses). But the very elaboration of the “with” phrases may confuse many
weaker readers. (Ask them what the “and” joins—especially if they have not yet done much
work in KISS Grammar—and see how many can answer correctly.) The four S/V/C patterns
in a single main clause increase the complexity, as may some of the vocabulary.
Ex. 4.a. Person, Number, and Case – Adapted from English for Use
1. my
2. him
3. We
4. our
5. You
6. your
7. his
8. he
9. her
10. their
11. Our
12. its
13. them
14. theirs
15. I
Person
first
third
first
first
second
second
third
third
third
third
first
third
third
third
first
Number
singular
singular
plural
plural
singular or plural
singular or plural
singular
singular
singular
plural
plural
singular
plural
plural
singular
Case
(possessive)
objective
nominative
(possessive)
nominative
(possessive)
(possessive)
nominative
objective
(possessive)
(possessive)
(possessive)
objective
possessive (PN)
nominative
Antecedent
I
U
U
We
U
You
John
U [#1]
She
friends
U
flag
U
them
mother
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16. you
17. My
18. our
19. us
20. ourselves
second
first
second
first
first
singular or plural
singular
plural
plural
plural
Note
objective
(possessive)
(possessive)
objective
objective
U
U
brother & I
U
us
#1. The antecedent of this “he” could be either “John” or his “friend.”
Ex. 4.b. “The Story of the First Diamonds” by Florence Holbrook
Suggestion: In addition to using this selection for the study of pronouns, you might want to
use it as a writing exercise. Simply have the students read the story at least twice and then,
without looking back at the story, write it (in as much detail as possible) in their own words.
1. he
2. my
3. him
4. They
5. he
6. our
7. she
8. your
9. I
10. you
11. You
12. she
13. their
14. her
15. they
16. her
17. me
18. his
19. them
20. that
Person
third
first
third
third
third
first
third
second
first
second
second
third
third
third
third
third
first
third
third
NA *
Number
singular
singular
singular
plural
singular
plural
singular
singular
singular
singular
singular
singular
plural
singular
plural
singular
singular
singular
plural
plural
Case
nominative
possessive
objective
nominative
nominative
possessive
nominative
possessive
nominative
objective
nominative
nominative
possessive
possessive
nominative
objective
objective
possessive
objective
nominative
Antecedent
chief
chief
son
Indians
chief
chief & Moneta
Moneta
son
Moneta
son
mother
mother
men
mother
men
mother
mother
younger (son)
tears
stones
* “That” is not a personal pronoun. It is plural because its antecedent (“stones”) is.
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Ex. 5 Pronouns: The Gender Question – From: Growth in English
This is a question of political, not grammatical correctness. In general, the answers below
are the politically correct ones. Different books will give you different rules for handling this
problem. In Children’s Writing and Reading, Katharine Perera claimed that using the plural
pronoun with a singular antecedent “is probably the preferred solution, although it means using
plural pronouns to refer to a singular [antecedent].” According to her:
Aware of this gap in the pronoun system, the Equal Opportunities Commission
commissioned Dr. David Firnberg to create a new pronoun. He has suggested two
possibilities: ist, ist, ists; and hey, hem, heir, heirs, e.g.:
. . . If anyone has lost heir ticket hey should report to a stewardess
who will do her best to help hem.
Despite the clear need for such an item, there is no sign of its being adopted.
(Basil Blackwell, 1984, 38-39)
You might enjoy sharing this information with your students. As for her own book, Perera notes,
“Whenever possible I have avoided the issue by using a plural noun and they. Sometimes,
however, a singular form is essential. On these occasions, I have adopted the convention of
referring to teachers as she and the pupil as he—naturally, this should not be taken to mean that
male teachers and female pupils are discounted.” (14)
1. Anyone can waste his time (DO). |
Anyone can waste his or her time.
or: Anyone can waste time.
2. Everybody ought to do her part (DO). |
Everybody ought to do her or his part.
3. Neither Tom nor Beverly is doing his best [#1]. |
Neither Tom nor Beverly is doing his or her best.
or: Tom and Beverly are not doing their best.
4. Each {of them} is going to have his picture taken [#2]. |
121
Each of them is going to have his or her picture taken.
or: Each of them is going to have a picture taken.
or: They are all going to have their pictures taken.
5. A person ought to be careful (PA) {of her speech}. |
A person ought to be careful of his or her speech.
or: People ought to be careful of their speech.
6. Nobody {in those games} exerts himself (DO). |
Nobody in those games exerts him or herself.
or: The players in those games do not exert themselves.
7. Someone left her coat (DO) {on the floor}. |
Someone left his or her coat on the floor.
or: Someone left a coat on the floor.
8. Who wants to read her story (DO) [#3] {to the class}? |
Who wants to read her or his story to the class?
9. Will no one lend me (IO) his pencil (DO)? |
Will no one lend me his or her pencil?
or: Will no one lend me a pencil?
10. Neither Sam nor Mary left his dirty cups (DO) {in the sink}. |
Neither Sam nor Mary left dirty cups in the sink.
Notes
1. “Best” could be considered a pronoun that functions as the direct object, or it can be explained
as an adjective that modifies the ellipsed direct object—“work.”
2. “Taken” can be considered a verbal (gerundive) that modifies the direct object “picture.”
However the preferred KISS explanation is to view “picture taken” as a noun absolute that
functions as the direct object of “is going to have.” See KISS Level 5.8 - Noun Absolutes.
3. “Story” is the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) “to read.” The infinitive phrase is the
direct object of “wants.” (At this KISS Level, I would also simply accept “wants to read” as
the finite verb phrase.
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[Ex. 6.a Writing Sentences with Personal Pronouns]
[Ex. 6.b Personal Pronouns (Recipe Roster)]
[Ex. 7.a. Pronouns as Predicate Nouns--Adapted from Voyages in English]
Ex. 7.b. Pronouns as Predicate Nouns Adapted from The New College Grammar]
1. It is we (PN). |
2. Wasn't it they (PN)? |
3. {Between you and me}, this plan will not work. |
4. Is it I (PN) [ [#1] that you addressed], or he (PN)? |
5. It must be you (PN) or they (PN) [ [#1] that I saw]. |
6. They took us to be them [#2] . |
7. Was it we (PN) [ [#1] you desired to see [#3] ], or she (PN)? |
8. They may not permit you and us to vote [#4]. |
9. Are you as old (PA) as (he or him) [#5] ? |
10. She likes this story (DO) as well as ( I or me) [#6]. |
11. She likes the flower (DO) better than (I or me) [#6]. |
12. Would you not like to be she [#7] ? |
Notes
1. This clause can be described as an adjective to “it” or as a delayed subject (to “it”). See KISS
Level 5.6 - Delayed Subjects and Sentences. It may be interesting to note that many
grammarians would argue that “that” should, in formal grammar, be “whom” here because it
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refers to a person, not a thing. I have left it as I found it. In casual, idiomatic English, of
course, we usually use “that.”
2. “Us” is the subject of, and “them” is a predicate noun after the verbal (infinitive) “to be.”
Because the subject of the infinitive is in the objective case, so is the predicate noun. The
infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of “took.”
3. The verbal (infinitive) “to see” functions as the direct object of “desired.” Note that if a
subordinating conjunction were used within this clause, it would be in the objective case
because it would be the direct object of “to see” -- “Was it we *whom* you desired to see,
or she?”
4. “You” and “us” are subjects of the infinitive “to vote,” and subjects of infinitives are in
objective case -- “We asked him to go with us.” The infinitive phrase is the direct object of
“may permit.”
5. Prescriptive grammarians claim that this should be “as he,” because they see it as an ellipsed
subordinate clause -- “as he *is old*.” Common usage, however, often treats this as a
prepositional phrase -- “as him.” In either case, the “as” construction modifies the first “as.”
(See also Note 6.)
6. In this sentence, the choice of “I” or “me” affects meaning: “She likes the story as well as I
*like the story*” or “She likes the story as well as *she likes* me.” The latter would be
somewhat strange. A better example is one for which I have been criticized, but one which
came from a student -- “No one can train a horse better than (I or me).” In this case, the
“me,” which is what the student wrote, makes sense, but was probably not what the student
meant. Hence our need to teach this distinction. Note how in sentence # 7, both options
make sense, but they have very different meanings.
7. “She” is a predicate noun after the infinitive “to be.” But unlike sentence # 6, in this case the
antecedent of “she” is the subject (“you”) of the finite verb. Thus this predicate noun is in
the nominative case.
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[Ex. 7.c. Pronouns as Predicate Nouns - * A Research Project]
Ex. 8.a. Identifying Tenses: From Lassie, Come Home, by Eric Knight
1. I'll be back {for ye} {at noon}. | [Future]
2. Dogs have been bred (P) {throughout the years} to develop types to meet varying
needs [#1] . | [Past]
3. It's my duty (PN). | [Present]
4. And the crack {of a gun} will send most collies running [#2] {for cover}. | [Technically
future, but a general present]
5. She turned away angrily and continued to set the table (DO) [#3]. | [Past]
6. Downstairs {in the subterranean office}, Fergusson blustered {before his assistant}. |
[Past]
7. Lassie does look a bit [NuA] poorly. | [Present]
8. I shall report you (DO) -- {for both impertinence and cruelty}. | [Future]
9. Lassie was not listening {to him} now. | [Past]
10. This dog has no signs (DO) {of rabies}. | [Present]
Notes
1. Expect most students working at KISS Level One to be confused here. They will probably
mark the “to” phrases as prepositional phrases. See KISS Level 2.2.1 - The “To” Problem.
“Needs” is the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) “to meet.” This infinitive phrase
functions as an adjective to explain “types.” “Types” is the direct object of the verbal
(infinitive) “to develop.” This infinitive phrase functions as an adverb (of purpose) to “have
been bred.”
2. First of all, some students will mark “collies running” as a subject and verb. Tell them that is a
mistake that they are expected to make. But since “Collies running for cover” is not an
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acceptable sentences, “running” should not be underlined twice. [For more on this see KISS
Level 2.1.6 - Distinguishing Finite Verbs from Verbals.]
As a verbal, “running” can be explained in at least three different ways. Some people
will see it as a gerundive that modifies the direct object “collies.” Others will explain it as a
gerund that functions as a noun used as an adverb to indicate “where” they will send them.
Finally, some people will see “collies running” as a noun absolute that functions as the
direct object of “will send.” For more on this, see KISS Levels 4 Verbals (Gerunds,
Gerundives, & Infinitives) and 5.8 - Noun Absolutes.
3. At KISS Level One, most students will probably mark “continued to set” as the finite verb
phrase. I would simply accept that. Indeed, many grammarians do not address the question
of whether verbs such as “continue” are or are not helping verbs. When they get to verbals,
some students will prefer to see “table” as the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) “to set.”
In that case, the infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of “continued.”
Ex. 8.b. From A Book of Myths, by Jean Lang
In Present Tense:
From his throne on Olympus, Zeus looks down on the earth and sees, with wonder, airy
columns of blue-grey smoke that curl upwards to the sky. He watches more closely, and
realizes with terrible wrath that the moving flowers of red and gold that he sees in that land that
the Titans share with men, come from fire, that had hitherto been the gods' own sacred power.
Speedily he assembles a council of the gods to mete out to Prometheus a punishment fit for the
blasphemous daring of his crime. This council decides at length to create a thing that should for
evermore charm the souls and hearts of men, and yet, for evermore, be man's undoing.
In Future Tense:
From his throne on Olympus, Zeus will look down on the earth and see, with wonder, airy
columns of blue-grey smoke that curl upwards to the sky. He will watch more closely, and
realize with terrible wrath that the moving flowers of red and gold that he sees in that land that
the Titans share with men, come from fire, that had hitherto been the gods' own sacred power.
Speedily he will assemble a council of the gods to mete out to Prometheus a punishment fit for
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the blasphemous daring of his crime. This council will decide at length to create a thing that
should for evermore charm the souls and hearts of men, and yet, for evermore, be man's undoing.
Analysis Key (FYI)
{From his throne} {on Olympus}, Zeus looked down {on the earth} and saw, {with
wonder}, airy columns (DO) {of blue-grey smoke} [Adj. to "smoke" that curled upwards
{to the sky}]. | He watched more closely, and realized {with terrible wrath} [DO that the
moving flowers {of red and gold} [Adj. to "flowers" that he saw {in that land} [Adj. to
"land" that the Titans shared {with men}]], came {from fire}, [Adj. to "fire" that had
hitherto been the gods' own sacred power (PN)]]. | Speedily he assembled a council
(DO) {of the gods} to mete out {to Prometheus} a punishment fit [#1] {for the blasphemous
daring} {of his crime}. | This council decided {at length} to create a thing [#2] [Adj. to
"thing" that should {for evermore} charm the souls (DO) and hearts (DO) {of men},
and yet, {for evermore}, be man's undoing (PN) [#3]. |
Notes
1. “Fit” is a verbal (a gerundive) that functions as an adjective to “punishment.” “Punishment” is
the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) “to mete (out).” The infinitive phrase functions as
an adverb of purpose to “assembled.”
2. “Thing” is the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) “to create.” The infinitive phrase
functions as the direct object of “decided.”
3. “Undoing” is a verbal (a gerund).
Ex. 9. From Treasure Island, by Robert Louis Stevenson
Out of context, it is impossible to know the antecedent of some pronouns. They are marked
“unknown.”
1.
“I [1st, sing, nom - “he”] hear [present] a voice,” said [past] he [3rd, sing, nom - unknown]
, “a young voice. Will [future] you [2nd, sing, nom - “voice”] give me [1st, sing, obj - “he”] your
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hand [2nd, sing, possessive - “voice”], my [1st, sing, possessive - “he”] kind young friend, and
lead [future] me [1st, sing, obj - “he”] in?”
2.
“Livesey,” said [past] the squire, “you [2nd, sing, nom - “Livesey”] will give [future] up
this wretched practice at once. Tomorrow I [1st, sing, nom - “squire”] start [future (present in
form, but made future by “Tomorrow”] for Bristol.”
3.
Terrified as I [1st, sing, nom - “unknown”] was [past], I [1st, sing, nom - “I”] could not
help [past] thinking to myself [1st, sing, obj - “I”] that this [3rd, sing, nom - unknown] must have
been [past] how Mr. Arrow got [past] the strong waters that destroyed [past] him [3rd, sing, obj “Mr. Arrow”].
4.
“Well, there’s [present] my boat, that I [1st, sing, nom - “unknown”] made [past] with my
[1st, sing, possessive - “I”] two hands. I [1st, sing, nom - “I”] keep [present] her [3rd, sing, obj “boat”] under the white rock.”
5.
“Will [future] any kind friend inform a poor blind man, who [3rd, sing, nom - “man”] has
lost [past] the precious sight of his [3rd, sing, possessive - “man”] eyes in the gracious defence of
his [3rd, sing, possessive - “man”] native country, England—and God bless [present] King
George! —where or in what part of this country he [3rd, sing, nom - “man”] may now be
[present]?”
“You [2nd, sing, nom - “man”] are [present] at the Admiral Benbow, Black Hill Cove, my
[1st, sing, possessive - “I”] good man,” said [past] I [1st, sing, nom - unknown].
Analysis Key (FYI)
1.
"I hear a voice (DO)," [ [#1] said he], "a young voice [#2]. | Will you give me
(IO) your hand (DO), my kind young friend [DirA], and lead me (DO) in?" |
2.
"Livesey [DirA]," [ [#1] said the squire], "you will give up this wretched practice
(DO) {at once}. | Tomorrow I start {for Bristol}." |
3.
Terrified [#3] [Adv. to "Terrified" as I was], I could not help thinking [#4] {to
myself} [DO (of "thinking") that this must have been [PN how Mr. Arrow got the
strong waters (DO) [Adj. to "waters" that destroyed him (DO)]]]. |
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4.
"Well [Inj], there's my boat (PN), [Adj. to "boat" that (DO) I made {with my two
hands}. | I keep her (DO) {under the white rock}." |
5.
"Will any kind friend inform a poor blind man (IO), [Adj. to "man" who has lost
the precious sight (DO) {of his eyes} {in the gracious defence} {of his native country},
England [#5] -- [ [#6] and God bless King George (DO) ! ]] -- [DO where or {in what part}
{of this country} he may now be]?" |
"You are {at the Admiral Benbow}, { *in* Black Hill Cove}, my good man [DirA]," [
[#1 ]
said I]. |
Notes
1. KISS explains this clause as an interjection. See KISS Level 3.2.3 - Interjection? Or Direct
Object?
2. This “voice” is an appositive to the previous “voice.”
3. “Terrified” is a verbal (gerundive) that modifies “I.”
4. “Thinking” is a verbal (gerund) that functions as the direct object of “could help.”
5. “England” is an appositive to “country.”
6. Rhetoricians call this parenthetical construction. In KISS, we simply call it an interjection.
“Bless” is in the subjunctive mood. See KISS Level 2.1.7 - The KISS Perspective on the
Subjunctive Mood.
K
KIISSSS L
Leevveell 11.. 77.. PPuunnccttuuaattiioonn aanndd C
Caappiittaalliizzaattiioonn
Notes for Teachers
There is much more difficulty in pointing, than people are
generally aware of. —In effect, there is scarce any thing in the
province of the grammarians so little fixed and ascertained as this. The
rules usually laid down are impertinent, dark, and defective; and the
practice, at present, perfectly capricious, authors varying not only from
one another, but from themselves, too. . . .
-- Ephraim Chambers [Quoted by Joseph M. Williams at the beginning of Chapter Ten
(on punctuation) in Style: Ten Lessons in Clarity & Grace. Scott, Foresman and
Company, 1981. p. 184.]
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When it comes to writing, punctuation (especially commas) probably worries many good
writers more than anything else. We need to realize, however, that the “rules” of punctuation are
not essentially about etiquette -- although too many people think they are. The rules are about
helping the reader understand what words go with what other words in a sentence. Put
differently, punctuation lets readers understand which words chunk to which other words.
(Remember the KISS Psycholinguistic Model.) In speech, this is easily handled by intonation
and pauses. Readers do not have access to intonation and pauses, and written sentences are often
longer and more complex than are spoken sentences. As Chambers (above) observed, many
textbooks present “impertinent, dark, and defective” rules. They do so in part because many
people want the “rules,” so that is what textbooks give them. But rules without context are often
meaningless.
The rules in most textbooks are often meaningless because they focus almost exclusively on
the simple, easily understood rules. Most students easily and quickly learn to begin a sentence
with a capital letter, to use capital letters for the names of specific people and places, to use
commas in a sentence, and even to use quotation marks to set off the words spoken by someone.
Apostrophes give many students problems, but those problems probably result from the fact that
most textbooks do not teach students how to identify adjectives and subjects and verbs.
(Possessive nouns always function as adjectives; contractions almost always contract some part
of a subject/verb pattern.) These simple rules are what KISS Level 1.7 is primarily about. In
essence, it is a basic introduction.
In the KISS sequence, the most important instruction about punctuation appears as part of
the study of specific constructions. For example, the punctuation of main clauses (a major
problem for some students) is a focus of KISS Level 3.1. There the exercises go beyond what
you will find in most textbooks because KISS first teaches students how to identify main clauses,
and then shows them how punctuation (including semicolons, colons, and dashes) can be used to
suggest the logical relationships between those clauses. The use of the comma for restrictive and
non-restrictive punctuation is introduced in KISS Level 3.1.2 -- Subordinate Clauses. Similarly,
the various ways in which appositives can be set off is a focus of KISS Level 5.4. (Note that in
the on-line books, punctuation exercises have a yellow background.)
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The primary KISS punctuation exercises are in the “Practice/Application” sections. There
you will find exercises based on short passages from which the punctuation and capitalization
have been stripped. Students are asked to “fix” hem, and then to compare their versions with the
original. Also indexed in Level 6.1 are exercises about “Bending and Breaking the Rules.”
(Exercise Nine is this book is an example; most of these exercises are indexed in KISS Level
6.1)
An Overview of the Exercises in KISS Level 1.7
Note: Most of the exercises in KISS Level 1.7 either include, or can be adapted to include,
analytical directions (prepositional phrases and S/V/C patterns). These can, of course, be
ignored, or the students can follow them to improve their analytical ability. Most of the analysis
keys include a complete analysis of all the sentences.
Exercise # 1 is a study in the importance of Punctuation. Students are given a passage to
punctuate. After doing it, the class should discuss how the punctuation affects the meaning of the
passage. These are not easy to do, but that is the point--punctuation clarifies meaning.
Exercise # 2 presents students will relatively simple sentences that lack final punctuation
marks. Students are asked to use a period, exclamation point, or question mark to complete the
punctuation.
Exercise # 3 addresses the use of capital letters.
Exercise # 4 explores the use of commas in a series.
Exercise # 5 focuses on the use of commas in addresses and dates.
Exercise # 6 addresses the use of apostrophes to show possession.
Exercise # 7 addresses the use of apostrophes in contractions.
Exercise # 8 asks students to identify the words that were said by placing them in quotation
marks “ ”.
Exercise # 9 is an introduction to most of the punctuation exercises that students will meet
in later KISS Levels, especially in the Practice/Application booklets. As noted above, students
are given a short passage from which the punctuation and capitalization have been “lost.” They
are asked to fix it. These exercises are most effective if students discuss their “fixes” with their
classmates.
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Exercise # 10 invites students to make an exercise like the one above. Students can then do
one another’s exercise and discuss the results.
Ex. 1 - “Dear John” -- The Importance of Correct Punctuation
Version #1 – Analysis Key
Dear John,
I want a man who knows what love is all about. You are generous, kind,
thoughtful. People who are not like you admit to being useless and inferior. You have
ruined me for other men. I yearn for you. I have no feelings whatsoever when we're
apart. I can be forever happy -- will you let me be yours?
Jane
Dear John [DirA] , [#1]
I want a man (DO) [Adj. to "man" who knows [DO what love is all {about [#2] } ]].
| You are generous (PA), kind (PA), thoughtful (PA). | People [Adj. to "people" who
are not {like you} (PA)] admit {to being useless and inferior [#3]}. | You have ruined
me (DO) {for other men}. | I yearn {for you}. | I have no feelings (DO) whatsoever [#4]
[Adv. to "have" when we're apart (PA)]. | I can be forever happy (PA) | -- will you
let me [#5] be yours? |
Jane
Notes
1. A comma here suggests an informal (love) letter.
2. The object of “about” is the preceding “what,” which also functions as a subordinate
conjunction.
3. “Useless” and “inferior” are predicate adjectives after the gerund “being.” The gerund phrase
functions as the object of the preposition “to.”
4. My dictionary lists “whatsoever” as a pronoun and adjective, but not as an adverb. Perhaps it
can be considered as an adjective to “feelings,” but it really modifies the “no.” (I doubt that
anyone would every say “I have feelings whatsoever.”) Perhaps the best way of explaining
this would be to consider it as a pronoun that functions as an adverb to “no.” I would not,
however, spent time arguing about the explanation.
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5. “Me” is the subject, and “yours” functions as a predicate noun to the infinitive “to be.” The
infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of “will let.”
Version #2
Dear John;
I want a man who knows what love is. All about you are generous, kind,
thoughtful people, who are not like you. Admit to being useless and inferior. You
have ruined me. For other men, I yearn. For you, I have no feelings whatsoever. When
we’re apart, I can be forever happy.
Will you let me be?
Yours,
Jane
Analysis Key
Dear John [DirA] ; [#1]
I want a man (DO) [Adj. to "man" who knows [DO what [#2] love is]]. | All [#3]
{about you} are generous, kind, thoughtful people, [Adj. to "people" who are not {like
you} (PA)]. | *You* Admit {to being useless and inferior [#4]}. | You have ruined me
(DO). | {For other men}, I yearn. | {For you}, I have no feelings (DO) whatsoever [#5]. |
[Adv. to "can be" When we're apart (PA),] I can be forever happy (PA). |
Will you let me be [#6] ? |
Yours,
Jane
Notes
1. The semicolon here suggests a formal (rejection) letter.
2. In this version, “what” functions as both the predicate noun to “love is” and as the subordinate
conjunction.
3. There are two different ways of processing this. In the text, I have considered “all” as an
adverb meaning “completely” or “everywhere,” and “about you” as functioning as an adverb
to “are.” Some people, however, may process “All” as the subject (implicitly meaning “all
people” and “about you” as an adjective to “All.” In this case, “people” becomes a predicate
noun.
4. “Useless” and “inferior” are predicate adjectives after the gerund “being.” The gerund phrase
functions as the object of the preposition “to.”
5. See the note for version 1.
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6. “Me” is the subject of the infinitive “be.” The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of
“let.”
Ex. 2 - Based on The Heroes, by Charles Kingsley
Note how the difference between a period and an exclamation point is often simply the
choice of the writer.
1. I can do this (DO) ! |
2. Where can I find the monster (DO) ? |
3. Is this your respect (PN) {for the Gods}, and thy mercy (PN) {to strangers and widows}? |
4. You shall die ! |
5. Perseus took his mother (DO) {to the temple} {of Athene} . |
6. Who are you (PN) , lady [DirA] ? |
7. But day [NuA] and night [NuA] Perseus saw {before him} the face (DO) {of that dreadful
woman}, {with [#1] the vipers} writhing [#2] {round her head} . |
8. And I will bring it (DO) ! |
9. Perseus [DirA], dare you face such a monster (DO) {as this}? |
10. Then Perseus would have spoken, | but the strange lady vanished, | and he
awoke. |
Notes
1. The comma before “with” cuts this phrase off from “woman” and sends it back to “face.”
2. “Writhing” can be explained as a gerundive that modifies “vipers.” (See KISS Level 4.) At
KISS Level 5, some people will prefer to see “vipers writing” as the core of a noun absolute
that functions as the object of “with.” (See KISS Level 5.8 Noun Absolutes.)
Ex. 3 - Capitalization
1. Rhode Island is the smallest state (PN) {in the United States}. |
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2. {On the card} was printed (P) , John L. Donahue, M. D. |
3. Labor Day is the first Monday (PN) {of September}. |
4. This letter came {from Ms. Mildred L. Flanagan}. |
5. Little Men was written (P) {by the author} {of Little Women}. |
6. Mrs. J. F. Mayer lives {at 792 Maple Avenue, Davenport, Iowa} [#1] . |
7. Roosevelt Dam is {in Arizona}. |
8. Ella Sheehan lives {on Ritner Avenue}. |
9. The class sang "America the Beautiful." (DO) |
10. Robinson Crusoe is the story (PN) {of a man's adventures} {on a desert island}. |
According to the Modern Language Association, typed titles of books should be in italics,
(but when handwritten, they are usually still underlined).
Notes
1. In place names that include city and state (or country), KISS, for the sake of simplicity,
considers them a single unit. The alternative requires additional explanation through ellipsis.
In this case, “Maple Avenue *in* Davenport, *which is in* Iowa.” That explanation is
always the same, so it seems silly to require students to make it every time.
Ex. 4 - Commas in a Series: Based on “How Perseus Vowed a Rash Vow”
1. And Perseus, and the good Dictys, and his wife, came to visit his mother [#1] every
day [NuA] {at the temple} {of Athene}. |
2. {Instead of falling [#2] } Perseus floated, and stood, and ran {along the sky}. |
3. Next Polydectes proclaimed a great feast (DO), and invited {to it} all the chiefs
(DO), and landowners (DO), and the young men (DO) {of the island}, and {among
them} Perseus (DO). |
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4. He was not a righteous man (PN), {like Dictys} ; [#3] but *he was* greedy (PA), and
cunning (PA), and cruel (PA). |
5. So Danae was made (P) a slave [#4] , and had to fetch water (DO) {from the well},
and grind {in the mill}, and perhaps was beaten (P), and wore a heavy chain (DO),
[Adv. to all of the preceding verbs because she would not marry that cruel king (DO)
]. |
6. {Through doubt and need, danger and battle,} [#5] I drive them (DO). |
7. And Perseus was brave (PA) and truthful (PA), gentle (PA) and courteous (PA)
[#6]
.|
8. He was the most skillful (PA) {of all} {in running [#7] and wrestling [#7] and boxing [#7]
}, and {in throwing the quoit and the javelin [#7] }, and {in rowing [#7] } {with the oar},
and {in playing [#7] } {on the harp}. |
9. Perseus's face grew very red (PA) [Adv. to "grew" as they pointed {at him}, and
smiled, and whispered, [DO "What (DO) has that foundling to give [#8] ?]]" |
10. Down {to the cliffs} he went, and looked {across the broad blue sea}; | and he
wondered [DO if his dream were [#9] true (PA) ], and prayed {in the bitterness}
{of his soul}. |
Notes
1. “Mother” is the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) “to visit.” The infinitive phrase
functions as an adverb of purpose to “came.”
2. “Falling” is a verbal (gerund) that functions as the object of “instead of.”
3. The comma before “like” breaks it from “man” and throws the phrase back to either “not” or
“righteous.” This semicolon is interesting. A comma would have worked, but the semicolon
emphasizes differences between what is on both sides of it. Here is also separates the
prepositional phrase from the following parallel adjectives, especially in view of the ellipsed
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“he was.” (Students should be able to see the need for the commas, even though they have
not yet studied ellipsis.
4. “Slave” is a retained predicate noun after the passive “was made.” See KISS Level 5.7 Passive Voice and Retained Complements.
5. Note how, by separating the four objects into two pairs, the commas suggest two different
types of problems.
6. Here we have the same thing as in sentence six, but in this case the commas separate the four
predicate adjectives into two types of virtues.
7. “Running,” “wrestling,” “boxing,” “throwing,” “rowing,” and “playing” are all verbals
(gerunds) that function as objects of prepositions. “Quoit” and “javelin” are direct objects of
“throwing.”
8. The verbal (infinitive) “to give” functions as an adjective to “What.”
9. This “were” is in subjunctive mood. See KISS Level 2.1.7 - The KISS Perspective on the
Subjunctive.
Ex. 5 - Commas in Addresses and Dates: From Voyages in English - Fifth Year
Technically, we could explain the later parts of an address as reduced subordinate clauses—
“San Francisco, *which is in* California.” Similarly, with dates, we could explain the year as an
ellipsed prepositional phrase—“July 16, *in (or) of * 1934.) Such technicality, however, is
probably not worth the trouble in discussing every sentence.
1. Theodore Roosevelt was born (P) {on October 27, 1858}. |
2. Galveston, Texas, is a large cotton market (PN). |
3. Our ship docked {at Montreal, Canada}, {on November 16, 1964}. |
4. July 4, 1776, is an important date (PN). |
5. {On November 11, 1918,} the First World War came {to an end}. |
6. The Pilgrims reached Cape Cod, Massachusetts, (DO) {on November 11, 1620}. |
7. Atlantic City, New Jersey, is a noted pleasure resort (PN). |
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8. I have never been {in Denver, Colorado}. |
9. *You* Name a product (DO) manufactured [#1] {in Grand Rapids, Michigan}. |
10. Samuel F. B. Morse sent the first telegraphic message (DO) {on May 27, 1844}. |
Note
1. “Manufactured” is a verbal (gerundive) that modifies “product.”
Ex. 6 - Apostrophes to Show Possession, From Heidi by Johanna Spyri
1. {During this conversation} the grandfather's eyes had been twinkling. | the eyes of the
grandfather
2. The old man prepared a meal (DO) [Adj. to "meal" which amply satisfied Peter's
appetite (DO)]. | the appetite of Peter
3. Heidi's tale was interrupted (P) suddenly {by a great thumping} {on the door}. | The tale
of Heidi
4. She is my only sister's child (PN). | the child of my only sister
5. Miss Clara's companion would have to be twelve years [NuA] old (PA). | The
companion of Miss Clara
6. Clara, {on the contrary}, enjoyed her companion's society (DO). | the society of her
companion [just one]
7. Mrs. Sesemann had noticed the child's unhappiness (DO). | the unhappiness of the
child
8. The old lady's heart was filled (P) {with pity}. | The heart of the old lady
9. The grandmama's book was carefully packed (P). | The book of the grandmama
10. Clara's rapture {in her new life} grew greater (PA) every day [NuA], | and she could
not write enough [#1] {of the grandfather's kindly care} and {of Heidi's entertaining
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stories}. | The rapture of Clara; of the kindly care from? the grandfather; of the entertaining
stories by? [Note how "of" in the last two could change the meaning.]
Note
1. “Enough” can be explained in at least three ways: 1.) it is a pronoun that functions as the
direct object of “could write.” 2.) it is an adjective that modifies an ellipsed “stuff,” and the
“stuff” functions ad the direct object. 3.) it is a pronoun that functions as a Noun Used as an
Adverb. In this perspective, it answers the question “Could not write how much?” rather
than “Could not write what?”
Ex. 7 - Apostrophes in Contractions, From Heidi by Johanna Spyri
1. I'll come next Sunday [NuA], [Adv. to will come" if I may]. |
I will
2. "I don't know [DO if he did], | but I don't think so (DO) [#1]. | She probably
doesn't know." |
I do not; she does not
3. We'll do it (DO) tomorrow! |
We will
4. Didn't you get the teacher's warning (DO)? |
Did not; the warning of the teacher
5. He won't be cross (PA) long. |
He will not
6. I don't remember that (DO) any more. |
I do not
7. I can't read | and Peter can't do it (DO) either. |
I can not; Peter can not
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8. That's right (PA). |
That is
9. Now you won't have to eat hard black bread (DO) any more {for a little while}. |
you will not
10. Now we'll go {to grandfather}. |
we will
Note
1. People who feel that this “so” explains how and not what “I don’t think” can explain it as an
adverb.
Ex. 8 - Quotation Marks
1. "This," [ [#1] remarked Gertrude,] "is {for you}." |
2. Francis whispered, [DO " *You* Be quiet (PA)."] |
3. [DO " *You* Come {with me},"] called Charles. | [#2]
4. "Yes [Inj]," [ [#1] replied John,] "this road leads {to the highway}." |
5. [DO "I have found my pen (DO),"] remarked Robert. | [#2]
6. "Hawaii," [ [#1] answered Ruth,] "is located (P) {in the Pacific Ocean}." |
7. [DO "The ice is thin (PA),"] warned the policeman. | [#2]
8. She repeated, [DO "I am sorry (PA)!" ] |
9. " *You* Give me (IO)." [ [#1] said the teacher,] "your name (DO) and address
(DO)." |
10. [DO "We won the game (DO)!"] shouted the boys. | [#2]
Notes
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1. KISS explains this type of clause as an interjection. See KISS Level 3.2.3 - Interjection? Or
Direct Object?
2. Alternatively, the “Come” clause can be considered the main clause, and the “called” clause
can be explained as an interjection. See KISS Level 3.2.3 - Interjection? Or Direct Object?
Ex. 9 - Replacing Punctuation & Capitalization, From Heidi by Johanna Spyri
For the KISS view of subordinate clause breaks in quotations, see KISS Level 3.2.3 Interjection? Or Direct Object?
[Adv. (time) to "cried" When Deta saw the little party (DO) {of climbers}] [#1] she
cried out shrilly: [DO "Heidi [DirA], what (DO) have you done?] | What a sight (PN)
you are! | Where are your dresses and your shawl? | Are the new shoes gone (PA)
[Adj. to "shoes" that I just bought {for you}], and the new stockings [Adj. to "stockings"
that I made myself [#2] ? | Where are they all, Heidi [DirA]?" |
The child quietly pointed down and said "There." (DO) |
The aunt followed the direction (DO) {of her finger} and descried a little heap
(DO) {with a small red dot} {in the middle}, [Adj. to "heap" which (DO) she recognized
{as the shawl}. |
"Unlucky child!" (DO) [#3] Deta said excitedly. | "What (DO) [#4] does all this
mean? | Why have you taken your things (DO) all off?" |
[DO "Because I do not need them (DO),"] said the child, not seeming [#5] {in the
least repentant} {of her deed}. |
"How can you be so stupid (PA), Heidi [DirA] ? | Have you lost your senses (DO)?"
[ [#6] the aunt went on, {in a tone} {of mingled vexation and reproach}]. | "Who [ [#7] do
you think] will go way {down there} to fetch those things [#8] up again? | It is half-an-
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hour's walk (PN). | Please, Peter [DirA], *you* run down and get them (DO). | *You*
Do not stand and stare {at me} [Adv. (condition) to "stare" as if you were [#9] glued (P)
{to the spot}]." |
Notes
1. Contrary to the rules in some grammar textbooks, there was no comma here.
2. “Myself” is an appositive to “I.”
3. Inside the quotation, “Unlucky” is an adjective to “child,” and “child” is Direct Address.
4. If one considers “mean” to mean “equal,” then “What” is a predicate noun. (This is a question
that is not discussed in most grammar textbooks.)
5. “Seeming” is a verbal (gerundive) that modifies “child.” “Repentant” is a predicate adjective
after “seeming.”
6. KISS explains that clause as an interjection. See KISS Level 3.2.3 - Interjection? Or Direct
Object?
7. This is another fairly rare clause construction that is not usually discussed in grammar
textbooks. In KISS, it can be explained either as an interjection or as an adjectival clause to
“Who.”
8. “Things” is the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) “to fetch.” The infinitive phrase
functions as an adverb (of purpose) to “will go.”
9. The “you” is obviously singular, but the verb is “were” because it is in the subjunctive mood.
See KISS Level 2.1.7 - The KISS Perspective on the Subjunctive Mood.
[Ex. 10 - Creating an Exercise]
K
KIISSSS L
Leevveell 11..88.. -- V
Vooccaabbuullaarryy aanndd L
Looggiicc
Notes for Teachers
KISS primarily focuses on sentence structure, but its objective is primarily to improve
students’ thinking and writing skills. To reach these objectives, words, and particularly the logic
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of words, cannot be ignored. You’ll note that many of these exercises are also (or will be)
included in the “Practice/Application” booklets.
The first exercise in each sequence is on “Abstract and Concrete” words. As the “Notes
for Teachers” suggests, this distinction is very important, but it does not need to be spread out in
a sequence in the same way that instruction in sentence structure does. The exercise in Level 1.8
is very simple, but more complex exercises are included in the “Practice/Application” sections of
the workbooks. Essentially, these exercises can be identical across grade levels, so I have
included them all here. (Remember that the assumption is that your students will be doing one
KISS Level per year. It is certainly a good idea to have them do at least one exercise on abstract
and concrete words every year that they are in school.)
The second exercise explores the commonly taught distinction between “common” and
“proper” nouns. This is a subset of the abstract/concrete continuum. Here again, when they deal
with them, most textbooks treat these two categories as a separate topic that includes two distinct
boxes. But all “common” are nouns abstract. And “proper” nouns are at the extreme “concrete”
end of the abstract/concrete continuum -- they name one specific thing. But many “common”
nouns can also denote one specific thing. For example, “dog” is generally considered a common
noun, but in the sentence “The little dog barked noisily,” “dog” clearly refers to one specific dog.
Ultimately, the distinction between “common” and “proper” is clear if we define “proper” as
names that are typically capitalized, and “common” as nouns that are not usually capitalized. But
in context, common nouns, like proper nouns, can refer to one specific thing.
The next two exercises, on “Synonyms and Antonyms,” are primarily important for
vocabulary, but they too have logical implications. Not only can things be somewhat defined by
their opposites, but thinking about those opposites begins to raise meaningful questions. In my
Freshman literature classes, my students are asked to think about the works we read in terms of
literary “conflicts.” These conflicts are usually stated as antonyms -- “youth/age,” “good/evil.”
But such antonyms bring us back to abstract/concrete questions: What, more precisely, does
“youth” mean in this story? Or what does “evil” mean in Hawthorne’s “Young Goodman
Brown”? For those who are not so philosophically or religiously oriented, however, this section
simply improves one’s vocabulary. Particularly interesting may be the several exercises based on
“Tom Swifties.” They offer very useable (and some absolutely ridiculous) alternatives for “said.”
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The fifth exercise asks students to fill in blanks with interesting words. Originally this
was intended to be limited to verbs, but it has been expanded to include adjectives, adverbs, and
nouns. The blanks indicate which part of speech should be inserted, so this exercise can also
reinforce those concepts. Coming after the exercises on synonyms and antonyms, it may also
provide further exploration of these two concepts, especially if students can share their versions
with their classmates. (Students are not expected to guess the original words, but rather to make
interesting sentences of their own.) The directions also ask students to identify the prepositional
phrases and S/V/C patterns, but tell students to ignore these -- unless you feel that your students
need more practice.
Exercises seven, eight and nine are on “Word Families -- prefixes, suffixes, and roots.”
Where to put these within the KISS framework is a problem. KISS is primarily concerned with
syntax, the part of grammar that concerns sentence structure. Word families, on the other hand,
are the subject of two other areas of linguistics -- phonology and morphology --the studies of the
sound structures and intra-word meaning units of language. Whereas the primary KISS premise
is that students need to master basic sentence constructions before they can understand more
complicated ones, the study of word families needs no such sequential structure. Prefixes,
suffixes, and roots can be studied in any sequence, in dozens of different ways.
Why, then, are word-families included in the KISS sequence? For one, vocabulary is
important. But from the KISS perspective even more important is that word families teach
students how to change words from one part of speech to another. Consider, for example, the
difference between:
My explanation is different from yours.
My explanation differs from yours.
The first sentence has a weak verb. In the second, the predicate adjective has been changed into
the verb. Simply put, a bigger vocabulary and the ability to manipulate words have a major affect
on students’ ability to manipulate sentence structure.
That still leaves the problem of fitting word-families into the KISS sequence. In essence,
KISS offers these exercises primarily as a reminder of their importance. Level 1.8 includes
eleven exercises on suffixes, one on prefixes, and one on roots. There are eleven exercises on
suffixes because suffixes change the functions of words, for example from verb (“create”) to
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noun (“creation”). As a result, suffixes help students recognize the part of speech of many words.
The eleven exercises present students with various suffixes that create nouns, adjectives, verbs,
and adverbs.
The “Practice/Application” booklets each include three exercises on suffixes, prefixes, and
roots. After students do KISS Level 1.8, the KISS booklets thus provide students with only three
exercises a year. They should probably do many more than that. There are, I should note, many
other web sites that include instructional material and exercises on this topic. And, if you are
interested, I have included my original (adapted) version of the exercises from Sadlier. [See the
web version of this document for the link..]
For now, most of the exercises are used across all grade levels. This will probably pose a
vocabulary problem for third and fourth graders, so these exercises may be revised in the future.
Currently, I need to get back to the basic KISS exercises.
The last exercise on “The Logical Patterns of the Parts of Speech” is Lewis Carroll’s
famous “Jabberwocky.” This classic selection is Exercise # 8 in Practice/Application for Level 2
for each complete grade-level book.
A
Abbssttrraacctt aanndd C
Coonnccrreettee W
Woorrddss -- N
Nootteess ffoorr T
Teeaacchheerrss
The difference between abstract and concrete words is a matter of semantics (meaning)
rather than syntax (sentence structure). But the difference has major implications for the structure
of students’ sentences. For example, some of the KISS exercises on abstract and concrete words
ask students to replace a single, relatively abstract word with several more concrete words. In
effect, this requires replacing, for example, a single complement with several compounded ones:
In his workshop, Mr. James has many tools.
In his workshop, Mr. James has, among other things,
hammers, chisels, and saws.
As the instructional material for students suggests, the second version is much more
concrete, but it is also much easier to develop—the writer can go on to discuss the various types
of hammers, chisels, and saws, perhaps even including their various purposes.
I foresee a problem here—the instructional material is included starting in grade three, and
I’m not sure that most third graders will be able to understand it. This may be a major problem
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that I am currently unable to address. I’m assuming that teachers will adapt it to fit their own
students, or just skip it. Indeed, most of the exercises in Level 1.8 can probably be done without
the instructional material. For example, they just give students a list of words and ask the
students to put those words into more abstract groups that have already been listed for the
students—“animals,” “food,” “birds,” “people,” etc.
A few words about terminology and purpose may be helpful here. I have seen numerous
instructional material that explains both “abstract/concrete” and then, as a seemingly separate
distinction, “general/specific.” In many cases, but not always, the two distinctions come close to
what I refer to as the “two perspectives.” The problem with that is that any abstraction is a
generalization, and any generalization is an abstraction. Thus, one meaningful distinction is
presented as two different ones. In addition, the materials that I have seen appear to be dead-end
definitions. The distinction is made, and exercise (or two) is done, and then the question is
dropped.
To be honest, it is also more or less dropped in the KISS workbooks. I think that you fill find
at least some connections. Consider, for example, the exercises in Level 3.1 on the punctuation
and logic of compound main clauses. The implication of the instructional material is that colons
or dashes are used when the first main clause makes an abstract (general) statement and the
second main clause is a more concrete (specific) version of the first.
The conclusion to draw is this: Never trust a dog!
The abstract word “conclusion” is here clarified by the concrete “Never trust a dog!”
And there is the exercise on writing a “general to specific paragraph” based on “Why The
Hoofs of The Deer Are Split” from The Book of Nature Myths by Florence Holbrook:
Directions:
1. Place parentheses ( ) around each prepositional phrase.
2. Underline verbs twice, their subjects once, and label complements (“PA,” “PN,”
“IO,” or “DO”).
3. Place a vertical line after each main clause.
Everything is good and happy. The green leaves are whispering merrily
together, the waves are lapping on the shore and laughing, the squirrels are
chattering and laying up their food for winter.
Note that the second sentence has three main clauses, each of which gives a
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specific example of the idea in the first sentence. Write two sentences. In the first, state
a general idea. In the second, use compound main clauses to give specific examples of
the idea in the first sentence.
Because the abstract/concrete distinction is not usually needed for an understanding of
sentence structure, I have included most of the exercises about it in the “Practice/Application”
books. For now, these exercises are almost always the same for every grade level, but you will
probably be able to adapt them if you want to use them more than once. (If I live long enough, I
plan on extending the KISS site to include much more about the teaching of writing, and there
you will find the abstract/concrete distinction to be emphasized much more than it is here.)
[Ex. 1 - Adapted from Child-Story Readers: Wonder Stories]
[Ex. 2 - Common and Proper Nouns - Adapted from Voyages in English]
[Ex. 3 - Synonyms]
[Ex. 4 - Antonyms]
Ex. 5 - FiB - Adapted from Voyages in English - Fifth Year
Analysis of the Original Sentences
1. The long train rumbled noisily {into the tiny station}. |
2. Rita and I chatted constantly {about the exciting incidents} {of our trip} {to France}. |
3. An old man hobbled weakly {up the steep steps} {of the beautiful church}. |
4. Robert fell {from the steep roof} and seriously fractured his left arm (DO). |
5. The thunderous roar clearly announced the approach (DO) {of a violent storm}. |
6. The big old carriage noisily bumped {along the rocky road}. |
7. The worried doctor rushed anxiously {to the dying child}. |
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8. Towering skyscrapers closely lined both sides (DO) {of the narrow street}. |
9. The fresh green foliage swayed slowly {in the soft summer breeze}. [#1] |
10. A bold fireman burst boldly {into the burning building}. [#1] |
Note
1. Note the alliteration.
Ex. 6 - The Logic of Words and Phrases [Notes for Teachers]
This type of exercise should be excellent as an introduction to basic logic. KISS is based on
a fundamental concept from the logic of David Hume. He claims that every logical relationship
falls into one of three categories – identity, extension (in time or space), or cause/effect. How
these categories relate to the study of sentence structure is developed in much more detail in the
upper grades, but here we might simply note that “Who? and “What?” are questions of identity.
“When?” and “Where?” are questions of extension in time and space. Hume was assuming an
Aristotelian concept of cause in which the manner in which something was done (“How?”) was
considered one of several causes for what was done.
The directions in the assignment are straight from the original, but you might want to
modify them. First, this could be a good small group exercise. Assign each group one (not two)
of the headings, but have at least five groups so that each heading is covered. Then have the
groups report their results to the class.
You might also want to have the students identify the typical grammatical functions of the
“groups” of words in their lists. For example, “an Indian squaw” is a noun phrase, “along the
street” is a prepositional phrase, and “suddenly” is an adverb. (The subordinate clause “when
snowflakes fall” will probably confuse them.) When they finish, don’t forget to point out that the
words and phrases in the “Who” and “What” lists tend to be nouns, whereas those in the
“When,” “Where,” and “How” lists tend to be adverbs or prepositional phrases. Gently stress the
importance of including “when,” “where,” and “how” words in their own writing.
Although this exercise does not directly address this, you might want to have students look
(treasure hunt) for sentences that include both “where” and “when” words or phrases. They are
fairly common in narratives – “In the park on Sunday, we played baseball.” (In the 1980’s there
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was a push to get students to increase the length of their sentences by having them do sentencecombining exercises. Sentence-combining can be problematic, in part because the content in
exercises is often meaningless. Adding prepositional phrases of place and time almost tripled the
length of “we played baseball.”)
[Ex. 7 - Suffixes]
[Ex. 8 - Prefixes]
[Ex. 9 - Roots]
A
Appppeennddiixx
In addition to explaining the codes and colors used in the analysis keys, this key is also
called “The KISS Grammar Toolbox.” It presents, in very brief form, all the essential concepts
that students will need to learn in order to explain, and thus intelligently discuss, how any word,
in any English sentence, functions within that sentence.
The KISS Grammar Toolbox
With the exception of passive voice (which is required to understand retained complements),
this list includes all the concepts and constructions that students need in order to explain the
function of any word in any sentence. In effect, it is the KISS Toolbox. The following colors and
codes are used throughout the analysis keys in the KISS Workbooks.
Two KISS Concepts
Compounding – Coordinating Conjunctions
Whereas most grammar texts explain compounding in multiple places (compound subjects;
compound verbs, compound clauses, etc.) KISS treats compounding as a concept. Any identical
parts of speech (such as adjective and adjective) or any construction can be compounded, usually
by using "and," "or," or "but"). Once students can be expected to identify the constructions that
are being joined, the conjunctions are coded orange.
Ellipsis – The Omission of Understood Words
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The analysis keys indicate words that are ellipsed by placing them between asterisks –
*You* close the door.
KISS Levels One and Two
Subjects and finite verbs are underlined, with subjects colored green and finite verbs blue.
(Html does not allow for double underlining of finite verbs.) Complements are in brown and
labeled: PN (Predicate Noun); PA (Predicate Adjective); IO (Indirect Object); and DO (Direct
Object). A (P) after a finite verb indicates that it is in passive voice.
Adjectives and Adverbs are not always identified, but when they are, adjectives are in green
and adverbs in blue. In some of the upper level keys, adjectives and adverbs are identified simply
by being in smaller type to show how much of the text students can already be expected to
analyze. Sometimes they are not colored because the result is a confusion of colors. Likewise,
once students have some experience identifying prepositional phrases, I do not usually ask them
to draw arrows from simply adjectives and adverbs to the words they modify. Doing so often
results in a confusion of lines on the students' papers.
Prepositional Phrases are identified {by braces}. The words in adjectival phrases are in
green; adverbial; phrases are in blue because we are more interested in the functions of phrases
than in the functions of individual words. Embedded phrases and the phrases they are embedded
in are underlined when the directions specifically call for identifying the embeddings.
KISS Level Three
Subordinate clauses are identified (P) {by red brackets}. The function {of the clause}
follows the opening bracket (DO). Subordinate conjunctions [Adj. to "conjunctions" that have
no other function (DO)] are {in bold red}. A vertical line "|" identifies the end (DO) {of each
main clause}. |
KISS Level Four
The functions of verbals (gerunds, gerundives, and infinitives) are explained in notes.
KISS Level Five
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All these constructions are identified by bracketed, superscript links that lead to the basic
instructional material about them.
Expletives (It and There) [Exp]
Noun Used as an Adverb [NuA]
Interjection [Inj]
Direct Address [DirA]
Appositive [App]
Delayed Subject [DS]
Post-Positioned Adjective [PPA]
Retained Complements [RDO], [RPN], [RPA]
Noun Absolute [NAbs]
If additional explanation is needed, links are included in notes at the bottom of the page.
Using the KISS Analysis Keys
Originally, there were analysis keys for each KISS level for each KISS exercise. They used
a lot of paper so they have been replaced by one key, a key in which every word in every
sentence is explained. My assumption is that parents and teachers will usually know which
words students should be expected to explain. In many cases, the keys include notes about this.
But this can be confusing for teachers who are not themselves comfortable with KISS
terminology. Consider a couple of examples.
An exercise in KISS Level 1.5 (Adding Prepositional Phrases) includes the sentence:
The corn which had been sowed in the field over the field-mouse's home grew up high
into the air, and made a thick forest for the poor little girl, who was only an inch high.
The first thing we should note is that this is a very sophisticated sentence for a grammar
textbook. The directions for this exercise are:
1. Place parentheses ( ) around each prepositional phrase.
2. Underline verbs twice, their subjects once, and label complements (“PA,” “PN,” “IO,”
or “DO”).
In the analysis key, you will find it analyzed as:
The corn [Adj. to "corn" which had been sowed (P) {in the field} {over the fieldmouse's home}] grew up high {into the air}, and made a thick forest (DO) {for the
poor little girl}, [Adj. to "girl" who was only an inch [NuA] high (PA).] |
Based on the directions, you should expect the students to analyze the following:
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The corn which had been sowed {in the field} {over the field-mouse's home}
grew up high {into the air}, and made a thick forest (DO) {for the poor little
girl}, who was only an inch high (PA).
In other words, you can ignore the rest of the analysis. It is there as information for parents and
teachers who want to know how to analyze every word. You are, of course, always welcome to
ask questions on the KISS Grammar List or the Yahoo Grammar Group about sentences in
exercises (or any other sentences).
Creating Directions for Your Students
The directions for KISS analytical exercises are in the Master Books for each level and also
in the exercises in the workbooks. Don’t forget, however, that you can adapt these directions to
suit the needs of your own students. The only things I would suggest is that once students get to
prepositional phrases, the following basic sequence should usually be used. (Numbers 3 and 4, of
course, would be added in KISS Level 3.)
1. Place parentheses ( ) around each prepositional phrase.
2. Underline verbs twice, their subjects once, and label complements (“PA,” “PN,” “IO,” or
“DO”).
3. Place brackets [ ] around each subordinate clause. If the clause functions as a noun, label
its function.
4. Place a vertical line after each main clause.
Because students will already have the sentences to be analyzed one paper in front of them, they
will not have to copy sentences, etc. It therefore should take them very little time to do these four
things, and these four mark out the major parts of most sentences.
Directions for KISS Punctuation Exercises
Punctuation exercises are very easy for anyone to create. Simply select a short text, remove
all the punctuation marks, change capital letters to lower case, and give the students the text with
the following directions:
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Directions: The punctuation and capitalization in the following text was lost.
Please fix it (right on this page).
These exercises will be most effective if they are followed by a class discussion of various
changes that students made, particularly if the students are also shown the punctuation in the
original passage.
Directions for Sentence-Combining Exercises
The following directions are standard for KISS sentence-combining exercises. I give them
here so that you can use them to create your own exercises without confusing students by
changing directions that they may be accustomed to. These are, I should note, the directions that
were used for the "Aluminum" passage created by Roy O'Donnell.
Read the passage all the way through. You will notice that the sentences are
short and choppy. Study the passage, and then rewrite it in a better way. You may
combine sentences, change the order of words, and omit words that are repeated
too many times. But try not to leave out any of the information.
Directions for De-Combining Exercises
Many of the sentences in the following selection are long and complex.
Rewrite the passage, breaking each sentence into as many shorter sentences as
you can. Then consider the stylistic differences between the original and your
rewritten version.
Although textbooks tend to focus on combining exercises, de-combining may be as or more
important than combining exercises. Developmental psychologists such as Piaget and Vygotsky
claimed that reversibility -- the ability to undo a mental operation -- is a sign of cognitive
mastery. More specifically in terms of syntactic maturity, de-combining exercises can help
students see the relationships between ellipsed and reduced forms (such as verbals) and the
simpler "underlying" sentences. Finally, decombining exercises give students a somewhat
different perspective on style since they will find some sentences very difficult to decombine.
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Conjugation of the Verb “To Discover”
Active Voice
Simple Present Tense
Singular
Plural
I discover
You discover
He, she, it discovers
We discover
You discover
They discover
Present Perfect Tense
Singular
Plural
I have discovered
We have discovered
Present Progressive
Singular
Plural
I am discovering
You are discovering
He, she, it is discovering
We are discovering
You are discovering
They are discovering
Present Perfect Progressive
Singular
Plural
We have been discovering
You have been
You have discovered You have discovered You have been discovering
discovering
He, she, it has been
They have been
He, she, it has discovered They have discovered
discovering
discovering
Simple Past Tense
Singular
Plural
I discovered
You discovered
He, she, it discovered
We discovered
You discovered
They discovered
Past Perfect Tense
Singular
Plural
I had discovered
You had discovered
We had discovered
You had discovered
He, she, it had discovered They had discovered
Simple Future Tense
Singular
Plural
I will discover
You will discover
He, she, it will discover
You will have discovered
He, she, it will have
discovered
Past Progressive
Singular
Plural
I was discovering
You were discovering
He, she, it was discovering
We were discovering
You were discovering
They were discovering
Past Perfect Progressive
Singular
Plural
I had been discovering
We had been discovering
You had been discovering You had been discovering
He, she, it had been
They had been discovering
discovering
Future Progressive
Singular
Plural
We will discover
I will be discovering
We will be discovering
You will discover
You will be discovering
You will be discovering
They will discover He, she, it will be discovering They will be discovering
Future Perfect Tense
Singular
Plural
I will have discovered
I have been discovering
We will have
discovered
You will have
discovered
They will have
discovered
Future Perfect Progressive
Singular
Plural
I will have been discovering
You will have been
discovering
He, she, it will have been
discovering
We will have been
discovering
You will have been
discovering
They will have been
discovering
154
Passive Voice
Simple Present Tense
Singular
I am discovered
You are discovered
Plural
We are discovered
You are discovered
He, she, it is discovered
They are discovered
Present Perfect Tense
Singular
I have been discovered
You have been
discovered
He, she, it has been
discovered
Plural
We have been
discovered
You have been
discovered
They have been
discovered
Present Progressive
Singular
Plural
I am being discovered
We are being discovered
You are being discovered You are being discovered
He, she, it is being
They are being discovered
discovered
Present Perfect Progressive
Singular
I have been being discovered
You have been being
discovered
He, she, it has been being
discovered
Simple Past Tense
Singular
I was discovered
Plural
We were discovered
Plural
We have been being
discovered
You have been being
discovered
They have been being
discovered
Past Progressive
Plural
We were being discovered
You were being
You were discovered You were discovered You were being discovered
discovered
He, she, it was being
They were being
He, she, it was discovered They were discovered
discovered
discovered
Past Perfect Tense
Singular
I had been discovered
You had been discovered
He, she, it had been
discovered
Plural
We had been
discovered
You had been
discovered
They had been
discovered
Simple Future Tense
Singular
I will be discovered
You will be discovered
He, she, it will be
discovered
Plural
Singular
I was being discovered
Past Perfect Progressive
Singular
I had been being discovered
You had been being
discovered
He, she, it had been being
discovered
Future Progressive
Singular
We will be discovered I will be being discovered
You will be
discovered
They will be
discovered
Future Perfect Tense
Singular
Plural
I will have been
We will have been
discovered
discovered
You will have been
You will have been
discovered
discovered
He, she, it will have been They will have been
discovered
discovered
Plural
We had been being
discovered
You had been being
discovered
They had been being
discovered
You will be being discovered
He, she, it will be being
discovered
Plural
We will be being
discovered
You will be being
discovered
They will be being
discovered
Future Perfect Progressive
Singular
Plural
I will have been being
We will have been being
discovered
discovered
You will have been being You will have been being
discovered
discovered
He, she, it will have been They will have been being
being discovered
discovered
155