GLOSSARY
Chapter 1
androgyny A psychological, as distinct from a biological, sex-type. Androgynous people tend to identify with and
enact qualities socially ascribed both to women and to men.
communication A dynamic, systemic process in which meanings are created and reflected in and through humans’
interactions with symbols.
content level of meaning The literal meaning of communication. Content-level meanings are the formal, or denotative,
meanings of messages.
culture The structures and practices, especially those relating to communication, through which a particular social
order is produced and reproduced by legitimizing certain values, expectations, meanings, and patterns of behavior.
essentializing The reduction of a phenomenon to its essential characteristics, which are generally presumed to be
innate or unchangeable. To essentialize the sexes is to imply that all women are alike in basic respects, that all men are
alike in basic respects, and that the two sexes are distinct from each other because of fundamental, essential qualities.
gender A social, symbolic construction that expresses the meanings a society confers on biological sex. Gender varies
across cultures, over time within any given society, and in relation to the other gender.
hermaphrodite A person whose internal and external genitalia are inconsistent.
intersexed Having both male and female biological sexual characteristics.
patriarchal Of or pertaining to patriarchy, “rule by the fathers.” The term patriarchy generally refers to systems of
ideology, social structures, and practices, created by men, that reflect the values, priorities, and views of men as a
group.
relationship level of meaning The nonliteral meaning of communication. Expresses how a speaker sees the
relationship between self and other. May provide cues about how to interpret the literal meaning of a message, for
instance, as a joke.
sex A personal quality determined by biological and genetic characteristics. Male, female, man, and woman indicate
sex.
Chapter 2
biological theory The theory that biological characteristics of the sexes are the basis of gender differences in thinking,
communicating, feeling, and other functions.
cognitive development theory A developmental theory according to which children participate in defining their
genders by acting on internal motivations to be competent, which in turn lead them to seek out gender models that help
them to sculpt their own femininity or masculinity.
gender constancy A person’s understanding, which usually develops by 3 years of age, that her or his sex is relatively
fixed and unchanging.
psychodynamic theory The theory that family relationships, especially between mother and child during the formative
years of life, have a pivotal and continuing impact on the development of self, particularly gender identity.
role Social definitions of expected behaviors and the values associated with them; internalized by individuals in the
process of socialization.
social learning theory Theory that individuals learn to be masculine and feminine (among other things) by observing
and imitating others and by reacting to the rewards and punishments others give in response to imitative behaviors.
standpoint theory A theory that focuses on the influence of gender, race, class, and other social categories on
circumstances of people’s lives, especially their social positions and the kinds of experiences fostered within those
positions. According to standpoint theory, a person’s standpoint (social location) shapes his or her understanding and
behavior.
symbolic interactionism The theory that individuals develop self-identity and an understanding of social life, values,
and codes of conduct through communicative interactions with others in a society.
theory A way to describe, explain, and predict relationships among phenomena.
Chapter 3
antifeminism A movement opposing any measures that advance women’s equality, status, rights, or opportunities; also
called the backlash against feminism.
antisuffrage movement A movement that aimed to prevent women from gaining the right to vote in the United States.
Opposition to women’s suffrage was evident as early as 1848 but had become formalized in organizations by 1911.
backlash A countermovement that seeks to repudiate and contain feminism by arguing two contradictory claims: (1)
that women have never had it so good, so there is no longer any need for feminism; and (2) that feminism has caused
serious problems in women’s lives and family relationships. Also called antifeminism.
cultural feminism The viewpoint that women and men differ in fundamental ways, including biology, and that, in
general, women and men have distinct standpoints that foster different experiences, perspectives, skills, and knowledge
(for instance, nurturance in women and independence in men).
ecofeminism A movement that integrates the intellectual and political bases of feminist theorizing with ecological
philosophy. The specific oppression of women is seen as a particular instance of a larger ideology that esteems violence
and domination of women, children, animals, and the earth.
lesbian feminists Feminists whose sexual preference is women, who define themselves as woman identified, and who
are committed to fighting for legal rights for all woman-identified women.
liberal feminism A form of feminism that maintains that women and men are alike in important respects and that
women should have the same economic, political, professional, and civic opportunities and rights as men. NOW (the
National Organization for Women) is the best-known organization representing liberal feminism.
Million Woman March A grassroots gathering of African American women launched in Philadelphia in 1997 to
celebrate and foster solidarity among black women.
multiracial feminism A branch of the women’s movement that is concerned with race and the racial oppression of
women.
power feminism A movement that emerged in the 1990s as a reaction to feminist emphasis on women’s oppression.
Urges women to take the power that is theirs and to reject seeing themselves as victims of men or society.
radical feminism A branch of feminism that grew out of New Left politics and demanded the same attention to
women’s oppression that New Left organizations gave to racial oppression and other ideological issues. Radical
feminists pioneered revolutionary communication techniques such as consciousness raising, leaderless group
discussion, and guerrilla theater.
revalorists Feminists who focus on valuing traditionally feminine skills, activities, and perspectives and their
contributions to personal, interpersonal, and cultural life.
separatists Feminist groups who believe that, because patriarchal culture cannot be changed or reformed, women who
find it oppressive must create and live in their own women-centered communities separate from the larger culture.
third-wave feminism An emergent movement asserting that feminism for the current era is not just an extension of
second-wave feminism. Aims (1) to be inclusive of diverse peoples; (2) to use personal life and personal action for
political impact; and (3) to work to build coalitions with other groups that struggle against oppression.
womanists A group of women who define their identities and goals as reflecting both race and gender oppression. The
womanist movement arose out of dissatisfaction with mainstream feminism’s focus on white, middle-class women and
their interests.
women’s rights movement From the mid-1800s to the 1920s, a movement that focused on gaining basic rights for
women, such as the rights to vote, to pursue higher education, and to enter professions.
Chapter 4
father hunger From the mythopoetic men’s movement, men’s yearning to be close to other men and to build deep,
enduring bonds with them; based on the mythopoetic belief that most young boys have distant relationships with the
primary man in their lives—the father—and that the hunger for meaningful contact with men, of which they were
deprived in youth, continues throughout life.
Fathers 4 Justice A British fathers’ rights group that relies on the two rhetorical strategies of humor and dramatic
stunts to raise public awareness about the custody rights of separated and divorced fathers.
Free Men A branch of the men’s movement that seeks to restore the traditional image of men by celebrating and
encouraging the qualities of competitiveness, independence, and ruggedness in men.
male feminists Men who believe that women and men are alike in important respects and that the sexes should enjoy
the same privileges, rights, opportunities, and status in society. Male feminists join liberal women feminists in fighting
for equitable treatment of women. In addition, many male feminists seek to rid themselves of what they regard as toxic
masculinity promoted in men by socialization, and to develop sensitivities more typically inculcated in women. Also
called profeminist men.
masculinist A category of men’s movement that sees men as oppressed and seeks to preserve men’s freedom from
women and femininization.
men’s rights activists Members of a men’s movement the goal of which is to restore traditional roles for men and
women and, with that, the privileges men have historically enjoyed.
Mentors in Violence Prevention (MVP). A male antiviolence program that educates men about socialization that
links masculinity to violence and aggression; motivates men to reject violence in themselves and other men.
Million Man March A branch of the men’s movement that began with a march in Washington, D.C., in 1995, in
which black men atoned for sins and committed themselves to spiritual transformation and political action. Annual
marches were also held in subsequent years.
mythopoetic movement A branch of the men’s movement headed by poet Robert Bly and active in the 1990s.
Mythopoetics believe that men need to rediscover their distinctively masculine modes of feeling, which they regard as
rooted largely in myth.
NOMAS (National Organization for Men Against Sexism) An activist men’s organization that promotes personal,
political, and social changes that foster equality of men and women and gay and straight people through workshops and
informal group discussions, public speaking, educational outreach programs, and enactment of traitorous identities.
profeminist See male feminists.
Promise Keepers Begun in 1990, a Christian branch of the men’s movement that calls men together to pray and
commit to Christ-centered living.
traitorous identity A group member’s criticism of particular attitudes and actions—for example, sexist jokes—that are
accepted and normative within the group.
White Ribbon Campaign (WRC). An international group of men who work to end men’s violence against women.
Chapter 5
male generic language Words and phrases that are claimed to refer to both women and men yet are denotatively
masculine; for example, the word man used to refer to all human beings.
matriarchal Of or pertaining to matriarchy, “rule by the mothers.” The term matriarchy is generally used to refer to
systems of ideology, social structures, and practices that are created by women and reflect the values, priorities, and
views of women as a group.
minimal response cues Nominal indicators of listening, or attending. “Um” and “yeah” are minimal response cues.
polarized thinking Conceiving things in terms of opposites, e.g., good or bad, right or wrong.
speech community A group of people who share assumptions regarding how, when, and why to communicate and how
to interpret others’ communication.
spotlighting Highlighting a person’s sex rather than other, more relevant characteristics; for example, the headline
“Woman Elected Mayor.”
stereotype A broad generalization about an entire class of phenomena, based on some knowledge of limited aspects of
certain members of the class.
Chapter 6
artifact A personal object that influences how we see ourselves and how we express our identities.
haptics Touch as a form of nonverbal communication.
nonverbal communication All elements of communication other than words themselves. Estimated to carry 65% to
93% of the total meaning of communication; includes visual, vocal, environmental, and physical aspects of interaction.
paralanguage Vocal cues that accompany verbal communication, such as accent, volume, and inflection.
power Dimension of relationship-level meaning that expresses the degree to which a person is equal to, dominant over,
or deferential to others.
kinesics Facial and body movements; one type of nonverbal communication.
liking The dimension of relationship-level meaning that expresses affection or lack of affection for another.
proxemics Space and the human use of space, including personal territories.
responsiveness The dimension of relationship-level meaning that expresses attentiveness to others and interest in what
they say and do.
territoriality An aspect of proxemics; the sense of personal space that one does not want others to invade.
Chapter 7
ego boundary Psychologically, the point at which an individual stops and the rest of the world begins; an individual’s
sense of the line between herself or himself and others. Ego boundaries range from permeable (a sense of self that
includes others and their issues, problems, and so on) to rigid (a sense of self as completely distinct from others).
monitoring The process of observing and regulating our own attitudes and behaviors, which is possible because
humans can reflect on themselves from others’ perspectives (self-as-object).
self-as-object The ability to reflect on the self from the standpoint of others. Because humans are able to take others’
perspectives, their views of self are necessarily social.
Chapter 8
alternate paths model A relationship theory according to which masculine and feminine ways of creating and
expressing closeness are viewed as different from each other and equally valid.
male deficit model A relationship theory according to which men are deficient in forming and participating in close
relationships; holds that most men’s ways of experiencing and expressing closeness are not simply different from, but
inferior to, those of women.
personal relationships Connections in which partners are interdependent, consider each other irreplaceable, and are
strongly and specifically connected to each other as unique individuals.
psychological responsibility The responsibility to remember, plan, think ahead, organize, and so forth. In most
heterosexual relationships, even when physical labor is divided between partners, women assume greater psychological
responsibility for the home and children.
second shift The work of homemaking and child care performed by a member of a dual-worker family after and in
addition to that person’s job in the paid labor force.
Chapter 9
culture of romance The notion prevalent among today’s youth that success, for women, lies in attracting men rather
than in pursuing ambitious careers.
effortless perfection The pressure felt by many women students at colleges to be beautiful, fit, popular, smart, and
accomplished, all without visible effort.
hidden curriculum In educational institutions, the organization, content, and teaching styles that reflect gender
stereotypes and sustain gender inequities by marginalizing and devaluing female and minority students.
invisible hand discrimination The inadvertent application, in discriminatory fashion, of policies that are not inherently
biased.
Title IX The section of the Educational Amendment of 1972 that makes it illegal for schools that accept federal funds
to discriminate on the basis of sex.
Chapter 10
affirmative action Collective term for policies that go beyond equal opportunity laws to redress discrimination.
Assumes that historical patterns of discrimination against groups of people justify the preferential treatment of
members of those groups; focuses on results, not on the intent of efforts to redress inequities; and attempts to increase
the number of qualified members of minorities in education and the workplace, commensurate with their availability.
equal opportunity laws Laws that prohibit discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.
Equal opportunity laws seek to protect individual members of groups that have been targets of discrimination; they
redress only current discrimination, not historical bias.
glass ceiling An invisible barrier, made up of subtle, often unconscious prejudices and stereotypes, that limits the
opportunities and advancement of women and minorities.
glass walls A metaphor for sex segregation on the job. Glass walls exist when members of a group, such as women, are
placed in positions based on stereotypes of that group. Typically, such positions do not entail advancement ladders.
goal A statement of intent regarding the representation of women and minorities. Goals do not require results, nor do
they require measures to increase the number of women and minorities hired by or admitted to institutions.
mentor A senior colleague who helps a junior colleague build a career.
microinequities Verbal comments and behaviors that devalue members of a group but do not violate antidiscrimination
laws; can affect morale, job performance, and career advancement.
quota A particular number or percentage of women or minorities who must be admitted to schools, hired in certain positions, or promoted to certain levels in institutions.
Chapter 11
complimentary copy An article or section of writing about an advertiser’s product or service that is placed in a
magazine by the publisher at no cost to the advertiser, to increase the market appeal of the product or service.
mommy track Informal term for the practice of placing women on a separate career path that limits their career
opportunities and advancement.
voice-over A technique used in audiovisual media, particularly television commercials; over the action on the screen,
viewers hear a voice that makes claims about the product, gives advice, or explains the action.
Chapter 12
blaming the victim Holding a harmed person responsible for the harm inflicted on him or her by another person.
clitoridectomy Removal of the entire clitoris. Part or all of the labia minora may also be removed. Also called excision.
erotica Depictions of sexual activities that are agreed to and enjoyed by the parties participating in the activities.
excision See clitoridectomy.
femicide The killing of women.
gendered violence Physical, verbal, emotional, sexual, or visual brutality inflicted disproportionately or exclusively on
members of one sex. Includes gender intimidation, sexual assault, violence between intimates, sexual harassment,
genital mutilation, and gender-based murder.
gender intimidation The treatment of members of one sex in ways that make them feel humiliated, unsafe, or inferior
because of their sex.
hostile environment harassment Conduct of a sexual nature that interferes with a person’s ability to perform a job or
gain an education or that creates a hostile, intimidating, or offensive working environment.
infibulation Removal of the clitoris and labia minora and subsequent joining of the lips of the labia majora.
informed consent Consent given by an adult with normal mental abilities whose judgment is not impaired by
circumstances, including alcohol or other drugs.
intimate partner violence The use of physical, mental, emotional, verbal, or economic power by one partner against
the other partner in a current or past romantic relationship.
male circumcision Removal of the sheath, or prepuce, of the penis.
physical appearance Aspects of personal appearance; often evaluated according to cultural standards.
pornography Written, oral, or visual material that favorably shows subordination and degradation of individuals by
presenting sadistic behaviors as pleasurable, pain as enjoyable, and forced sex as positive. Distinct from erotica, which
depicts consensual activities desired by and pleasurable to all parties.
quid pro quo harassment Actual or threatened use of professional or academic rewards or punishments to gain sexual
compliance from a subordinate or student.
sexual assault Sexual activity to which at least one participant has not given informed consent.
sexual harassment Unwelcome conduct of a sexual nature.
sunna Genital mutilation involving removal of the sheath and tip of the clitoris. Also called female circumcision.