School of Computing
Oral Presentations
Anne Siedle
September 2007
CONTENTS
1
Introduction
2
2
Preparing oral presentations
3
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
3
4
4
6
6
6
7
7
3
Delivering oral presentations
9
3.1
9
10
10
11
11
11
12
12
3.2
4
5
Terms of reference
Objectives
Content
Timing
Structure
2.5.1 Introduction to the presentation
2.5.2 Main body of the presentation
2.5.3 Conclusion of the presentation
Voice
3.1.1
3.1.2
3.1.3
3.1.4
3.1.5
3.1.6
3.1.7
Volume and projection
Tone and pitch
Pronunciation
Expression
Speed
Language
Transitions
Body language
3.2.1 Dress
3.2.2 Posture
3.2.3 Gestures
3.2.4 Eye-contact
3.2.5 Facial expressions
13
13
14
14
14
15
Memory aids
16
4.1
17
Cue cards
Visual aids
18
5.1
5.2
5.3
18
19
19
Slide design
Using an overhead projector
Revelation and overlay
6
Rehearsal
21
7
Conclusion
22
References
23
i
1
INTRODUCTION
Within both the business and academic environment oral presentations are a common
event. Moreover, the reasons why people are asked to give an oral presentation are
numerous and varied. For example, they can remove ambiguity caused by use of
language as the audience usually has the chance to ask questions. Also, presentations are
often an easier method of explaining solutions to problems, difficulties encountered, or
reasons for suggesting certain actions than production of a formal report as they allow the
speakers to check that the audience fully understands any complex issues.
Although being asked to give a presentation can appear rather a daunting task, it may be
useful to note that the majority of people have at sometime or other given a presentation,
perhaps without realising the fact. For example, an interview situation is a form of
presentation as interviewees are trying to sell themselves or convince prospective
employers that they are the best ones for the job.
Certainly, oral communication is one of the most important interpersonal skills and it is
wise to remember that people are often judged not only on what they say but also on how
they say it. Thus, this document has been produced to aid both the preparation and
delivery of oral presentations.
As with all tasks, the preparation and delivery of oral presentations requires a methodical
approach to ensure any measure of success. Thus, this document provides an insight into
the various stages involved in oral presentations. In chapter 2 the initial preparation,
organisation and structure is described in detail. Chapter 3 provides help with the actual
delivery of the presentation whilst chapter 4 provides some advice regarding the use of
memory aids. Chapter 5 looks at both the production and use of visual aids and, finally,
chapter 6 explains why rehearsal is a necessary part of the process.
2
2
PREPARING ORAL PRESENTATIONS
First of all it is necessary to understand what is meant by the term presentation. Simply
put, a presentation is a formal or semi-formal talk by one or more persons to an audience
of one or more people.
Second, it is necessary to note that presentations usually fall into one or more of four
categories. In general they aim to:

persuade or sell

teach

stimulate thought

inform
2.1
TERMS OF REFERENCE
However, before organising a presentation, as with all tasks, it is essential that the terms
of reference are fully understood. Certainly, they should make clear:

what topic must be covered

when the presentation must be given

where the presentation will take place and what facilities are available

who the presentation is for
If any of the above are not clear then they must be clarified with the persons proposing
the presentation.
3
2.2
OBJECTIVES
Once the terms of reference are clear, objectives for the presentation can be set. Whatever
the topic, there will be either a product, solution or idea to sell, or a product or plan about
which the audience requires explanation or information. Thus, the speakers should
identify exactly what it is they wish to achieve within the presentation and what response
they require from the audience: to do otherwise means certain failure.
When setting objectives for a presentation, it may be helpful to note that they should be:

Concise - they should be easy to understand and make clear to the audience what you
are trying to achieve.

Measurable - it should be possible to judge whether or not the presentation has
achieved what it intended.

Appropriate - the presentation should be aimed at the correct level for the audience.

Realistic - the presentation must be achievable given the audience and the time
available.
2.3
CONTENT
Having set the objectives, it is necessary to collect and store the information required for
the content of the presentation. As the ultimate objective of any presentation is to gain
the agreement and/or support of the audience, research must be completed thoroughly.
As stated by Warner (1996), “gross errors of fact, gaps in the investigative process, and
demonstrations that do not work, will destroy the most elegant presentation”.
4
Once information gathering for the content is completed, work can then begin on how to
present the message. As with all forms of communication, the content of presentations
require logical ordering because:

the audience will not necessarily follow the presenters train of thought

to hold the attention of an audience they need to know where the presentation is going
next

it will help the presenter not to ramble or stray from the subject.
Thus, the material or arguments contained within the presentation must be structured in a
logical fashion that leads the audience towards the same conclusions as those of the
presenters. Consequently, decisions must be made as to what is to be included from the
information gathered and one way of helping to select the salient points is to refer back to
the original objectives of the presentation as well as ask:

who will be there

why are they coming

what do they need and expect to hear
Whatever the final content, keep it simple and stick to 3 or 4 main points which can be
expanded upon as and when necessary. Remember, too much information may confuse
the audience and result in them not remembering or understanding what has been said.
Conversely, too little information will result in loss of credibility for the product,
argument and the presenter. Thus, it is vital to concentrate on getting across information
that meets both the objectives of the presentation and the expectations of the audience.
In addition, if the presentation is to made using a number of different speakers, it is at this
point that decisions must be made regarding who will cover which area or topic.
5
2.4
TIMING
When giving a presentation it is usual to be allocated a certain amount of time in which to
deliver it. Also, the audience will generally consist of busy people who will have to give
up valuable time in order to be present. Consequently, it is essential that presenters keep
within the allotted time span. For group presentations this means careful planning and
rehearsal to ensure that all group members keep to their allocated time slots.
Remember, an audience will forgive presenters many things but they will never forgive
them running over time. For student presentations, running over time may mean that the
presentation is cut short. This will mean the presentation is incomplete and marks will be
lost. Thus, practice, practice and more practice is required.
2.5
STRUCTURE
The usual format of a presentation would typically comprise:

Introduction
10%

Main body
80%

Conclusion
10%
2.5.1 Introduction to the presentation
Although the introduction is in the main dictated by what follows in the body of the
presentation, it is also true to say that this section should:
tell them what you going to tell them.
6
Consequently, it should include:

Welcoming courtesies – thank the audience for taking time to attend

Self – identification – tell the audience who you are and introduce any co-presenters

Background information – provide any background necessary to aid understanding

The objectives – let the audience know what you propose to explain, suggest,
demonstrate etc.

The agenda – tell the audience how long the presentation will last, how it will be
broken down and what visual aids you will be using

Practical details – tell the audience if and when you are prepared to ask questions
2.5.2 Main Body of the presentation
This section is wholly dictated by the topic to be covered. Nevertheless, it is the section
in which you should:
Tell them
2.5.3 Conclusion of the presentation
Although the conclusion will be dictated by the objectives set within the introduction, it
is also the section within which you should:
Tell them that you’ve told them
7
Therefore, within the conclusion you should:

Provide a concise summary of the salient points or facts

State or imply what you expect your audience to do, know or understand as a result of
the presentation

Relate any information regarding available documentation to support the presentation

Invite questions

Thank your audience for their time and attention
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3
DELIVERING ORAL PRESENTATIONS
As stated earlier, giving a presentation can be a daunting experience. Some people will
always be extremely nervous whilst others will, with practice, overcome their nerves and
be able to give a confident presentation. What needs to be remembered is that good
delivery, apart from a few small but important techniques, is not a question of acquiring
new skills but a question of removing obstacles.
Most people are able to speak quite confidently on a variety of subjects when with friends
or in a small group sitting round a table. All public speaking requires is the retention of
that same ability when standing in front of people who may not be known to the speaker
personally. To be able to do this means learning to remove inhibitions which prevent
normal and natural behaviour. Of course, it also entails being as confident with the
subject matter being presented as with topics discussed with friends. However, if the
preparation has been undertaken thoroughly, this should not prove to be a problem.
Although the above may be easier to say than do, it may help to remember that the
audience is usually on the side of the presenter. Indeed many of the audience may be
only too pleased they do not have to give the presentation. Nevertheless, in order to give
a successful presentation, it is necessary for presenters to think about how they sound and
how they look.
3.1
VOICE
When giving a presentation, the voice is the main means of communication with the
audience. Certainly, suggestions, arguments, rationales etc are all mediated through the
power of the voice. Consequently, the success or otherwise of the presentation will
9
depend to a large extent on how skilful the presenter is at using their voice to good effect.
Thus, attention must be paid to:

Volume and projection

Tone and pitch

Pronunciation

Expression

Speed

Language

Transitions
3.1.1 Volume and projection
The first thing to ensure is that the audience can hear clearly without having to strain their
ears. This entails speaking to the person at the back of the room without shouting. By
projecting the voice it is possible to do this and be both clear and audible without
sounding harsh. Of course, some people who naturally speak quietly will have to make a
conscious and sustained effort to project their voice throughout the whole of their talk.
Remember, it is no use starting off well then becoming less and less audible as the talk
progresses.
3.1.2 Tone and pitch
The overall tonal quality of the voice can be altered by nervousness as it may cause the
pitch to rise slightly, making the speaker sound somewhat squeaky. In order to prevent
this it may be worth considering starting the talk at a lower than average pitch. However,
as a continual low pitch can make the speaker sound tired or depressed, a return to
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normal pitch should be made once the speaker has settled. Also, as listening to someone
who speaks in a monotone can be boring and soporific, it is wise to modulate the voice.
3.1.3 Pronunciation
It is vital to ensure that all words are pronounced correctly as to do otherwise would
create a bad impression on the audience. Therefore, ensure that a check is made on any
words about which there is any element of uncertainty.
3.1.4 Expression
The amount of emphasis placed on words can be used to focus attention on any important
points. Moreover, by stressing key words or phrases it is possible to inject enthusiasm or
excitement into the talk. Certainly, such variations in delivery will show that the speaker
is in control of their material. Remember, it takes an enthusiastic presenter to instil
enthusiasm within an audience. Also remember that verbal ‘fillers’ such as ‘like’,
‘you know’, ‘er’ and ‘um’ should play no part in a well prepared presentation.
3.1.5 Speed
When giving a presentation it is necessary to talk more slowly than the normal rate of
speech. By keeping speech to a rate of approximately 100 – 110 words per minute it
enables the audience to keep pace with the presentation of ideas and assimilate
information. Furthermore, varying the pace of speech makes it possible to instil either a
sense of calm or urgency into the talk. In addition, pauses in speech, used in appropriate
places, can also increase audience attention. Conversely, if the speaker rushes through
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their talk like an express train they cannot expect the audience to grasp or appreciate what
has been presented.
3.1.6 Language
Although presenters should, if possible, be aware of the audience’s level of technical
competence and linguistic codes, good presenters need to consider how they express their
ideas. Remember, the audience has to keep pace with the speaker so the use of long
sentences and complex words will make the material presented more difficult to absorb.
Consequently, use simple words and keep sentences fairly short wherever possible. Also,
while it is true that the use of humour can enrich some presentations it is difficult to use
well. Thus, you should note that, “Student presentations which try to use humour have a
very high cringe factor” (Warner, 1996, p118).
3.1.7 Transitions
When delivering a group presentation it will be necessary to hand-over from one speaker
to another and how these transitions take place will be vital for the success of the
presentation. However, if within the Introduction the group has provided a breakdown of
the presentation (see section 2.5.1) the task of handing over to a different speaker will be
made much simpler. For example, if the breakdown provided stated that Joe Green
would discuss Data Flow Diagrams and Stephen Brown would then discuss Entity
Relationship Diagrams the transition from Joe to Stephen should be similar to the
following:
“As that completes the section on Data Flow Diagrams, I would now like to handover to my colleague Stephen Brown who will explain the part played by Entity
Relationship Diagrams”.
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What is not acceptable is the following:
“ I’ve finished my bit, here’s Stephen”, or “That’s it from me” etc.
Such an unprofessional display will surely result in loss of audience confidence, and in
the case of student presentations, a loss of marks.
3.2
BODY LANGUAGE
When giving a presentation, it is wise to remember that the speaker is the most important
visual aid. Never forget, significant contributions can be made by things that are visual
rather than spoken. For example, non-verbal cues can increase the audience’s
understanding of the message being conveyed, instil confidence in the presenter and,
thereby, increase confidence in the product or solution. Thus, attention must be paid to:

Dress

Posture

Gesture

Eye-Contact

Facial expressions
3.2.1 Dress
Without doubt, the dress of a presenter should be appropriate to the environment in which
the presentation is being delivered. Normally, an audience would expect a presenter to be
clean and smart. Taking the time to appear ‘well turned out’ shows that the speaker takes
both the audience and the material seriously. Moreover, by appearing smartly dressed the
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self-confidence of the speaker is increased as when we look good, we feel good.
Remember, no-one ever gets a second chance to make a good first impression.
3.2.2 Posture
When delivering a presentation, it is necessary to adopt a comfortable and confident
stance. Do not try standing on one leg or with your legs crossed, do not slouch or lean
against furniture but stand up straight, relaxed with feet slightly apart. Of course it is
permissible, and sometimes necessary, to move around but do avoid pacing up and down
in an agitated fashion. Also as standing behind a desk or lectern creates a barrier between
the speaker and the audience, try to avoid this and stand as near to the audience as
possible.
3.2.3 Gestures
Gestures with the hands can play a powerful part within presentations as they can provide
emphasis to what is being said. However, as we want the audience to focus their
attention on the face, try to keep hand movements above waist level. In addition, waving
arms around like a windmill, jangling keys or coins, and mannerisms such as playing
with glasses, jewellery, ears, hair etc are very distracting and must be avoided.
3.2.4 Eye–contact
Throughout any presentation it is important to look at the audience. If a speaker avoids
eye-contact people tend to think they are not telling the truth, the whole truth, and
nothing but the truth. Furthermore, only by keeping eye-contact can the presenter see
how the audience is reacting to their talk. Indeed, the time for any speaker to start
worrying is when the audience is taking no notice of them. Consequently, eye-contact
14
should be maintained whenever possible. However, this does not mean staring at one
person throughout the talk but glancing around the audience in general. Furthermore, as
it is important to look relaxed, it is permissible to smile occasionally. By doing so the
presenter will gain the confidence of the audience, and thereby, their interest and
attention.
3.2.5 Facial expressions
Facial expressions play an important role in any form of oral communication. For
example, in presentations they can be used to add meaning, as well as change the
emphasis of the talk from light-hearted to serious or vice-versa. However, a woeful,
depressed or uninterested expression may make an audience ‘switch off’ almost
immediately. In addition, it is important to realise that when what is being said appears
to conflict with demonstrations of non-verbal communication, the non-verbal signals or
signs are the ones that people normally believe to be true.
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4
MEMORY AIDS
When attending a presentation, most members of the audience hate listening to a prepared
speech. Poor presenters usually read speeches in a monotone and, given the differences
between written and spoken language, they often sound pompous and dry. Moreover,
reading from a script indicates that the speaker is not in control of the presentation or
lacks confidence in the material. Thus, doubts are raised in the mind of the listener as to
the competence of the presenter. Also, by reading, the presenter looses eye-contact with
the audience and the paper places a barrier between the two. This barrier in itself may
lead to lack of acceptance by the audience of both the speaker and the material.
The best presenters are, without doubt, those that know their material so well that they
can talk easily without any notes whatsoever. However, this is not recommended for any
but the well experienced. Nor is it recommended to try and learn a script off by heart
even if the language of the script is spoken rather than written English. This is because
all but the best speakers will forget their lines or loose their flow if interrupted by a
question from the audience. Thus, most presenters require some form of notes that
contain words or phrases around which they can talk freely. Indeed, separate notes are
usually required even when visual aids are used to highlight a particular point or topic
under discussion.
However, the type of notes that are used is extremely important as they can either help or
hinder the speaker and alter the overall quality of the presentation. For example, the use
of notes written on large sheets of thin paper will definitely prove a hindrance. This is
because such notes will, if used by a nervous speaker whose hands are shaking slightly,
flap around and cause a distraction for the audience. This in turn will make the speaker
more nervous. In addition, should the speaker look up at the audience they are unlikely
to be able to look back down at the notes and find the correct place immediately. Also,
large notes can create a barrier between the presenter and the audience as nervous
16
speakers tend to hide behind them. What is actually required are small, easy to access
but unobtrusive notes.
4.1
CUE CARDS
An effective way of producing such notes is to use small cue cards. These cards, each of
which ought to contain notes necessary for one point or topic only, should be small
enough to hold in the palm of the hand. Moreover, each card should be numbered to
ensure that they are used in the right order – particularly useful if they get dropped at any
time. Then, after discussion of a point the card can be placed at the back of the others
and the speaker can refer to the next in line. A useful tip is to use strong card for these
notes as then they can stand being gripped tightly, without fear of crumpling, if the
speaker is slightly nervous.
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5
VISUAL AIDS
When delivering a presentation most speakers will use some form of visual aid. Indeed,
some kinds of information such as Data Flow Diagrams and graphs are meant to be
displayed graphically. Also, the audience will understand some points more readily if
they are displayed rather than explained. Examples of this include screen dumps of a
computer interface, navigation charts that show the path through a multimedia
application, and story boards which show how the design of an application was
accomplished. Furthermore, visual aids can provide both impact and confirmation of the
main ideas or issues being put forward and, thereby, reinforce the speakers’ message. In
addition to the above, visual aids can help to keep the attention of the audience as humans
require visual stimulus which is rarely found in the speaker alone (Warner, 1996, p124).
Although there are a variety of ways to incorporate visual aids into a presentation, the
most common is the use of slides - normally produced using Microsoft PowerPoint. The
slides produced can be shown via computer screen or printed on acetate in the form of
Overhead Transparencies.
5.1
SLIDE DESIGN
Whatever method of display is used, the design of the slides should be as follows:

images should be bold, simple and concise

information should be easy to understand

type face should be clear, using lower case rather than upper case letters
18

no more than eight lines of text should be used

no more than seven words to a line should be used
Also, it is wise to number slides so that if dropped they can quickly be placed in the
correct display order.
5.2
USING AN OVERHEAD PROJECTOR
When using an overhead projector there are a number of common sense issues that need
to be addressed:

check the OHP is working correctly well in advance of the presentation

switch off any lights that interfere with clear viewing of the screen

ensure the slide is positioned correctly and the right way up

position yourself to avoid obscuring or casting a shadow onto the screen

talk to the audience and not the image on screen

point to the slide, using a pen or pointed instrument, not to the screen
5.3
REVELATION AND OVERLAY
Line by line revelation involves covering the content of the transparency with paper or
card before the projector is switched on. The paper or card is then moved down, line by
19
line, to reveal the topics as required. If using this method, ensure that the paper or card
is placed underneath the transparency so that the weight of the slide will hold it in place.
Overlay involves the use of several transparencies. These are overlaid on top of each
other in order to build up information on screen. If using this method, care must be taken
to ensure the points of registration on the slides all match perfectly. Success using this
method is more likely to be achieved if the transparencies are hinged together at one
edge.
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6
REHEARSAL
In order for a presentation to achieve any measure of success, regular and frequent
rehearsals are vital. Thorough rehearsal will:

ensure familiarity with the material to be presented

highlight any missing or unnecessary information

ensure the logic is correct

ensure the structure is correct

ensure any transitions are suitable and correct

ensure that the speakers stay on the subject and within their time limit.
Without rehearsal, speakers will almost certainly appear unprepared, unfamiliar with their
topic, and stumble over their words. Remember, to fail to prepare is to prepare to fail.
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7
CONCLUSION
This document has dealt with the main features of oral presentations. It has described the
initial preparation, organisation and structure necessary for successful presentations. In
addition, the document has provided help regarding the actual delivery of a presentation,
the production and use of memory aids, and the design and use of visual aids.
Information has also been provided with regards to the necessity for ongoing rehearsal.
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REFERENCES
Warner T (1996), Communication skills for information systems, Great Britain,
Pitman Publishing
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