Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 1
Depressed Mood and the Quality of Parental and Peer Relationships in Early Adolescence
Nicole K. Phillips
Distinguished Majors Thesis
University of Virginia
May 2001
Advisor: Joseph P. Allen
Second Reader: Gerald Clore
Running Head: DEPRESSED MOOD IN EARLY ADOLESCENT RELATIONSHIPS
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 2
Abstract
Research has shown that teens with difficulties in relating to parents and peers are at
greater risk for developing symptoms of depression and show later deficits in social functioning.
The present study employed a multi-reporter, multi-method, longitudinal design to examine
associations between depressed mood and personal relationships in a socioeconomically diverse
community sample of 174 adolescents (83 males, 91 females). Results indicate that undermining
autonomy and relatedness in disagreements with the mother predicts change in depressed mood
over time. To a lesser degree, less conflict resolution with close friends and withdrawal from
friends predict changes in depressed mood. In turn, depressed mood predicts changes in peerreported companionship and self-perceptions of friendship competence and social acceptance.
Limitations and implications are discussed.
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 3
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my appreciation to my advisor, Dr. Joseph P. Allen, for his help
and support through this process. I would also like to thank Maryfrances Porter for her tireless
assistance with both the technical and theoretical details involved in the current project. This
project would also not have been possible without the assistance of my second reader, Dr. Gerald
Clore, and the many other graduate and undergraduate students who have collected data and
provided valuable feedback.
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 4
Depressed Mood and the Quality of Parental and Peer Relationships in Early Adolescence
While a majority of children and adolescents experience some minor symptoms of
depression from time to time, it is estimated that around 5% of children and 10 – 20% of
adolescents experience levels of depressed mood requiring outside care (Lewinsohn, Hops,
Roberts, Seeley, & Andrews, 1993; Reynolds & Johnston, 1994; Roberts, Attkisson, &
Rosenblatt, 1998; Speir, Sherak, Hirsch, & Cantwell, 1995). It is also estimated that one out of
every six children hospitalized for a mental illness has a diagnosis of major depressive disorder
(Reynolds & Johnston, 1994). Throughout the literature, depression in adolescence has been
associated with interpersonal problems (e.g., Reinherz, Giaconia, Hauf, Wasserman, &
Silverman, 1999) and family environments (e.g., Blatt & Homann, 1992; Kaslow, Deering, &
Racusin, 1994). However, the relationships among parents, peers, and depression have not been
fully explored in early adolescence.
Depression in Adolescence
Depression has not always been recognized as a problem affecting children and
adolescents. Traditionally, depression was thought to only affect older adolescents and adults
because younger children did not have a sufficiently developed superego to be afflicted by the
disorder. (Speier et al., 1995) Today, depression is being increasingly seen to be a major
problem affecting children and adolescents (Reynolds & Johnston, 1994). In addition, early onset
of depression has been identified as a significant risk factor for development of later affective
disorder in adulthood. (Lewinsohn, Rohde, Klein, & Seeley, 1999; Rao, Hammen, & Daley,
1999; Reynolds & Johnston, 1994)
Depression is associated with a significant impairment of normal functioning. Among
children with a diagnosis of depression, one study showed that 87% exhibited functional
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 5
impairment as a result of their disorder (Simonoff et al., 1997). This impairment of early
occurrences of the disorder can have lasting effects later in life. Reinherz et al. (1999) found in a
community sample of young adults that having received a diagnosis of depression in late
adolescence was associated with significantly impaired functioning regardless of current
diagnosis. Occurrence of depression during the transition to adulthood was also associated with
greater interpersonal problems and an increased need for social support in this sample.
Cognitive models of depression provide a working model to explain the functional
impairments associated with depression. According to Beck (1967), depression is a result of
negative patterns of thinking. In depressed persons, as negative schema are utilized more and
more to explain events, they begin to be activated by a wider and wider range of stimuli leading
to systematic errors in thinking. Thus, when a negative event occurs, depressed persons tend to
attribute it to internal, global, and stable controls. Building on this idea, Seligman (1992) argued
that these negative cognitive biases lead depressed persons to adopt a hopeless stance in life.
Depressed persons do not believe they are capable of changing situations under their control and
thus show patterns of responding in those instances similar to those of non-depressed persons
facing uncontrollable situations. These cognitive models provide a good explanation for the
mental processes at work in depression, however they do not provide an explanation of how
these processes emerge.
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 6
Parental Relationships and Depression
Attachment theorists have postulated that the origin of negative cognitive biases and
expectations in relationships is found in a child’s early relationship with his/her caregivers
(Bowlby, 1969a). Insecure attachment relationships are believed to form in dyads in which the
mothering response to the infant is inadequate to his or her needs (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, &
Wall, 1978). The child internalizes beliefs about relationships and self-worth from the response
of the mother to his/her signals (Bowlby, 1969a). Thus, negative experiences in early
relationships can lead to internalized views of the self as bad or unworthy (Bowlby, 1969b). In
the case of depression, Bowlby (1969b) argues that “in most forms of depressive disorder,
including that of chronic mourning, the principal issue about which a person feels helpless is his
ability to make and to maintain affectional relationships.” (Bowlby, 1969b, p. 247)
Problematic attachment relationships with the parents, and especially the mother, have
been empirically linked to internalizing disorders in childhood. For instance, psychopathology
present at age six has been linked to attachment style at age one (Lewis, Feiring, McGuffog, &
Jaskir, 1984). As the child moves from childhood to adolescence, attachment strategies continue
to be associated with the occurrence of internalizing symptoms. Research with older adolescent
hospital populations has shown that a majority of the adolescent hospitalized for mental
disorders show insecure attachment patterns (Allen, Hauser, & Borman-Spurrell, 1996;
Rosenstein & Horowitz, 1996). Additionally, adolescents with an ambivalent style were more
likely to exhibit anxiety or dysthymia and were more likely to be withdrawn in social
interactions (Rosenstein & Horowitz, 1996). The relationship between attachment style and
pathology has also been reported in non-clinical populations such that insecure and preoccupied
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 7
attachment strategies were associated with higher levels of depression (Allen, Moore,
Kuperminc, & Bell, 1998; Kobak, Sudler, & Gamble, 1991).
These attachment strategies become increasingly important through adolescence as the
child begins to establish his/her own distinct identity. Being able to establish and maintain
autonomy with the parents while keeping a sense of relatedness in the relationship has
increasingly been identified as a major developmental task of adolescence (Allen, Hauser, Bell,
& O’Connor, 1994; Allen & Land, 1999; Collins, 1990; Hill & Holmbeck, 1986). The security
of the attachment relationship provides the basis for the child’s development of independence in
conflicts (Allen & Hauser, 1996). If the child has a secure relationship with the mother, then he
or she would tend to feel more comfortable asserting individual opinions and creating
disagreement because he/she can be confident of the caregiver’s continued support. In less
secure dyads mastering this task becomes more difficult. When the adolescent has no precedent
for believing the parental figure will provide continued, unconditional support, the child becomes
less likely to consistently assert his/her own opinion and less likely to attempt to maintain a
rapport with the parent (Allen & Land, 1999).
As an indicator of attachment cognitions and the quality of the relationship with a parent,
autonomy and relatedness may be a useful predictor of later dysfunction (Garber & Kaminski,
1999). In a sample of high-risk adolescents, Allen, Hauser, Eickholt, Bell, & O’Connor (1994)
found that adolescents who undermine their autonomy and relatedness with their parents at time
1 tend to show higher rates of negative affect at time 2. Among moderately at-risk adolescents,
difficulties asserting autonomy in disagreements with the father have been shown to predict
report of increased depressed mood over time (Leibman, 1998). However, previous research has
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 8
not explored autonomy and relatedness as a predictor of change in depression in a normative
sample of early adolescents to determine if the same trends hold.
Peer Relationships and Depression
While relationships with parents are important to overall development, relationships with
peers gain increasing importance throughout adolescence (Buhrmester, 1996). Maintaining
friendships is important to overall positive psychosocial functioning (Berndt, 1996). Depressed
peers are more likely to be viewed as less likeable (Peterson, Mullins, & Ridley-Johnson, 1985)
and less popular (Connolly, Geller, Marton, & Kutcher, 1992; Oldenburg & Kerns, 1997).
Studies of psychiatric inpatient adolescents show that problems with peers are associated with
persistent major depressive disorder (Goodyer, Herbert, Tamplin, Secher, & Pearson, 1997) and
that depressive symptoms are uniquely predicted by quality of social relationships even after
accounting for other disorders present (Barerra & Garrison-Jones, 1992). While much research
has established a link between general friendships and depression, especially in clinical
populations, relatively little research has focused on close friendship competence as both a
predictor and outcome of depression in a normative, non-clinical sample of early adolescents.
Much of the current literature on childhood and early adolescent peer relationships and
predictions with depression in non-clinical samples focuses on the child’s sociometric status.
With sociometric procedures, children are given the opportunity to list peers both that they like
and that they do not like. Both neglected (seldom listed) and rejected (receiving primarily
negative listings) kids have been shown to exhibit higher levels of internalizing disorders (Hecht,
Inderbitzen, & Bukowski, 1998), and these classifications have also been shown to predict
negative psychological outcomes including depression (Coie, Lochman, Terry, & Hyman, 1992;
Coie, Terry, Lenox, & Lochman, 1995; Panak & Garber, 1992). Conversely, research has
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 9
additionally supported the predictive nature of depression in sociometric status (Little & Garber,
1995).
According to interpersonal theories of depression (Coyne, 1976), when depressed, a
person begins to feel low self-worth and low effectiveness in social relationships. Often he/she
will try to compensate by increasing social contact and excessive reassurance-seeking. This, in
turn, creates more tension between the friend and the depressed person. As the depressed person
senses the new tension in the relationship, they begin intensifying the reassurance-seeking, thus
driving the friend farther away. These negative cognitive and relational cycles fuel the episode
of depression. Findings from sociometric studies support the theory that depression has a bidirectional relationship with friendship throughout childhood and adolescence.
As children progress from childhood to early adolescence, they begin to see friendships
as more intimate and supportive (Berndt & Perry, 1990). Friends become more dependent on
one another as intimacy in relationships increases during this stage of development (Collins &
Repinski, 1994). Thus, given their increasing importance, it would seem that close friendships
would especially be marked by the interpersonal difficulties that accompany depression, however
little research has been done to compare mild to moderately depressed adolescents to normal
adolescents.
Overall, insecure attachments to both parents and peers have been associated with higher
levels of depressed mood in early adolescence (Armsden, McCauley, Greenberg, Burke, &
Mitchell, 1990). In parental relationships, expressions of attachment through strivings for
autonomy and relatedness are thought to have an impact on development of negative affect.
Difficulties with peers are also thought to have a predictive relationship with depression, and, in
turn are predicted by the depressed mood. However, these models of depression have not been
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 10
fully explored in normal, non-clinical samples of adolescents. Because of this, the current study
examined the following questions and hypotheses. 1) What is the relationship between
depressed mood and quality of interactions with parents in a community sample of early
adolescents? Do difficulties in negotiating the autonomy relationship predict changes in
depression over time? Based on past findings linking depressed mood to family environments, it
was hypothesized that parenting would be related both cross-sectionally and longitudinally with
depressed mood. Chiefly, it is believed that problems in asserting autonomy while maintaining
relatedness with parents will predict changes in depressed mood over time. 2) Does quality of
peer relationships in adolescence predict changes in depressed mood in a community sample of
early adolescents? Given the increasing importance of peer relationships in adolescence, it is
hypothesized that quality of peer relationships will be correlated with reported severity of
depressed mood. Specifically, it is hypothesized that difficulties in relationships with peers fuel
changes in depressed mood over time. 3) Does depression predict changes in quality of peer
relationships over time in a community sample of early adolescents? Research and theories on
depression suggest that the influence of peer relationships on depression operates in a cyclical
fashion with depression both influencing and being influenced by quality of friendships. Thus, it
also was hypothesized that depressed mood would predict changes in friendship quality over
time.
Method
Participants
A sample of 184 adolescents was recruited from three successive classes at a public
middle school in the Southeastern United States. A smaller sample of 174 adolescents (83
males, 91 females) was selected from the total sample based on completion of at least one visit
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 11
during the second of four waves of data collection. Data from the first wave were collected
when adolescents were approximately 13 years old (M = 13.34, SD = 0.63). The second wave
was collected one year later when the adolescents were about 14 years old (M = 14.17, SD =
1.28). The sample was ethnically and socioeconomically diverse with 103 adolescents
identifying themselves as Caucasian, 49 as African American, and 22 as other/unspecified.
Adolescents’ parents reported a mean total family income of $43,873 per year (range: $2,500 –
$70,000).
Data regarding adolescents’ friendship competence were additionally collected from one
close friend nominated at each wave by the adolescent. Friends reported that they had known the
adolescents for an average of 4.15 years (SD= 3.10) at the first wave and an average of 4.49
years (SD = 3.29) at the second wave.
At the present time, the final sample does not include 10 adolescents who have not yet
returned for visits with friends in wave two. These participants differ slightly from the
population used in the analyses in age (M = 13.78 years; SD = 0.93) and total family income (M
= $35,250, range: $7,500 - $70,000). The male to female ratio remained fairly constant with 4
males and 6 females not included. Adolescents of minority descent were more represented in
this group than in the larger sample with 2 classifying themselves as African American and 4
identifying themselves as being of other or unspecified descent. Four classified themselves as
being Caucasian.
Procedure
Nine hundred seventy-five adolescents and their families were first contacted by mail and
asked to return a postcard if interested in being in a study on adolescent development. Families
who indicated they were interested in the study were invited to complete a three-hour visit.
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 12
Further follow-ups by phone were used to recruit a more diverse sample. Approximately 20% to
30% of those originally contacted agreed to participate. At the first wave, adolescents and their
parents each received $20 for participating in the three-hour interview. Adolescents were invited
to return for a two-hour follow-up visit one year later. They received $20 for participating in the
second wave. All interviews took place in private rooms within a university clinic.
At the initial visit for each wave of data collection, adolescents were asked to list the
names of close friends whom they would be comfortable having in the study. Adolescents gave
consent for the friends they nominated to be contacted and asked to participate. The researchers
then contacted the adolescent’s closest friend and invited them to participate in a study on
adolescent relationships with the adolescent. Peers who agreed to participate were invited to
come in for a three-hour visit with the adolescent. Both the adolescent and friend each received
$20 at the first wave and $20 at the second wave for participating.
All participants gave active, informed consent before each interview session, and parents
provided signed informed consent for participants under the age of 18. Confidentiality of
information provided was guaranteed in the informed consent, in the introductions to each
session, and during the sessions. A U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
Confidentiality Certificate (MH-97-44) protected participants’ data from subpoena by local,
state, and federal courts. It was noted that this would not apply if the adolescent were suicidal,
homicidal, or being abused. Participants were taken to separate rooms to complete measures to
further ensure privacy. All participants were told they should skip questions and decline any
portion of the session with which they felt uncomfortable or to which they felt they could not
respond honestly. Interviewers offered to read each measure so that literacy would not prevent
participation. A list of referral agencies in the community was given at the end of each visit.
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 13
Measures
Depressed Mood. The Childhood Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs & Beck, 1977) is
a 27-item questionnaire based on the Beck Depression Inventory (see Appendix A). Each item
consists of three statements indicating varied levels of depressed mood. Participants are
instructed to choose the statement that best describes how they have been feeling over the past
two weeks. Responses on each item are then rated 0 to 2 with 0 being assigned for the statement
indicating the least amount of depressed mood and 2 being assigned to the statements endorsing
the highest level of depressed mood. Scores on all items are totaled to yield a summary score of
depressed mood. The CDI has been shown to have high internal consistency and good
discriminant validity (Kazdin, 1990). Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the total depressed mood
scale in this sample were .85 at wave 1 and .83 at wave 2.
Autonomy and Relatedness. Levels of autonomy and relatedness in the mother-child
dyad were assessed from the Family Interaction Task (FIT) coded using the Autonomy and
Relatedness Observational Coding Scheme (AR; Allen, Hauser, Bell, Boykin, & Tate, 1996
v.2.14). Each pair participated in an 8-minute videotaped revealed differences task in which they
discussed a family issue rated by both to be a topic of disagreement. Common topics selected
included grades, money, problems with siblings or friends, and household rules. Two
independent coders rated individual speeches in the task on one or more of 10 subscales.
Subscales are grouped into four classifications. Behaviors promoting autonomy included stating
reasons for disagreeing clearly and showing confidence in stating opinions. Behaviors coded as
inhibiting autonomy included recanting one’s own position, overpersonalizing the
disagreement/blurring the boundary between person and argument, and pressuring the other to
agree. Relatedness-promoting behaviors were actions such as making queries, validating,
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 14
agreeing, and being engaged in the interaction overall. Conversely, behaviors inhibiting
relatedness included distracting, ignoring, cutting the other off, and making hostile or devaluing
statements. See Appendix B for further information on individual scales. Each member of the
dyad received total scores on each of these four scales which were combined to create overall
negative autonomy/relatedness and overall positive autonomy/relatedness scales. Previous
research has found this coding system to be a reliable predictor of adolescent functioning and
overall family functioning (Allen, Hauser, Bell, & O’Connor, 1994). Interrater reliability was
determined for the scales using intraclass correlations. Intraclass correlations for overall postive
autonomy/relatedness were .86 , and intraclass correlations for overall negative
autonomy/relatedness were .84.
Attachment to Parents and Peers. The Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA;
Armsden & Greenberg, 1989) was used to assess adolescents’ perceptions of their current parent
and peer relationships. Questions relating to parents and peers were administered separately.
See Appendix C for questions concerning relationships with parents and Appendix D for
questions concerning relationships with peers. For both types of relationship, the adolescents
rated 25 items on a 5-point Likert scale to determine levels of trust, communication, and
alienation as well as to generate a composite score of the overall quality of their relationships.
This composite measure has been shown to have good test-retest reliability and has been related
to other measures of family environment and teen psychosocial functioning (Armsden &
Greenberg, 1987). Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the total parental attachment scales in this
sample were .90 at wave 1 and .92 at wave 2. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the total peer
attachment scales in this sample were .92 at both waves.
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 15
Quality of Friendships. At both waves of data collection, adolescents and their friends
completed the 40-item Friendship Quality Questionnaire (FQQ; Parker & Asher, 1993). Each
statement is evaluated on a 5-point Likert scale with 1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly
agree. Items were grouped and averaged to yield six scales assessing different aspects of
friendship quality: validation and caring, help and guidance, companionship and recreation,
conflict and betrayal, conflict resolution, and intimate exchange. Only scales for companionship
and recreation and conflict resolution were used in the present study (see Appendix E). Items on
the companionship and recreation scale assessed the level of interaction between the pair (e.g.
“We do fun things together a lot.”). The conflict resolution scale measured the level of difficulty
in settling disagreements within the dyad (e.g. “We make up easily when we have a fight”).
Parker et al. (1993) found these scales to have good reliability and internal validity. Cronbach’s
alpha coefficents for the scales used in this study at wave 1 are .72 for teen report of
companionship and recreation, .65 for teen report of conflict resolution, .80 for peer report of
companionship and recreation, and .60 for peer report of conflict resolution. At wave 2,
Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were .81 for teen report of companionship and recreation, .72 for
teen report of conflict resolution, .83 for peer report of companionship and recreation, and .65 for
peer report of conflict resolution.
Social Competence. Self-report measures of adolescent social competence were obtained
at both waves using the Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents (Harter, 1988). Scales for close
friendship competence and social acceptance from this measure were used in the present study
(see Appendix F). The close friendship competence scale asks about the adolescents’ ability to
form and maintain close, intimate friendships in which they could share personal thoughts and
secrets (e.g., “Some people are able to make close friends - BUT – Other people find it hard to
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 16
make really close friends”). The social acceptance scale measures the teen’s perception of their
overall acceptance within their peer group and ability to make friends in general (e.g., “Some
teens do have a lot of friends – BUT – Some teens don’t have a lot of friends”). For each item,
adolescents first decided which side of the “BUT” was more descriptive of them. Next they rated
whether the chosen statement was “really true” or “sort of true.” This procedure yielded a 4point rating scale (i.e., “really true” on the right side of the “BUT” was scored as 4, while “really
true” on the left side of “BUT” was scored 1). Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the close
friendship scale were .66 at wave 1 and .72 at wave 2. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the
social acceptance scale were .80 at wave 1 and .76 at wave 2.
Withdrawal. Peer ratings of adolescents’ level of withdrawal were obtained using the
Pupil Evaluation Inventory (PEIP; Pekarik, Prinz, Liebert, Weintraub, & Neale, 1976). The
original inventory included scales for withdrawal, aggression, and likeability; however, only the
scale for withdrawal was used in this project (see Appendix G). Close friends were asked to rate
the teen’s behavior over the past six months. The measure consists of nine items rated on a 3
point Likert scale with 0 = not at all like him/her and 2 = a lot like him/her. Scores are averaged
to create a total withdrawal score. Higher ratings indicate higher levels of withdrawal. The scale
has been shown to be both reliable and valid in sociometric assessments of children’s social
behavior (Weintraub, Prinz, & Neale, 1978). Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the withdrawal
scale in this sample was .73 at wave 1.
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 17
Results
Preliminary Analyses
Sample Means.
Means and standard deviations for depression, measures of autonomy and relatedness,
and measures of friendship competence are presented in Table 1. Depressed mood in the overall
sample showed a small decrease between wave 1 and wave 2 (t(174) = -3.34, p < .001). Most
variables assessing friendship quality did not change significantly from wave 1 to wave 2. Only
levels of perceived social acceptance increased from wave 1 to wave 2 (t(154) = 1.99, p < .05).
Insert Table 1 about here
Demographics.
All outcome variables were examined for potential effects of gender, minority status, and
total family income. Minority status for this sample was defined as selecting an option other
than “Caucasian” on a measure of ethnic identity. Estimated total family income was obtained
from the mother during the first wave of data collection. No significant effects of gender,
minority status, or family income were found for overall depressed mood. Moderate effects of
both minority status and family income were noted for behaviors promoting autonomy and
relatedness, but only small effects of gender and minority status were found for behaviors
undermining autonomy and relatedness. Gender was correlated with several of the friendship
competence measures at both wave 1 and wave 2. Correlations are presented in appendix F for
descriptive purposes. Demographic variables will be entered as covariates in the regression
analyses below when they are related to the outcome variable of interest.
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 18
Adolescents without Friends.
Analyses were conducted for the current sample to examine differences between the
adolescents with a friend participating at both waves of data collection and the adolescents who
were unable to nominate a friend who could participate at the second wave (N = 11). Results for
depression at wave 1 and wave 2 indicated that the teens without friends at wave 2 were not
significantly different in terms of depression at either point of data collection. Similarly, the
teens who had not had a friend return for the second wave visit were not seen as different in
terms of withdrawal and had similar overall levels of friendship quality.
Primary Analyses
Correlations.
Initial analyses examined zero-order correlations between depressed mood and the scales
for autonomy and relatedness in the mother-child dyad and for close friendship competence.
These correlations are presented for descriptive purposes in Table 2. Moderate correlations were
found both across measures and across time. These correlations are examined further in the
primary regression analyses below.
Insert Table 2 about here
Hypothesis 1.
Depressed mood and overall negative autonomy and relatedness toward the mother. To
test the hypothesis that adolescents who fail to establish autonomy and maintain relatedness may
be at increased risk of developing symptoms of depression, an index score of negative autonomy
and relatedness was used to predict depressed mood at wave 2 after accounting for the level of
depressed mood at wave 1. Given the stability of tendencies toward depressed mood over time,
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 19
accounting for initial levels of depressed mood allows us to examine the adolescents’
undermining if their own autonomy and relatedness as a predictor of relative change in depressed
mood. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that overall negative autonomy and relatedness
accounted for approximately 7% of the variance in depression at time 2 (Table 3). Therefore,
having an overall style of undermining autonomy while failing to establish a sense of relatedness
predicted a change in number of reported symptoms of depressed mood over time ( = .26, p 
.01).
Insert Table 3 about here
A significant interaction between total negative autonomy and relatedness score and
overall depressed mood at time 1 was also discovered. After accounting for the effects of
depression at time 1 and total negative autonomy and relatedness, an interaction term was added
to the hierarchical regression. Analyses indicated that the interaction between depression and
negative autonomy and relatedness accounted for 3% of the variance above the effect of
autonomy and relatedness alone (Table 3). A graphical representation of the interaction is
provided in Figure 1. For adolescents who did not report high levels of depression at time 1,
interaction style with the mother did not affect depression at time 2. However, for adolescents
who reported higher levels of depression at wave 1, undermining autonomy and relatedness
seemed to have a larger impact on depressed mood at wave 2 ( = .17, p  .05).
Insert Figure 1 about here
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 20
Hypothesis 2.
Peer reports of withdrawal and depressed mood. To examine the predictive relationship
between social withdrawal and depressed mood, a hierarchical regression analysis was conducted
to predict depressed mood at wave 2 from peer reports of withdrawal while accounting for
depressed mood at wave 1. Overall, peer reports of withdrawal predicted approximately 2% of
the variance in depressed mood at wave 2 (Table 4). Being seen by peers as being withdrawn
predicts being more depressed over time ( = .14, p  .05).
Insert Table 4 about here
Conflict resolution in close friendships and depressed mood. To test the relationship
between ability to resolve conflicts with a close friend and overall depressed mood, a
hierarchical regression analysis was used to predict depression at time 2 from the teen’s report of
the level of conflict resolution with their best friend while controlling for the level of depression
at wave 1. Conflict resolution scores uniquely predicted about 2% of the variance in depressed
mood at time 2 (Table 5). Thus, lower levels of conflict resolution in close friendships may, to a
small degree, predict changes in depressed mood over time ( = -.13, p  .05).
Insert Table 5 about here
Hypothesis 3.
Depressed mood and companionship with close friends. To examine the hypothesis that
depression predicts changes in the level of recreation with close friends, close peer reported
levels of companionship and recreation in the relationship were examined through hierarchical
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 21
regression analyses. Peer report of companionship at wave 2 was predicted from teen reports of
level of depressed mood at wave 1 while controlling for reports of companionship at wave 1
(Table 6). Overall, depressed mood predicted about 7% of the variance in companionship
reported by the close friend at wave 2. Therefore, higher levels of depression predict less
companionship felt by close peers over time ( = -.24, p  .01).
Insert Table 6 about here
Depressed mood and self-report of close friendship competence. To test the hypothesis
that depression leads adolescents to feel they are less able to have close friendships, a
hierarchical regression analysis was used to predict beliefs about overall close friendship
competence from depression at time 1 while controlling for minority status and perceived close
friendship competence at time 1 (Table 7). Results indicate that depression at time 1 predicted
3% of the variance in close friendship competence at time 2. Thus, higher levels of depression
may, to a small degree, predict changes in perceived close friendship competence over time ( =
-.19, p  .05).
Insert Table 7 about here
Depressed mood and self-report of social acceptance. To further explore the hypothesis
that depression predicts change in beliefs about overall social competence, a hierarchical
regression analysis was used to predict beliefs about overall social acceptance from depression at
time 1 while controlling for perceived social acceptance at time 1 (Table 8). Results indicate that
depression at time 1 predicted 4% of the variance in close friendship competence at time 2.
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 22
Thus, higher levels of depression may, to a small degree, predict changes in perceived close
friendship competence over time ( = -.20, p  .01).
Insert Table 8 about here
In addition, an interaction between perceived social acceptance at time 1 and depressed
mood also appeared to have a predictive relationship with social acceptance at time 2. Social
acceptance at time 2 was predicted from the interaction of social acceptance at time 1 and
depressed mood at time 1 after accounting for initial levels of social acceptance and depressed
mood. The interaction accounted for an additional 2% of the change in perceived social
acceptance over time. Thus, a total of 6% of the change in perceived social acceptance could be
accounted for by depressed mood at time 1 and the interaction of depressed mood and perceived
social acceptance at time 1 (Table 8). Adolescents with lower levels of perceived social
acceptance and higher levels of depressed mood at time 1 exhibited lower levels of perceived
social acceptance at time 2 compared to adolescents with lower levels of depressed mood.
Adolescents with higher levels of perceived social acceptance at time 1 showed little variance in
perceived social acceptance at time 2 regardless of depressed mood ( = .15, p  .05; Figure 2).
Insert Figure 2 about here
Discussion
In this study, associations between depressed mood and relationships with parents and
peers were reported. Difficulties in establishing an autonomous stance in disagreements with the
mother while maintaining a sense of relatedness during a disagreement was found to predict
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 23
changes in depression over time. Having difficulties in both areas overall was associated with
having even greater depressed mood in children with a prior history of depressed mood.
Problems in resolving conflicts with friends and becoming more withdrawn from friends only
slightly predicted changes in depression over time; however, depressed mood predicted changes
in perceptions of close friendship competence and overall social acceptance as well as level of
companionship reported by a close friend.
Parental Relationships
Based on previous work by Allen, Hauser, Eickholt, et al. (1996) with an at-risk sample
of older adolescents, it was hypothesized that difficulties in negotiating conflicts with the mother
would predict changes in depression over time. In the present sample, difficulties in both
establishing autonomy and maintaining relatedness predicted changes in depression over time.
For adolescents with higher levels of depressed mood at the beginning of the study, exhibiting
negative autonomy and relatedness behaviors was associated with higher levels of depressed
mood at the second point of data collection. Adolescents who reported fewer symptoms of
depression at wave 1 demonstrated less change in depressed mood relative to undermining
autonomy and relatedness with their mothers. Unsuccessfully negotiating the developmental
task of establishing autonomy while maintaining relatedness appears to have an impact on
psychosocial functioning even in early adolescence.
One explanation for this relationship is that difficulties in establishing autonomy and
relatedness arise from underlying beliefs about relationships gained from the mother during early
stages of development. Difficulties in negotiating conflict are thought to be related to underlying
views of relationships learned through the early attachment relationship with the mother (Allen
& Land, 1999). In fact, research has shown that infant attachment strategies are strongly related
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 24
to later expressions of autonomy and relatedness in interactions with the parents (Becker-Stoll &
Fremmer-Bombik, 1997). These early attachment relationships provide the adolescent with a
basis for expectations within relationships. Insecure attachments to the mother arise when the
mother does not adequately respond to the infant’s needs. Both dismissing and preoccupied
attachment strategies have been linked to problems with psychosocial functioning (cf. Allen &
Land, 1999). Underlying preoccupations with attachment figures are thought to lead to failures
to learn to regulate negative affect (Rosenstein & Horowitz, 1996). In adolescence, these
preoccupied strategies may tend to lead to behaviors aimed at attracting attention from the
caregiver while allowing expression of anger and resentment. Thus, adolescents who are acting
on these preoccupations with attachment would be expected to show higher rates of depressive
symptoms due to deficits in self-regulation.
Peer Relationships
Since relationships with peers gain increasing importance in adolescence (Buhrmester,
1996) and interpersonal difficulties have been previously associated with depression (Reinherz et
al., 1999), it was also hypothesized that problems in peer relationships would also predict
changes in depression. In the current study, teens who reported greater difficulties in negotiating
conflicts with close friends tended to report more depression over time. Similarly, teens who
were seen by their friends as more withdrawn subsequently reported more depression over time,
although this relationship was small. Although these associations are relatively small, it seems
that the adolescents who become more depressed are the adolescents who have more difficulties
in relating to friends overall. This may occur because adolescents who have had problems
relating with parents may carry those expectations and behaviors into relationships with friends.
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 25
Alternately, through negative interactions with close friends, adolescents may gain further
negative views of the self, leading to later increased feelings of depressed mood.
The relationship between peer relationships and depressed mood was also examined in
the opposite direction, using depressed mood to predict changes in quality of friendships over
time. In the present sample of early adolescents, depression predicted changes in selfperceptions of close friendship competence and social acceptance. For adolescents who saw
themselves as less socially accepted at wave 1, also showing high levels of depressed mood at
wave 1 was associated with less social acceptance at wave 2 compared to those showing lower
levels of depressed mood at time 1. One possible explanation for the predictive relationship
between perceptions of friendship competence and depressed mood is that teens experiencing
higher levels of depression also experience more negative beliefs and expectations about their
environments. Alternately, these results may also reflect underlying difficulties in relating to
others as a result of expressed symptoms of depressed mood.
Depressed mood in early adolescents also predicted changes in their friends’ reports of
companionship and recreation in the dyad. Adolescents reporting higher levels of depressed
mood are seen by their close friends as spending less time together and engaging in fewer
recreational activities. This could be a result of tendencies to draw away from relationships
when depressed. Depression has been widely associated with greater withdrawal from social
interaction (Reynolds & Johnston, 1994). Additionally, lower ratings of companionship by peers
could also reflect, to some degree, a greater dissatisfaction with the relationship overall as a
result of the depressive symptoms.
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 26
Limitations
While this study does provide support for the link between depressed mood and personal
relationships in early adolescence, several limitations to this study should be addressed. The
results suggest that parental and peer relationships have a predictive relationship with depression,
however, personal relationships are only one aspect of the overall picture of depression.
Additionally, even though depressed mood, quality of relationships with the mother, and quality
of friendships were assessed over time, the predictive relationships found were correlational in
nature. Thus, the direction of the effects cannot be assumed. It is also possible that a third
variable could be, in part, responsible for the effects noted.
Secondly, because the participants in the study were recruited from the community to
participate in a project investigating relationships in adolescence, teens with higher levels of
depressed mood, greater conflict with parents, or difficulties in relating to peers may have been
less likely to volunteer for participation. Overall levels of depressed mood in the current sample
either did not differ significantly or were slightly lower than levels reported for non-depressed
control populations (e.g. Armsden, McCauley, Greenberg, Burke, & Mitchell, 1990; Sanders,
Dadds, Johnston, & Cash, 1992). Levels of self-reported attachment to peers were higher than
previously reported for typical adolescents (Armsden & Greenberg, 1987; Armsden et al., 1990)
as were levels of companionship (Parker & Asher, 1993). These deficits could point to a greater
recruitment rate for children with fewer problems relating to friends. However, given that the
results found are for a sample with comparatively high social functioning, it would be expected
that they would also hold for adolescents reporting lower quality relationships with friends.
Further research is needed to explore the associations between depressed mood and personal
relationships in broader samples of adolescents.
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 27
Overall Implications
Overall, the results from this study present an important view of depressed mood and
psychosocial functioning in early adolescence. Teens who are having greater difficulties relating
to both parents and peers seem to report more changes in depression over time. Depression, in
turn, seems to have an effect on the adolescents’ perceptions of their own social abilities.
Adolescents with higher rates of depression also seem to withdraw from close friendships as
indicated by lower ratings of companionship by peers.
Although gender has been widely associated with development of depression in
adolescence (e.g., Hankin, et al., 1998; Nolen-Hoeksema & Girgus, 1994; Wichstrøm, 1999), no
effects of gender were found for depressed mood in this study. Before puberty, rates of
depression in children are almost equal for males and females with males experiencing slightly
more depressed symptoms than females (Nolen-Hoeksema, Girgus, & Seligman, 1991). During
early adolescence, girls begin to exhibit slightly more depression (Hankin, et al., 1998) and by
late adolescence girls are almost twice as likely to be depressed (Nolen-Hoeksema & Girgus,
1994). Research has associated girls’ risk for developing depressive symptoms as compared to
boys’ risk to poorer relationships with parents and increased interpersonal vulnerabilities
(Leadbeater, Kuperminc, Blatt, & Hertzog, 1999). Thus, it would be expected that as
adolescents move from early to middle adolescence, gender differences would become more
important and the associations between psychosocial functioning and depressed mood would be
different for males and females. Further research is needed to explore the relationships between
gender, psychosocial functioning, and depressed mood in the transition from early to middle
adolescence.
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 28
Depression is also found to be highly comorbid with other internalizing and externalizing
disorders in childhood and adolescence, especially with anxiety (cf. Reynolds & Johnston, 1994).
Comorbidity of internalizing disorders is often indicative of more severe deficits in overall
functioning, and it is theorized that anxiety may actually precede depression in many cases
(Seligman & Ollendick, 1998). Research suggests that problems in psychosocial functioning
may not be entirely specific to depression. Self-consciousness, self-esteem, and decreases in
activities have all been related specifically to depression while other aspects of psychosocial
functioning were only slightly more related to depression than other disorders (Lewinsohn,
Gotlib, & Seeley, 1997). Further research is needed to determine whether the associations
between relationships and depressed mood reported here are specific to depression or if they are
also found for other forms of disorder.
This study establishes the relationship between undermining autonomy and relatedness in
disagreements with the mother and later depressed mood as well as the relationship between
quality of friendships with peers and depressed mood. The relationships supported here provide
important information on developmental and psychosocial processes associated with depressed
mood in early adolescence. However, there are still many questions for further research to
examine regarding the development and importance of psychosocial functioning in early
adolescence. Future research is needed to determine at what age autonomy and relatedness first
becomes a predictor of change in depressed mood and what developmental processes lead to its
increasing importance. Future research is also needed to explore the relationship between peers
and negative affect as children transition from late childhood to early adolescence.
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 29
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Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 37
Appendix A
Childhood Depression Inventory
Directions: Kids sometimes have different feelings and ideas. From each of the group of three
sentences pick one sentence that describes you best in the past two weeks. There is no right or
wrong answer. Circle your choice.
1
0
1
2
I am sad once in a while.
I am sad many times.
I am sad all the time.
2
0
1
2
Nothing will ever work out for me.
I am not sure if things will work out for me.
Things will work out for me OK.
3
0
1
2
I do most things OK.
I do many things wrong.
I do everything wrong.
4
0
1
2
I have fun in many things.
I have fun in some things.
Nothing is fun at all.
5
0
1
2
I am bad all the time.
I am bad many times
I am bad once in a while.
6
0
1
2
I think about bad things happening to me once in a while.
I worry that bad things will happen to me.
I am sure that terrible things will happen to me.
7
0
1
2
I hate myself.
I do not like myself.
I like myself.
8
0
1
2
All bad things are my fault.
Many bad things are my fault.
Bad things are not usually my fault.
9
0
1
2
I do not think about killing myself.
I think about killing myself but I would not do it.
I want to kill myself.
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 38
10
0
1
2
I feel like crying every day.
I feel like crying many days.
I feel like crying once in a while.
11
0
1
2
Things bother me all the time.
Things bother me many times.
Things bother me once in a while.
12
0
1
2
I like being with people.
I do not like being with people many times.
I do not want to be with people at all.
13
0
1
2
I cannot make up my mind about things.
It is hard to make up my mind about things.
I make up my mind about things easily.
14
0
1
2
I look OK.
There are some bad things about my looks.
I look ugly.
15
0
1
2
I have to push myself all the time to do my schoolwork.
I have to push myself many times to do my schoolwork.
Doing schoolwork is not a big problem.
16
0
1
2
I have trouble sleeping every night.
I have trouble sleeping many nights.
I sleep pretty well.
17
0
1
2
I am tired once in a while.
I am tired many days.
I am tired all the time.
18
0
1
2
Most days I do not feel like eating.
Many days I do not feel like eating.
I eat pretty well.
19
0
1
2
I do not worry about aches and pains.
I worry about aches and pains many times.
I worry about aches and pains all the time.
20
0
1
2
I do not feel alone.
I feel alone many times.
I feel alone all the time.
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 39
21
0
1
2
I never have fun at school.
I have fun at school only once in a while.
I have fun in school many times.
22
0
1
2
I have plenty of friends.
I have some friends but I wish that I had some more.
I do not have any friends.
23
0
1
2
My schoolwork is alright.
My schoolwork is not as good as before.
I do very badly in subjects I used to be good in.
24
0
1
2
I can never be as good as other kids.
I can be as good as other kids if I want to.
I am just as good as other kids.
25
0
1
2
Nobody really loves me.
I am not sure if anybody loves me.
I am sure that somebody loves me.
26
0
1
2
I usually do what I am told.
I do not do what I am told most times.
I never do what I am told.
27
0
1
2
I get along with people.
I get into fights many times.
I get into fights all the time.
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 40
Appendix B
Summary of Autonomy and Relatedness Coding Guidelines
Specific Scale
Definitions and Guidelines for Coding
Promoting Autonomy
A. States reasons clearly for
disagreeing
Assesses use of reasoning by scoring the clarity, specificity, and
thoroughness of points supporting the speaker’s position.
C. Confidence in stating
thoughts and opinions
Assesses global level of confidence in the disagreement. Scores
reflect factors such as speaking out forcefully and confidently,
showing no signs of backing down, and asserting one’s position.
Undermining Autonomy
D. Recanting position
Assesses inhibition of arguments through statements which the
speaker doesn’t really mean and which serve to placate the other
person or calm the disagreement. Codes reflect both the degree to
which the speaker is convinced by the other side of the argument
and the level of ambiguity in the speaker’s agreement.
E. Blurs
Assesses the degree to which the speaker attempts to blur the
boundary between the person and the argument. Blurs include
enlisting an outside person as supporting the position,
characterizing the other person, forcing the other person to take
on a specific role, attacking the other person directly, asserting
personal limits by pleading helplessness or invoking guilt, and
using the self or the other person as an example.
F. Pressures other to agree
Assesses the degree to which the speaker attempts to pressure the
other person to change his/her mind by making it uncomfortable
for him/her to maintain the original position.
Exhibiting Relatedness
G. Queries
Assesses the degree to which the speaker asks questions and
makes statements that show a genuine interest in what the other
person is saying.
H. Validates/agrees/positively
reacts to other person
Assesses the degree to which the speaker reacts positively to the
other person and validates him/her. Examples of this include
directly agreeing with the other person, stating/implying that
his/her statements are interesting and insightful, laughing at jokes,
and complimenting.
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 41
I. Engaged interaction
Assesses the overall level of engagement with the other person
exhibited by both verbal and non-verbal communication of
interest.
Undermining Relatedness
J. Distracting/ignoring/cutting
off
Assesses the degree to which the speaker communicates a lack of
interest in what the other person is saying.
K. Hostile or devaluing
statements
Assesses the degree to which the speaker makes statements that
attack the other person and are intended to hurt or annoy .
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 42
Appendix C
Inventory of Peer and Parent Attachment (Parent Version)
Directions: This section asks about your feelings about your relationship with your mother
figure. Please read each of the following statements and circle the number for the response that
best describes how you feel about your mother figure.
Example:
She picks me up from school
every day.
Not
Sometimes
Sometimes
Usually
True
True
Sometimes
Not True
True
True
Not True
Sometimes
True
1. I like to get her point of view on things I’m
concerned about.
2. She can tell when I’m upset about something.
1
Almost
Always True
Usually
True
Almost
Always
True
2
Sometimes
True,
Sometimes
Not True
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
3. When we discuss things, she cares about my point
of view.
4. Talking over my problems with her makes me feel
ashamed or foolish.
5. I wish I had a different parent.
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
6. She understands me.
1
2
3
4
5
7. She helps me to talk about my difficulties.
1
2
3
4
5
8. She accepts me as I am.
1
2
3
4
5
9.I feel the need to be in touch with her more often.
1
2
3
4
5
10. She doesn’t understand what I’m going through
these days.
11. I feel alone or apart when I’m with her.
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
12. She listens to what I have to say.
1
2
3
4
5
13. I feel she is a good parent.
1
2
3
4
5
14. She is fairly easy to talk to.
1
2
3
4
5
15. When I am angry about something she tries to
listen.
16. She helps me to understand myself better.
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
17. She cares about how I am.
1
2
3
4
5
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 43
18. I feel angry with her.
1
2
3
4
5
19. I can count on her when I need to get something
off my chest.
20. I trust her.
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
21. She respects my feelings.
1
2
3
4
5
22. I get upset a lot more than she knows about.
1
2
3
4
5
23. It seems as if she is irritated with me for no
reason.
24. I can tell her about my problems and troubles.
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
25. If she knows something is bothering me, she asks
me about it.
1
2
3
4
5
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 44
Appendix D
Inventory of Peer and Parent Attachment (Peer Version)
Directions: These questions ask about your feelings about your friendships in general. Please read each
of the following statements and circle your choice.
Not
True
Usually
Not
True
Sometimes
True,
Sometimes
Not
Usually
True
Almost
Always
True
1. I like to get my friends’ point of view on things
I’m concerned about.
1
2
3
4
5
2. My friends can tell when I’m upset about
something.
1
2
3
4
5
3. When we discuss things, my friends care about
my point
of view.
1
2
3
4
5
4. Talking over my problems, my friends make me
feel
ashamed or foolish.
1
2
3
4
5
5. I wish I had different friends.
1
2
3
4
5
6. My friends understand me.
1
2
3
4
5
7. My friends help me to talk about my difficulties.
1
2
3
4
5
8. My friends accept me as I am.
1
2
3
4
5
9. I feel the need to be in touch with my friends
more often.
1
2
3
4
5
10. My friends don’t understand what I’m going
through
these days.
1
2
3
4
5
11. I feel alone or apart when I’m with my friends.
1
2
3
4
5
12. My friends listen to what I have to say.
1
2
3
4
5
13. I feel my friends are good friends.
1
2
3
4
5
14. My friends are fairly easy to talk to.
1
2
3
4
5
15. When I am angry about something, my friends
try to
listen.
1
2
3
4
5
16. My friends help me to understand myself better.
1
2
3
4
5
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 45
17. My friends care about how I am.
1
2
3
4
5
18. I feel angry with my friends.
1
2
3
4
5
19. I can count on my friends when I need to get
something
off my chest.
1
2
3
4
5
20. I trust my friends.
1
2
3
4
5
21. My friends respect my feelings.
1
2
3
4
5
22. I get upset a lot more than my friends know
about.
1
2
3
4
5
23. It seems as if my friends are irritated with me for
no
reason.
1
2
3
4
5
24. I can tell my friends about my problems and
troubles.
1
2
3
4
5
25. If my friends know something is bothering me,
he/she
asks me about it.
1
2
3
4
5
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 46
Appendix E
Friendship Quality Questionnaire Scales
Companionship and Recreation:
Directions: For each item, decide how true the statement is for your friendship with your friend here with
you today. Circle your choice.
Not At
All
True
A Little
True
Somewhat
True
Pretty
True
Really
True
1. We always spend free time at school together.
1
2
3
4
5
6. We always pick each other as partners for
things.
1
2
3
4
5
18. We do fun things together a lot.
1
2
3
4
5
21. We go to each others’ houses.
1
2
3
4
5
22. We always play together or hang out together.
1
2
3
4
5
Conflict Resolution:
Directions: For each item, decide how true the statement is for your friendship with your friend here with
you today. Circle your choice.
Not At
All
True
A Little
True
Somewhat
True
Pretty
True
Really
True
10. We talk about how to get over being mad at
each other.
1
2
3
4
5
25. We make up easily when we have a fight.
1
2
3
4
5
34. We get over our arguments really quickly.
1
2
3
4
5
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 47
Appendix F
Harter Self-Perception Profile Scales
Social Acceptance:
Directions: For each question, read the two statements. Decide which statement you think is most like you. Then decide if the
statement is really true for you or sort of true for you, and put an X on the line for that choice. You should only mark one X for
each numbered item. If you have any questions, please ask the interviewer.
Really
True for
Me
Sort of
True
For Me
Sort of
True
for Me
Really
true for
Me
3. _____
_____
Some teens find it hard to
make friends
BUT
for other teens it’s pretty easy.
_____
______
16. ____
_____
Some teens have a lot of
friends
BUT
Other teens don’t have very
many friends.
_____
_______
41. ____
_____
Some teens are popular with
other kids their age
BUT
Other teens are not very
popular with kids their age.
_____
_______
51. ____
_____
Some teens feel that they are
accepted by other kids their
age
BUT
Other teens wish that more
kids their age accepted them.
_____
_______
Close Friendship Competence:
Directions: For each question, read the two statements. Decide which statement you think is most like you. Then decide if the
statement is really true for you or sort of true for you, and put an X on the line for that choice. You should only mark one X for
each numbered item. If you have any questions, please ask the interviewer.
Really
True for
Me
Sort of
True
For Me
Sort of
True
for Me
Really
true for
Me
9.___
____
Some teens are able to make
close friends
BUT
Other teens find it hard to
make close friends.
_____
_______
22.____
____
Some teens do have a close
friend they share secrets with
BUT
Other teens don’t have a close
friend they can share secrets
with.
_____
_______
34. ____
_____
Some teens wish they had a
really close friend to share
things with
BUT
Other teens do have a really
close friend to share things
with.
_____
_______
53. ____
_____
Some teens don’t have a
friend that is close enough to
share really personal thoughts
with
Other teens do have a close
friend that they can share
personal thoughts and feelings
with.
_____
______
BUT
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 48
Appendix G
Pupil Evaluation Inventory
Directions: Below is a list of items that describe kids. For each item that describes your friend here with
you today, now or within the past 6 months. Please answer all of the items as well as you can, even if
some do not seem to apply to your friend. Circle your choice.
Not True
Somewhat or
Sometimes
True
Very Often or
Often True
1. She is too shy to make friends easily.
0
1
2
2. Her feelings are too easily hurt.
0
1
2
3. She never seems to be having a good time.
0
1
2
4. She is upset when called on to answer questions in
class.
0
1
2
5. She is usually chosen last in group activities.
0
1
2
6. She has very few friends.
0
1
2
7. She is unhappy or sad.
0
1
2
8. She often doesn’t want to hang out (or do things with
other kids).
0
1
2
9. She isn’t noticed much.
0
1
2
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 49
Appendix H
Correlations of Demographic Variables to Variables of Interest
Variable
Depressed mood
Wave 1
Wave 2
Autonomy and relatedness
Teen’s negative A/R
Teen’s positive A/R
Quality of relationship with mother
Wave 1
Wave 2
Friendship quality at wave 1 (teen report)
Companionship and recreation
Conflict resolution
Close friendship
Social acceptance
Attachment to peers
Friendship quality at wave 2 (teen report)
Companionship and recreation
Conflict resolution
Close friendship
Social acceptance
Attachment to peers
Friendship quality at wave 1 (peer report)
Withdrawal
Companionship and recreation
Conflict Resolution
Friendship quality at wave 2 (peer report)
Companionship and recreation
Conflict resolution
*** p<.001 **p<.01 *p<.05 +p<.10
Gender
r
-.01
0
Minority Status
r
-.05
-.05
Total Income
r
-.10
-.03
.20*
-.04
.15+
.34***
.03
.36***
.03
-.13
.03
0
.04
.03
-.05
.10
.03
-.02
.19**
.19*
.14+
.14+
0
.15*
.09
.28***
.05
.11
.21**
.25**
.22**
.11
-.09
.28***
.22**
.16*
-.16*
-.04
.12
.01
.10
-.10
0
.03
.08
-.01
.16*
-.02
.11
.06
-.09
.10
.14+
.05
.15+
.12
.10
.02
.02
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 50
Table 1
Means and Standard Deviations
Time 1
Time 2
Variable
M
SD
M
SD
6.64
5.53
5.61
5.25
Negative autonomy and relatedness
0.60
0.47
--
--
Positive autonomy and relatedness
1.80
0.62
--
--
77.71
11.31
73.88
10.84
102.51
13.87
103.28
13.01
Companionship and recreation
19.76
3.87
20.16
4.14
Conflict resolution
11.36
2.87
11.42
2.82
Close friendship competence
14.05
2.35
13.93
2.72
Social acceptance
13.07
2.90
13.42
2.60
Companionship and recreation
19.55
4.49
19.56
4.38
Conflict resolution
11.46
2.73
11.26
2.80
0.23
0.27
--
Depressed mood
Relationship with mother
Quality of relationship
Relationship with peers (teen report)
Total attachment to peers
Relationship with peers (peer report)
Withdrawal
Note: Dashes indicate data were not available at wave 2.
--
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 51
Table 2.
Zero Order Correlations of Variables Used
1
2
3
Depressed Mood
1. Wave 1
2. Wave 2
.54***
Autonomy &
Relatedness
3. Teen Neg. A/R
.09
.30**
4. Teen Pos. A/R
-.14
.05
0
Relationship with
Mother
5. Wave 1
-.47***
-.35*** -.17+
6. Wave 2
-.31***
-.38*** -.22*
Wave 1 Friendship
(Tn Rpt)
7. Attachment to
-.40***
-.23**
0
Peers
8. Conflict
-.19*
-.23**
-.07
Resolution
9. Companionship
-.23**
-.12
-.11
10. Close
-.25***
-.24**
-.07
Friendship
11. Social
-.34***
-.29*** -.16
Acceptance
Wave 2 Friendship
(Tn Rpt)
12. Attachment to
-.37***
-.28*** -.04
Peers
13. Conflict
-.19*
-.17*
.01
Resolution
14. Companionship
-.23**
-.27*** -.08
15. Close
-.27***
-.26*** -.02
Friendship
16. Social
-.37***
-.43*** -.11
Acceptance
Wave 1 Friendship
(Peer Rpt)
17. Withdrawal
.10
.19*
.25**
18. Conflict
.06
.10
.07
Resolution
19. Companionship
.02
-.02
-.12
Wave 2 Friendship
(Peer Rpt)
20. Conflict
-.10
.001
.01
Resolution
21. Companionship
-.23**
-.07
-.10
*** p < .001 ** p < .01 * p < .05 + p < .10
4
.11
-.14
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
.60***
.24*
.37***
.15+
.32***
.27***
.19*
.45***
.22*
.23*
.14+
.12
.16+
-.01
.41***
.32***
.51***
.17+
.26**
.04
.12
.07
.22**
.03
.34***
.38***
.14
.32***
.33***
.55***
.28***
.29***
.25**
.23**
.16+
.15+
.09
.41***
.38***
.39***
.21**
.08
.54***
.25**
.02
.17*
.08
.06
.21*
.35***
.27***
.32***
.19*
.54***
.19*
.17*
.33***
.29***
.18*
.44***
.48***
.54***
.34***
.36***
-.02
.17*
.31***
.21**
.18*
.25**
.31***
.59***
.43***
.24**
.27***
.01
-.02
.01
-.16*
.03
-.16+
0
-.05
-.06
.16*
.25**
.02
-.04
-.03
.03
.09
.13
.08
.13
-.12
.10
-.11
.20**
-.19*
.16*
-.10
.06
-.13+
-.08
-.09
.09
-.09
.21**
.55***
.06
.09
-.03
.12
0
.02
.06
.09
.11
.14+
.36***
.06
.28***
.23**
-.15+
.05
.45***
-.01
.05
-.18*
.01
-.14+
.29***
.05
.08
-.16*
.11
.20*
.17*
.06
.20*
.30***
.62***
.26**
.20*
-.01
.40***
.11
.10
-.03
.27**
.46***
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 52
Table 3.
Predicting Depressed Mood at Wave 2 from Negative Autonomy and Relatedness
Hierarchical Regression Results

R2
R2
1. Depressed mood at wave 1
.42***
.18
2. Negative autonomy and relatedness
.26**
.25
.07
3. Depressed mood X negative autonomy/relatedness
.17*
.28
.03
Note: ’s are from entry into the model. N = 117.
***p < .001 **p < .01 *p < .05
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 53
Table 4.
Predicting Depressed Mood at Wave 2 from Peer Report of Withdrawal
Hierarchical Regression Results

R2
1. Depressed mood at wave 1
.54***
.30
2. Peer report of withdrawal
.14*
.32
Note: ’s are from entry into the model. N = 172.
***p < .001 **p < .01 *p < .05
R2
.02
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 54
Table 5.
Predicting Depressed Mood at Wave 2 from Conflict Resolution
Hierarchical Regression Results
1. Depressed mood at wave 1
2. Conflict resolution with close friend
Note: ’s are from entry into the model. N = 173.
***p < .001 **p < .01 *p < .05

R2
.55***
.30
-.13*
.32
R2
.02
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 55
Table 6.
Predicting Peer Report of Companionship and Recreation at Wave 2
Hierarchical Regression Results
1. Companionship and recreation at wave 1
2. Depressed mood at wave 1
Note: ’s are from entry into the model. N = 136.
***p < .001 **p < .01 *p < .05

R2
.26**
.07
-.24**
.13
R2
.06
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 56
Table 7.
Predicting Teen Report of Close Friendship Competence at Wave 2
Hierarchical Regression Results

R2
1. Close Friendship Competence at Wave 1
.33***
.11
2. Minority Status
.26
.13
.02
-.19*
.16
.03
3. CDI Score at Wave 1
Note: ’s are from entry into the model. N = 154.
***p < .001 **p < .01 *p < .05
R2
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 57
Table 8.
Predicting Teen Report of Social Acceptance at Wave 2
Hierarchical Regression Results
1. Social acceptance at wave 1
2. Depressed mood at wave 1
3. Social acceptance X depressed mood
Note: ’s are from entry into the model. N = 154.
***p < .001 **p < .01 *p < .05

R2
.57***
.34
R2
-.20**
.38
.04
.15*
.40
.02
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 58
Figure 1. Interaction between depressed mood at wave 1 and level of undermining autonomy and
relatedness with the mother in predicting depressed mood at wave 2.
Wave 2 Depressed Mood
1
High Wave 1 Depressed Mood
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
Low Wave 1 Depressed Mood
-0.4
-0.6
Low
High
Undermining Autonomy and Relatedness
Depressed Mood in Early Adolescent Relationships 59
Figure 2. Interaction between perceived social acceptance at wave 1 and overall depressed mood
at wave 1 in predicting perceived social acceptance at wave 2.
Social Acceptance Wave 2
0.6
0.4
High Social Acceptance Wave 1
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
Low Social Acceptance Wave 1
-0.8
-1
Low
High
Depressed Mood Wave 2