Doppelgänger:
Sigmund Freud and Arthur Schnitzler in Turn of the Century Vienna
Sara Tapsak
Carleton College
March 2006
1
Though society may be seen as a reflection of the people who are in it, Vienna at
the turn of the century can be considered a place in which the people were greatly
impacted by society. Sigmund Freud and Arthur Schnitzler are two men who were greatly
impacted by the Viennese culture in which they lived. They are two of the great
figureheads that emerged from Vienna at this time, eternally influencing both the fields of
psychology and literature. Though they can be compared in many respects and thought
about in similar ways, the two were never close. Freud actually considered Schnitzler to
be his Doppelgänger, or other half and one can never meet his Doppelgänger without the
consequence of death. 1 Despite the fact that they were never close, these two men are
undeniably linked by the pervasive façade that controlled the citizens of Vienna at the
time. Freud’s feelings about Schnitzler are expressed in a letter he wrote to him in 1922
in which he states:
”I have formed the impression…that you know through intuition—or
rather through detailed self-observation—everything that I have
discovered by laborious work on other people.” 2
While Freud struggled to develop his theory of psychoanalysis, Schnitzler appeared to
reach the same conclusions through his writing. The influences of love and death in
Vienna at the turn of the century can be seen in the psychoanalytic theory of Freud and
the literary works of Schnitzler, and therefore these men are a product of the society in
which they lived.
1
Paul Hofmann, The Viennese: Spendor, Twilight, and Exile (New York: Anchor Press
Doubleday, 1988), 211.
2
Hofmann, The Viennese: Spendor, Twilight, 212.
2
Before looking specifically at the lives and relationship of Sigmund Freud and
Arthur Schnitzler during turn of the century Vienna, it is important to briefly outline the
cultural context by which these men were influenced. Vienna at this time was a very
active place. There was an air of uncertainty that consumed Vienna and with it came
feelings of nervousness for the citizens of the city. The Tagblatt in 1889 wrote:
“Nervousness is the modern sickness…it is the sickness of the
century…outside, everything is gleam and gorgeousness. One lives only
on the outside, one is led astray by the dancing phosphorescence…one no
longer expects anything from the inner life, from thinking or believing.” 3
This illustrates perfectly the struggle that the citizens of Vienna endured to find a
resolution to the conflict of leading the glamorous life that was expected of them and the
nervousness caused by the unavoidable act of thinking. Frederic Morton further described
this struggle as follows:
“Only in Vienna had the bourgeoisie, this sustaining class of modernity,
been born so psychically frail. Here it sickened faster of the machines and
the depersonalizing schemes of its own making. And here it became
especially nervous at those rooting about in the malaise, namely artists and
thinkers.”4
The nervousness deeply rooted in the people of Vienna was an issue that inevitably could
not be avoided. This will be discussed in the context of Freud’s theory and seen in
Schnitzler’s writing.
3
Frederic Morton, A Nervous Splendor: Vienna 1888/1889 (New York: Penguin Books,
1980), 315.
4
Morton, A Nervous Splendor: Vienna 1888/1889, 315.
3
The Viennese along with this nervousness were dealing with a cultural identity
crisis of sorts. People were forced to deal with how society wanted them to act, as well as
the way they truly wanted to live and express themselves, two states often at odds with
one another. The younger generation in Vienna at the turn of the century, a category in
which Freud and Schnitzler would be placed, is described as:
“…free and glamorous in theory, crushingly impotent in action; freely
skeptical yet unable to establish one skeptic-proof premise; free to see
themselves as unbounded individuals without ever arriving at successful
individuality; free to press pleasure to numb excess; free to demand the
absolute of their senses and their ideals only to be failed by both,
overprivileged and hapless at once; free to sound the depths of
sophisticated frustration.”5
The struggle between opposing dyads of possibility profoundly affected the people of
Vienna. In the same moment, they possessed freedom to achieve contentment or even
happiness, but lacked the resolve to actually achieve either.
Finally, it was very difficult to be Jewish in Vienna at the turn of the century. For
Sigmund Freud and Arthur Schnitzler this specifically meant difficulties in professional
advancement. Many Jewish citizens as a result decided to convert to Catholicism, some
gave up religion completely, and some remained faithful to their Jewish faith. With the
appointment of anti-Semite Karl Lueger in 1897, Austrian liberalism lost its hold in
5
Morton, A Nervous Splendor: Vienna 1888/1889, 316.
4
Vienna entirely in only 3 years thereafter. 6 Steven Beller in his book, Rethinking Vienna
1900, describes turn of the century in relation to Judaism and Arthur Schnitzler saying:
“Schnitzler’s Vienna [is a] world of anxiety-ridden Jewish individuals,
whose lives have been cast adrift by the failure of liberalism to produce
the enlightened society promised by the ideology of emancipation, and
who are confronted with the need to respond to an anti-Semitic reality any
way they can.”7
One can make the argument that it is partially through their struggle of being Jewish in an
anti-Semitic society that Sigmund Freud and Arthur Schnitzler were driven to the success
that they eventually experienced.
In order to demonstrate the ways in which these two men are linked, it is
important to look at their personal histories, specifically the aspects that are parallel.
Sigmund Freud was born on May 6, 1856 to Jewish parents in Freiberg, Moravia, a part
of Austria-Hungary, which now belongs to the Czech Republic. When he was four years
old, his family moved to Vienna. Here Freud lived almost his entire life, until he had to
flee the Nazi threat in 1938 and moved with his family to London.8 In 1873, at the age of
17, Freud entered the University of Vienna to study medicine. An essay on nature written
by Goethe inspired him to pursue this academic field. Fifteen years later, in 1885, Freud
spent a semester in Paris working with Jean-Martin Charcot. After seeing Charcot’s
hysterical patients and his treatment methods, Freud came to believe that mental illness
6
Carl E. Schorske, Fin-de-siecle Vienna: Politics and Culture, (New York: Vintage
Books, 1981), 6.
7
Steven Beller, Rethinking Vienna 1900, (New York: Berghahn Books, 2001), 19.
8
David Yamanishi, “Freud Timeline,” July 20, 2004.
http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/classes/cluster21/wiki/index.pl?FreudTimeline (1/6/06).
5
might be caused not only by the brain, but by the mind as well. He was also inspired by
Charcot’s use of hypnosis. In the same year, Freud became a lecturer on neuropathology
at the University of Vienna. 9
In 1886, after a four-year engagement, Sigmund married Martha Bernays, who
was the daughter of a very affluent Jewish family in Vienna. In the same year, Freud set
up his private practice. Sigmund and Martha started their family and eventually had six
children. A year later Freud began treating patients with nervous diseases in his private
practice and started using hypnosis as a treatment method. After having worked with
Wilhelm Fleiss and Josef Breuer, Freud and his contemporaries discovered that having a
patient simply talk about his or her psychological ailments provided some relief. In 1896,
Freud began using the term psychoanalysis and decided that he must develop a complete
theory of the mind and began to do so by analyzing his own psyche.10 Freud’s father died
on October 23 of the same year and still trying to cope with his death, Freud started to
interpret his own dreams. The death of a father, in his own words is “the most important
event, the most poignant loss, of a man’s life.”11 This led to the eventual publication of
The Interpretation of Dreams in 1899. 12 For the next two decades Freud continued to
work, develop and publish his psychoanalytic theories. Devastatingly, Freud’s daughter,
Sophie died in 1920 from Influenza. The pandemic killed an estimated twenty million
David Yamanishi, “Freud Timeline,” July 20, 2004.
http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/classes/cluster21/wiki/index.pl?FreudTimeline (1/6/06).
10
David Yamanishi, “Freud Timeline,” July 20, 2004.
http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/classes/cluster21/wiki/index.pl?FreudTimeline (1/6/06).
11
Schorske, Fin-de-siecle Vienna: Politics and Culture, 186.
12
David Yamanishi, “Freud Timeline,” July 20, 2004.
http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/classes/cluster21/wiki/index.pl?FreudTimeline (1/6/06).
9
6
people throughout the world, including Vienna’s artists Gustav Klimt and Egon Schiele,
as well as architect Otto Wagner.13
Turning to Arthur Schnitzler, he was born on May 15, 1862 in Vienna. He was the
eldest son of Dr. Johann Schnitzler, a laryngologist, and Loiuse Markbreiter, daughter of
a wealthy Viennese Physician.14 Johann Schnitzler came from a Hungarian Jewish family
of modest means and moved to Vienna in order to make his fortune. Arthur Schnitzler
followed in his father’s footsteps, although unwillingly, and studied medicine at the
University of Vienna from 1879 to 1884. He received his doctoral degree in 1885,
specializing in laryngology, like his father. He joined the Vienna Polyclinic, which his
father started, and worked as a surgeon at the Vienna General Hospital. In 1886 he
became the assistant of psychiatrist, Theodor Meynert. Schnitzler, like Freud, was
interested in Meynert’s experiments with suggestion and hypnosis. Schnitzler also had a
great passion for literature. However, his literary ambition always competed with his
medical career, but with the death of his father in 1893, he turned towards writing though
he never gave up medicine completely. Schnitzler always felt a tremendous amount of
pressure from his father; he was the primary reason Schnitzler studied medicine. The
death of his father provided an opportunity for him to pursue his passion for writing.
Schnitzler was known for his many affairs with women throughout his life, who were
mostly with singers and actresses. However, in 1903 he married Viennese singer, Olga
Gussman, and they had two children, Heinrich and Lily. After years of fighting the
couple divorced in 1921, but remained in touch. A tremendous blow to Arthur Schnitzler
13
Hofmann, The Viennese: Spendor, Twilight, 162.
Petra Rau, University of Portsmouth. "Arthur Schnitzler." The Literary Encyclopedia.
17 Nov. 2003. The Literary Dictionary Company. 9 March 2006.
<http://www.litencyc.com/php/speople.php?rec=true&UID=5412>
14
7
came with the suicide of his daughter, Lily in 1928, a year after marrying an Italian
officer. She was only 18 years old.15
Through the accounts of both Freud and Schnitzler’s lives parallels between the
two men can be seen. Both men were Jewish in Vienna at the turn of the century. Both
men studied medicine and were affected professionally by their fathers. The death of
Freud’s father inspired him to write The Interpretation of Dreams, while Schnitzler’s
father was the reason he studied medicine and with his father’s death, Schnitzler was able
to pursue his literary career. Finally both men dealt with the unnatural and traumatic
event of losing a child. It is interesting to see the similarities between their personal lives
and then to see the similarities in their work as well.
Sigmund Freud is best known for his psychoanalytic theory, which he began
intensively focusing on and developing in 1896 after working with Wilhelm Fleiss and
Josef Breuer the year before. Freud developed his idea of the life and death instincts and
published them in Beyond the Pleasure Principle in 1905. He wanted to develop a theory
that was much removed from sexuality, since he had been criticized in the past for being
too sexual in his theories. Within this theory he combined his ideas of the conscious and
unconscious with the more structured components of the id, ego, and superego. The id
represents the human unconscious, including instinctual drives, the superego represents
the morals and values imposed by society, and the ego works to resolve conflicts caused
by the interaction of the id and the superego. Within in the framework of the id, Freud
determined that human beings are driven by two major instinctual drives. These two
15
Petra Rau, University of Portsmouth. "Arthur Schnitzler." The Literary Encyclopedia.
17 Nov. 2003. The Literary Dictionary Company. 9 March 2006.
<http://www.litencyc.com/php/speople.php?rec=true&UID=5412>
8
instinctual drives are in conflict with one another and while one is seeking gratification,
the other wants to return to the quiet of non-existence. The first instinct is Eros, which
encompasses the sexual instincts and works to preserve life.16 The second is Thanatos,
the death instinct, which is defined as “a drive toward destruction that can be turned
inward toward the self or toward the outside world in an aggressive way.”17 It is also seen
as the bodily instinct to return to the state of stillness that preceded birth. The idea of
destruction in conjunction with the death drive, explains why people are drawn to repeat
painful or traumatic events; even though these behaviors contradict the instinct one has to
seek pleasure. This idea allowed Freud to make sense of the human tendency towards
destruction, often including self-destructive tendencies.18 Further explanations of the
death drive clarify that “ every living being aspires to death by virtue of its most
fundamental internal tendency…the organism wants not simply to die, but to die in its
own way.”19 These instincts, according to psychoanalytic theory, are constantly at odds
within the human psyche, thus causing people to continually work to maintain a
psychological equilibrium. When that equilibrium is disrupted, according to Freud,
psychological disorders emerge.20
While Freud appeared to struggle with developing his psychoanalytic theory,
Schnitzler appeared to reach the same conclusions more naturally through literature. It is
16
Sigmund Freud, Beyond the Pleasure Principle (New York: W.W. Norton & Company
In., 1961), 30-32.
17
Michael St. Clair, Object Relations and Self Psychology: an Introduction (Belmont:
Brooks/Cole—Thomson Learning, 2004), 206.
18
David Yamanishi, “Freud Timeline,” July 20, 2004.
http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/classes/cluster21/wiki/index.pl?FreudTimeline (1/6/06).
19
Jean Laplanche, Life and death in Psychoanalysis (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
University Press, 1976), 107.
20
Freud, Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 6-7.
9
important to note that most literature on Schnitzler adamantly claims that he was not
attempting to connect his work with psychoanalysis in any way. However, the ways in
which he writes and the topics he discusses are indeed linked to psychoanalysis. In
response to Theodor Reik’s essay, Arthur Schnitzler as Psychologist, Schnitzler wrote a
letter, in which he asserts: “more paths [lead] into the darkness of the soul…than
psychoanalysts can dream of (or interpret).”21 Arthur Schnitzler clearly wanted to
distinguish himself from the field of psychology in his writing, arguing even that
literature was a better means of understanding human nature than psychoanalysis.
However, many critics maintain that a connection, whether desired or not exists. Despite
his assertions, Schnitzler’s medical training makes it abundantly clear that he was very
intrigued by psychological problems, specifically neurology, hypnosis, and suggestion. 22
In describing the work of Schnitzler, Martin Swales, professor of German at University
College in London, wrote:
“…one can easily imagine a psycho-analyst taking the stories as specific
case-histories whose documentation is sufficiently accurate and detailed
for an actual medical diagnosis to be made.”23
This psychoanalytic style can be seen in many works by Schnitzler, however, this
analysis will focus on only two of them: Traumnovelle and Fräulein Else.
Psychoanalysis can be generally categorized as a verbal form of therapy and this is
exactly what Schnitzler’s characters are often doing in his writing. He achieves this by
21
Beller, Rethinking Vienna 1900, 161.
Dagmar C. G. Lorenz, A Companion to the Works of Arthur Schnitzler, (New York:
Camden House, 2003), 131.
23
Martin Swales, Arthur Schnitzler: A critical study, (London: Oxford University Press,
1971), 120.
22
10
writing in a very stream of conscious manner, focusing on an “inward narration,”
illustrating the “case-history” style Martin Swales speaks of.
Traumnovelle was written in 1926 and examines sexual fantasy inside and outside
the confines of marriage. It is largely a commentary on the social norms of the time; the
relationship between the bourgeoisie world and the so-called “underworld” of pleasure.
Further, it deals with the idea of a multi-layered identity and the resolution of these
layers. Traumnovelle follows the steps of Doctor Fridolin as he engages in a journey of
self-discovery, by detailing his thoughts and psychological transformations.
Doctor Fridolin and his wife, Albertine appear to be a couple of upstanding morality and
class in Viennese society. However, their desire for other partners places great strain on
the couple’s marriage. The tension begins when Albertine admits to lusting for another
man when her and Doctor Fridolin were on vacation years ago. Being suddenly called
away, because of the death of a friend, Doctor Fridolin and Albertine do not fully resolve
this issue. Throughout the course of his evening, Doctor Fridolin is seduced by a series
of women and is increasingly tempted by each of them. The first is the daughter of the
man who had died, whom he dismisses fairly easily. The second is Mizzi, a prostitute he
meets on the street. Doctor Fridolin contemplates whether or not to engage in sexual
relations with the prostitute:
“—bin ich verrückt? Fragte er sich. Ich werde sie natürlich nicht
anrühren.”24
24
Arthur Schnitzler, Die Erzählenden Schriften: Zweiter Band, (Frankfurt am Mein:
Fischer Verlag, 1961), 449. Translation by Otto P. Schinnerer (New York: Simon and
Schuster, 1927), 40: “Am I mad? He asked himself. Of course I will have nothing to do
with her.”
11
After deciding to accompany the young prostitute to her house, Doctor Fridolin again
questions his decision to join her and thus questions his identity, as others would perceive
it:
“Wer auf der Welt möchte vermuten, dachte er, dass ich mich jetzt
gerade in diesem Raum befinde? Hätte ich selbst es vor einer
Stunde, vor zehn Minuten für möglich gehalten? Und warum?
Warum?”25
Psychoanalytic themes are seen in the preceding passages. Doctor Fridolin struggles with
the concept of his own sanity when he questions his potential actions with the prostitute.
His attempts to resolve an ego conflict are thus expressed. Further, when he ponders what
others would think of him being involved in such circumstances, the inner workings of
his superego are shown.
Finally, he meets a woman at a masquerade party. His distrust of his wife has
grown throughout the night, as he realizes that he himself cannot be trusted. The last
woman is of particular interest because she sacrifices herself for Doctor Fridolin’s safety.
He gains entrance to the masquerade party when his friend, who plays piano for the
guests, reveals the password to him. The party consists of devious sexual activity and
shortly after his arrival, he is discovered to be an outsider and asked to remove his mask.
He refuses to do so and thus puts himself in mortal danger. The masked woman says that
she will take his burden and at this proclamation, Doctor Fridolin is immediately
removed from the party. It is interesting to note that the masked state of the guests of the
25
Schnitzler, Die Erzählenden Schriften: Zweiter Band, 450. Translation by Otto P.
Schinnerer (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1927), 41: “Who in the world would suspect
that I am here in this room at this moment? Fridolin thought. I’d never have thought it
possible an hour or even ten minutes ago—And why? Why am I here?”
12
party can be considered representative of the façade of Vienna at the turn of the century.
The people at the party, like the citizens of Vienna are forced to mask themselves, hiding
their identity while indulging in their true desires. Doctor Fridolin later discovers that the
woman was killed in order to spare him. The guilt he feels because of this, plagues him.
In the end, after Doctor Fridolin’s night of temptation, he decides to admit
everything to his wife. Shockingly, the couple chooses to maintain an ignorance of their
problems over awareness in order to maintain their “dream” of high society life. This
again goes back to the idea that the desire to maintain this façade is greater than the need
or will to deal with “existential isolation.”26
A second example of Schnitzler’s work worth noting is Fräulein Else. He
achieved great success with this story, written in 1923, which depicts the inner
monologue of a woman who struggles with the responsibility of preserving her family’s
honor. She must expose herself to Herr von Dorsday, a man who could potentially bring
her family into ruin. The story ultimately ends with her suicide and is an example of the
idea that people often use hysteria as a coping strategy in the face of overwhelming
societal pressures. 27 In Fräulein Else, Schnitzler sets up the “triadic structures” of suicide
victim, pretext, and actual perpetrator. He goes further to discuss the ego-split that must
occur to actually commit suicide. Dagmar Lorenz describes this state:
“…[it] has three components; Else steps out of her body and
contemplates herself as a spectacle, assuming the role of simultaneous
actress, stage, and audience.”28
26
Lorenz, A Companion to the Works of Arthur Schnitzler, 134.
Hofmann, The Viennese: Spendor, Twilight, 212.
28
Lorenz, A Companion to the Works of Arthur Schnitzler, 341.
27
13
And goes further to explain that:
“Schnitzler shifts between extremes, between radical change and
continuity, making suicide as much as act of resistance to the status quo as
a reconciliatory act, a feasible solution to a dilemma.”29
Here it is evident that Else’s suicide stems from a desire to return to a state of quite, a
direct connection to Freud’s idea of the death drive. She constantly bombards herself with
questions in order to mentally resolve her dilemma of exposing herself, an act she feels
obligated to do at times and at other times not. Here she is about to go through with her
“obligation”:
“’Herrn von Dorsday,’ Zimmer Nummer fünfundsechzig. Wozu
die Nummer? Ich lege ihm den Brief einfach vor die Tür im
Verbeigehen. Aber ich muss nicht. Ich muss überhaupt gar nichts.
Wenn es mir beliebt, kann ich mich jetzt auch ins Bett legen und
schlafen und mich um nichts mehr kümmern. Nicht um den Herrn
von Dorsday und nicht um den Papa. Ein gestreifter
Sträflingsanzug ist auch ganz elegant. Und erschossen haben sich
schon viele. Und sterben müssen wir alle.”30
This passage, which is representative of Schnitzler’s style throughout the entire story,
illustrates Fräulein Else’s inner struggle. She questions each one of her actions, showing
29
Lorenz, A Companion to the Works of Arthur Schnitzler, 341.
Schnitzler, Die Erzählenden Schriften: Zweiter Band, 366. Translation by Robert A
Simon (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1930), 108: “’Herr von Dorsday,’ Room
Number Sixty-five? Why use the number? I’ll just drop the letter at his door as I go by.
But I needn’t. I needn’t do anything. If I felt like it, I could lie in bed now, and sleep, and
do no more worrying about anything. Not about Herr von Dorsday, and not about Father.
A striped convict’s uniform really is very stylish, and many people have killed
themselves. After all, everyone must die.”
30
14
that she is unsure of them. For some time now, before exposing herself to Herr von
Dorsday, Fräulein Else has been toying with the idea of suicide. She justifies this course
of action by saying that many people have killed themselves and that ultimately everyone
must die. From a psychoanalytic perspective Fräulein Else is attempting to resolve the
conflicting signals coming from her id and superego. She does indeed expose herself to
Herr von Dorsday in front of a room of people and subsequently commits suicide by
taking poison. The final reactions of the people around her are unknown because the
story is told through her inner monologue and thus the resolution of the story is her
suicide.
Despite his declaration that he doesn’t want his literary writing to be associated
with Psychoanalysis and the work of Sigmund Freud, Arthur Schnitzler is undeniably
wrestling with psychoanalytic issues. The state of Vienna at the turn of the century makes
it impossible for these issues to not be somehow incorporated in his work; they affected
every citizen in the city. This is seen both in Traumnovelle and Fräulein Else, which deal
with the resolution of conflict within the human psyche.
In conclusion, Sigmund Freud and Arthur Schnitzler are two men ultimately
linked by the society in which they lived. The themes of love and death, as expressed in
Freud’s theory and Arthur Schnitzler’s writing, are indicative of a time in which
Viennese society had great influence over its citizens. One cannot take into account their
success without bearing in mind the context in which these two men were working.
Freud’s theories were driven by a need to understand the human psyche in turn of the
century Vienna and Arthur Schnitzler worked to achieve the same goal through literature.
Perhaps they were Doppelgänger; each the other’s missing half and each working to
15
understand themselves and ultimately the human condition. What one can be certain of is
that both men worked to resolve the conflict caused by the imposed façade Vienna placed
on its citizens during the turn of the century and found profound success in their own
individual ways, Freud through psychology and Schnitzler through literature.
16
References
Beller, Steven. Rethinking Vienna 1900. New York: Berghahn Books, 2001.
Freud, Sigmund. Beyond the Pleasure Principle. New York: W.W. Norton & Company
Inc., 1961.
Hofmann, Paul. The Viennese: Spendor, Twilight, and Exile. New York: Anchor Press
Doubleday, 1988.
Laplanche, Jean. Life and death in psychoanalysis. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University
Press, 1976.
Lorenz, Dagmar C.G. A Companion to the Works of Arthur Schnitzler. New York:
Camden House, 2003.
Morton, Frederic. A Nervous Splendor: Vienna 1888/1889. New York: Penguin Books,
1980.
Rau, Petra, University of Portsmouth. "Arthur Schnitzler." The Literary Encyclopedia. 17
Nov. 2003. The Literary Dictionary Company. 9 March 2006.
http://www.litencyc.com/php/speople.php?rec=true&UID=5412
Schnitzler, Arthur. Die Erzählenden Schriften: Zweiter Band. Frankfurt am Mein: Fischer
Verlag, 1961.
Schnitzler, Arthur. Fräulein Else: A Novel. Trans. Robert A Simon. New York: Simon
and Schuster, 1930.
Schnitzler, Arthur. Rhapsody: A Dream Novel. Trans. Otto P. Schinnerer. New York:
Simon and Schuster, 1927.
Schorske, Carl E. Fin-de-siecle Vienna: Politics and Culture. New York: Vintage Books,
1981.
St. Clair, Michael and Jodie Wigren. Object Relations and Self Psychology: an
Introduction (4th Edition). Belmont: Brooks/Cole—Thomson Learning, 2004.
Swales, Martin. Arthur Schnitzler: A critical study. London: Oxford University Press,
1971.
Yamanishi, David. “Freud Timeline,” July 20, 2004.
http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/classes/cluster21/wiki/index.pl?FreudTimeline
(1/6/06).
17