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PSY 461: History and Systems of Psychology
Fall, 2002
Exam 1
Name ___________________________________
1. Which two ancient methods of attaining knowledge are combined in science?
a.
intuition and rationalism
b.
rationalism and empiricism
c.
introspection and controlled observation
d.
empiricism and faith
2. A ___________ is a consistently observed relationship between two or more empirical events
a.
scientific theory
b.
scientific law
c.
scientific problem
d.
rational deduction
3. _________ laws allow the prediction and control of events
a.
all scientific
b.
no scientific
c.
correlational
d.
causal
4. The _____ assumes that everything that occurs is a function of a finite number of causes
a.
determinist
b.
rationalist
c.
empiricist
d.
none of the above
5. According to Popper, what distinguishes a scientific theory from a nonscientific theory?
a.
clarity
b.
the use of mathematical symbols
c.
the principle of falsifiability
d.
the assumption of determinism
6. According to Kuhn, a set of beliefs and assumptions accepted by a group of scientists is called
a.
a metaphysical orientation
b.
the religious component of science
c.
a paradigm
d.
a correlational law
7. All of the following are true of normal science except
a.
it results in some phenomena being explored in great depth
b.
it causes scientists to ignore potentially important phenomena
c.
it stimulates the creative search for novel phenomena
d.
it is what most scientists engage in throughout their professional careers
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8. According to the text, contemporary psychology is
a.
a preparadigmatic discipline
b.
a multiparadigmatic discipline
c.
in the revolutionary stage of development
d.
a single paradigmatic discipline
9. The ______ stresses a person’s beliefs, conflicts, values, and goals as determinants of behavior
a.
indeterminist
b.
nondeterminist
c.
physical determinist
d.
psychical determinist
10. Some believe that although cognitive events emerge from brain activity such events cannot
cause behavior. Such a belief represents
a.
materialism
b.
interactionism
c.
epiphenomenalism
d.
free will
11. The position on the mind-body question that claims that God arranges for mental and bodily
events to be perfectly correlated is called
a.
psychophysical parallelism
b.
double aspectism
c.
preestablished harmony
d.
idealism
12.
Epistemology is the
a.
study of knowledge
b.
most popular contemporary position on the mind-body question
c.
contention that the human mind is active
d.
contention that the humanmind is passive
13.
The early Greeks referred to a substance from which everything else is derived as a(n)
a.
spirit
b.
atom
c.
universal
d.
physis
14. What important epistemological question was raised by Heraclitus’ philosophy?
a.
What does it mean to be me?
b.
How can something be known if it is constantly changing?
c.
What constitutes the good life?
d.
Why would a man want to step into the same river more than once?
15.
The contention that if X starts in motion before Y, Y can never overtake X no matter how
fast Y appears to be moving is known as
a.
the relativity of truth
b.
a philosophical inconsistency
c.
a Kuhnian paradigm clash
d.
Zeno’s paradox
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16. According to the Pythagoreans, perfection is found
a.
only in the empirical world
b.
only in the abstract world
c.
in both the empirical and abstract worlds
d.
in neither the empirical nor abstract world
17. Which of the following aspects of Empedocles’ philosophy comes closest to what was called
survival of the fittest by natural selection later in history?
a.
the forces of love and strife, acting on the four elements, create a variety of
creatures, some having attributes necessary for survival
b.
perfect objects that exist in the abstract world are constantly attempting to
manifest themselves in the imperfect, empirical world
c.
if atoms are arranged by chance in just the right configuration, life results
d.
a wandering soul continues to enter objects until it enters one that is capable of
supporting life.
18. According to Hippocrates, physicians assign supernatural causes to disease in order to
a.
charge larger fees for their services
b.
make the disease more comprehensible to the patient
c.
mask their ignorance concerning the nature of the disease
d.
cure the disease more effectively.
19. For Socrates, essences were
a.
impossible to determine
b.
verbal definitions
c.
transcendental truths
d.
unimportant
20. According to Plato, direct examination of the empirical world via sensory experience results
in
a.
ignorance
b.
wisdom
c.
knowledge
d.
mental illness
21. For Plato, all knowledge is
a.
innate
b.
derived from sensory experience
c.
personal opinion
d.
culturally determined
22. According to Plato, the supreme goal of life should be to
a.
give all components of the soul equal expression
b.
return to the “world beyond the world”
c.
be courageous in the face of danger
d.
free the soul from the adulterations of the flesh
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23. Plato’s philosophy _____ the development of science
a.
enhanced
b.
caused
c.
inhibited
d.
had no effect on
24. Which of the following is true about Aristotle’s philosophy?
a.
it followed the Pythagorean rather than the Hippocratic tradition
b.
it assumed that knowledge could be attained only by studying nature directly
c.
it assumed that the body is a hindrance in the search for knowledge
d.
it assumed that gaining knowledge was a matter of remembering the contents of
the soul
25. Because Aristotle assumed that everything in nature exists for a purpose, his theory is called
a.
religious
b.
empirical
c.
rationalistic
d.
teleological
26. According to Aristotle, _______ is a spontaneous recollection of something that had been
previously experienced.
a.
imagination
b.
remembering
c.
reflection
d.
association
27. Events following the death of Aristotle created a situation in which people sought
a.
answers to questions concerning everyday living
b.
the first principles or universals that underlie physical reality
c.
an attitude of philosophical certainty
d.
a solution to Zeno’s paradox
28. In general, _____ promoted a suspension of belief in anything and _____ promoted a retreat
from society.
a.
cynicism/skepticism
b.
stoics/epicureans
c.
epicureans/stoics
d.
skepticism/cynicism
29.
The Skeptics suggested that the frustration of being wrong can be avoided by
a.
arriving at one’s beliefs very carefully
b.
following one’s natural impulses
c.
exercising moderation in beliefs and behavior
d.
not believing in anything
30.
With which of the following would the Cynic most likely agree?
a.
people need rules and regulations by which to live their lives
b.
anything natural is good
c.
courage in the face of adversity is the highest virtue
d.
the only things worth living for are patriotism, sacrifice for others, and devotion
to a common cause
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31.
Which of the following accepted a completely materialistic philosophy?
a.
Democritus
b.
the Epicureans
c.
the Stoics
d.
all pf the above
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What did St. Paul do that most Greek philosophers would have found abhorrent?
a.
he valued faith above reason
b.
he valued reason above faith
c.
he valued intuition above empirical observation
d.
he valued Epicurianism over Cynicism
33.
According to St. Augustine, the primary goal of human existence is to
a.
seek pleasure and avoid pain
b.
accept one’s fate
c.
enter into a personal, emotional union with God
d.
engage in active reason
34.
Aristotle’s philosophy was highly influential in _____ during the period of around 4001000 AD
a.
the Western World
b.
the Roman world
c.
the Arab world
d.
Athens
35.
The attempt to synthesize Aristotelian philosophy and Christian theology was referred to
as
a.
Neoplatonism
b.
Neoaristotelianism
c.
Scholasticism
d.
Epicurianism
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“Nominalism” was more in accordance with _____ than with _____.
a.
rational philosophy/empirical philosophy
b.
empirical philosophy/rational philosophy
c.
Muslim religion/Christian religion
d.
Christian religion/Muslim religion
37.
Aquinas’ great achievement was to
a.
convert a large number of Aristotelians to Christianity
b.
demonstrate that Christianity was not the only correct religion
c.
apply scientific method in solving theological problems
d.
reconcile faith and reason
38.
All of the following were true of Aquinas’ theology except
a.
it divided faith and reason
b.
it made the study of nature respectable
c.
it demonstrated that church dogma was debatable
d.
it argued successfully that the Christian church should be as it had been described
by St. Augustine
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39.
The belief that extraneous assumptions should be eliminated from explanations is called
a.
Scholasticism
b.
Occam’s razor
c.
nominalism
d.
realism
40.
Those who said that so-called universals were nothing more than convenient verbal
labels were called
a.
nominalists
b.
realists
c.
rationalists
d.
nativists
41. Answer any 4 of the following (5 pts each):
a. Summarize various proposed answers to the mind-body problem. Include in your answer, a
brief discussion that lets me know you understand of the following: monism, dualism,
emergentism, psychophysical parallelism, and epiphenomenalism.
The question of whether there is a mind and, if so, how it is related to the body is very old and
continues. Through the years, many positions have been taken on the relationship between mind
and body.
The Monists (also called materialists) argue that both mind and body can be explained in
terms of one type of reality. Those monists who argue that both mind and body are physical are
sometimes called materialists. Those who think that the mind and even the physical world consist
of ideas are called idealists.
Dualists believe that bodily (physical) events are fundamentally different. From mental
events. Once it’s assumed that there are different realms, the questions becomes “how
are they related?” (for the monist, of course, there is no mind-body “problem”
There are several types of dualism
Emergentism: mental states emerge from brain states. For example, one might
argue that once mental events emerge from brain activity, the mental events can
then influence subsequent brain activity and, thus, influence behavior. This is a
currently popular point of view.
Psychophysical Parallelism: another dualist position that environmental events
cause both mental events and bodily responses simultaneously, and that mental
and bodily events are independent of each other.
Epiphenomenalism: the brain causes mental events but mental events cannot
cause behavior. Mental events are behaviorally irrelevant by-products
(epiphenomena) of brain processes.
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b.
Discuss the problems involved in discovering and explaining
discrepancies that may exist between what is physically before us and what we
experience subjectively.
The difference between what is “really” present physically (physical or objective
reality) and what we actually experience (subjective or phenomenal reality) has been a
major issue since the early Greeks. Some accept naïve realism, saying that what we
experience mentally is exactly the same as what is present physically. Others, however,
say that at least something is lost or gained in the translation from physical to subjective
(phenomenal) experience. A discrepancy between the two types of experience may exist
if the sense receptors can respond only partially to what is physically present—e.g., only
certain sounds or colors. Discrepancies can exist, also, if information is lost or distorted
between the sense organs and the sense receptors in the brain. And, of course, the brain
can transform sensory information.
The important question here is: Given the fact that all we can ever experience
directly is our own subjective reality, how can we come to know anything about the
physical world?
This leads to the problem of reification… the tendency to believe that if
something has a name it has independent existence. Throughout history, “entities” such as
souls, minds, gods, demons, spirits, and selves, have been assumed to exist. The tendency
toward reification is a powerful and persistent one.
c. Compare Aristotle’s attitude toward sensory experience with Plato’s.
Plato postulated the existence of an abstract world of forms or ideas that, when
manifested in matter, make up objects in the empirical world. The only true knowledge is
that of forms, and that knowledge can only be gained by reflecting on the innate contents of
the soul. Sensory experience interferes with the attainment of knowledge and should be
avoided in trying to seek knowledge.
Aristotle believed that sensory experience is the basis of all knowledge. The senses plus
common sense provide the only information from which knowledge can be derived.
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d. How did Augustine change the locus of control of human behyavior from forces outside the
person to forces inside the person?
He postulated free will. He explained evil as the result of humans choosing evil over
good. Humans are responsible for their own destiny. Personal guilt became an important
means of controlling behavior – this internal sense reveals to each person how one should act.
e. What is Occam’s razor and why is it important?
This is the belief that of two or more equally effective explanations, the one requiring the
fewest assumptions should be chosen. This is also referred to as the principle of parsimony.
It is important because it helps us control the tendency to reify… to explain universals as
more than merely labels.