Medical Humanities will be understood in ethical terms. An ethical
approach will be chosen that provides the grounds for considering
the human being as a bearer of body, mind and spirit. The spiritual
dimension will be taken as fundamental. Our bodily and mental
health depend on our spiritual affirmation. Whereas bodily and
mental phenomena are understood scientifically which implies an
acceptance of necessity or determinism, spiritual phenomena
involve an acceptance of freedom which affirms our
responsibilities and values. These aspects will be clarified with
reference to writers whose views are fundamental for Medical
Humanities.
Definition of Ethical Freedom and its Infringement by
Scientific Theories
A citation from Karl Jasper’s book The Perennial Scope of
Philosophy provides the basis for our definition of Ethical
Freedom. It stipulates how man can ‘maintain his inner integrity ‘,
of how he must be ‘given to himself over and over again, if he is
not to lose himself.’ He needs help to gain his freedom when
facing fate and even death. According to Jaspers, this help
comes from the realm that lies beyond empirical knowledge,
from the ‘Transcendent’. These are Jaspers' words:
Man as object of (scientific) investigation and man as freedom
are known to us from radically different sources. The former is a
content of (scientific) knowledge, the latter a fundamental trait of
our faith. Freedom must not itself become an object of
investigation, it must not be drawn into the sphere of scientific
knowledge. …Through freedom I attain independence from the
world, but precisely through the consciousness of my radical
attachment to transcendence. For it is not through myself that I
am.
The value of each individual can be regarded as unassailable
only when men cease to be regarded as expendable material, to
be stamped by a universal (for instance statistical material in the
evaluation of the treatment for some disease).
Jaspers makes it clear that man as an ethical being is entitled to
respect ‘which forbids that any man should be treated only as
means and not at the same time as an end in himself.’
If such faith is not achieved, man lives in ‘unfaith’, when ‘the
human condition becomes a biological fact among other
biological facts’. The result is ’man surrenders to what his finite
knowledge determines as necessities and inevitabilities, he gives
in to a sense of futility, the energy of his mind declines. He stifles
in his supposed factuality; he no more breathes his freedom. ‘ (1)
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Jaspers calls this faith ‘philosophical faith’. It is not the faith
which I as a doctor have in medical science in which I was
trained and which I apply to my patients. But it is the faith they
have in me as their doctor who has to support them when they
have to cope with their illness and their death. The doctor
practices Medical Humanities by entering into a free ethical
personal relation with the patient.
Such a positive account of Medical Humanities will now be
compared with the view of another thinker whose views are
incompatible with Medical Humanities. By presenting these
views, the reader can gain a deeper understanding of Medical
Humanities, by realising what rules out the realm of Ethical
Freedom.
Sigmund Freud
By calling religious faith an illusion, Freud denied the
transcendent justification of those who find meaning for their
lives in God.
Freud revealed a total inability to grasp the manifestation of
Medical Humanities when he made the following statement
about love which constitutes a supreme element in Medical
Humanities, in the freedom of ethical human personal relations:
‘The nucleus of what we mean by love naturally consists (and
this is what is commonly called love, and what the poets sing of)
in sexual love with sexual union as its aim. But we do not
separate from this - what in any case has a share in the “love” on the one hand, self-love, and on the other love for parents and
children, friendship and love for humanity in general, and also
devotion to concrete objects and to abstract ideas, all these
tendencies are an expression of the same instinctive activities ‘(2)
From the rejection of an instinctual monopoly we pass to a
rejection of gaining pleasure as man's supreme aim in life. The
"pleasure-principle" follows from the supreme position of
instinctuality which is pleasurable.
There are two objections to this hedonistic psychology: firstly it is
not true: soldiers who brave the enemy and parents who express
their love by a nursing a sick child are not seeking pleasure.
Secondly, anybody whose aim is to seek pleasure will not find it
and will end up with disappointment and pain . Hedonistic
psychology is a fallacy. The ethical mistake follows from the
psychological mistake: people ’ought’ to strive for pleasure as
their ultimate aim.
This does not mean that life must be devoid of pleasure. It
comes as a bonus, not as the fulfilment of a supreme aim. It
occurs when we see a beautiful sight, listen to a lovely tune or
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taste a favourite dish.
Medical Humanities raise further powerful objections to
psychoanalysis. The adult patient is regressed in the analysis to
childhood. He is deprived of his moral adult strength by his
therapist. He is now dragged through inevitabilities of the
Freudian infantile dependency, dependency on his therapist. In
accordance with scientific principles, the analyst deprives the
patient and himself of personal human relations and only allows
impersonal object relations. Some analysts develop complicated
and terrifying accounts of such inner infantile worlds which the
adult patient is led to accept as his true world. Psychic realities
are revealed, full of persecutions and depression, causing
severe guilt as the object is the mother or the father.
For Freud, the parents constitute the ‘super-ego’, a patient's
conscience. This conscience is utterly different from the
conscience which is a freely chosen authority of moral right and
moral wrong. Its fundamental role will be developed in later
stages of this essay. The Freudian conscience is authoritative, it
is imposed on the child, threatens withdrawal of love in case of
rejection. In the same way , a ‘cultural superego’ is as sadistic as
the personal variety.
To understand the significance of such dynamics, we must pay
attention to Freud's insistence that a second instinct is
postulated: apart from being dominated by the sexual libido man
is ’aggressive’, which constitutes ‘an innate, independent
instinctual disposition in man.’ (3) In his Civilisation And Its
Discontents, Freud elaborates details of this aggressive instinct
in relation to a stranger meeting me:
‘ Not merely is this stranger on the whole not worthy of love, he
has more claim to my hostility, even to my hatred. He does not
seem to have the least trace of love for me, does not show the
slightest consideration. He has no hesitation in injuring me,
never even asking himself whether the amount of advantage he
gains by it bears any proportion to the amount of wrong done to
me. What is more, he does not even need to get an advantage
from it, he thinks nothing of jeering at me, insulting me,
slandering me, showing his power over me; and the more secure
he feels himself, or the more helpless I am, with so much more
certainty can I expect this behaviour from him towards me.’(4)
In their treatment, analysts never fail to bring this unconscious
aggression into their patients' ( their victims ) consciousness.
It is not surprising that the psychiatrist Gavin Andrews has come
to the following conclusion about the results of Freudian
treatment : ‘Ten per cent of mental health professionals who
underwent the obligatory training analysis considered that the
experience had been harmful. Therefore the number of patients
harmed but who do not complain might be considerable.‘( 5) Of
course the real harm results from the innumerable sources from
which people in general have received and still receive
knowledge of Freud's views. It would be impossible to imagine
that Freudian views could be subtracted from current thinking in
Western society. Medical Humanities must assess Freud's
influence.
Jung's Psychology
Jung started his own school and his followers train therapists
and publish papers in their Journal. My task is to assess this
psychology for Humanistic Medicine. Here is one exposition of
his views:
‘The Jungian system claims, in spite of its intimate reference to
the fundamental problems of our being, to be neither religion nor
philosophy. It is the scientific summary and representation of all
that the experienceable totality of the psyche includes ; and as
biology is the science of the living physical organism , so is it the
science of the living organism of the psyche . It alone gives the
possibility of forming a ’Weltanschauung “that is not merely taken
over traditionally and uncritically but that can be worked out and
personally shaped by the individual with the help of these
materials and tools.’ (6)
The question for Medical Humanities is : does Jungian treatment
involve the exercise of personal freedom, of responsibility?
Jungian patients see in their dreams mandalas, magic circles,
religious symbols which are accompanied by ‘strong feeling of
harmony or of peace.’ (7) Such experiences suggest that the
treatment helps such patients to enter into the freedom of
Medical Humanism. Jung studied myths, the ‘spirit’ of the myths
is a creative urge, arising from the collective unconscious.
These, Jung holds, explain what is happening in the sea, the
sky, on earth: primordial images which also appear in dreams
and psychotic phantasies, possessing power and energy. The
medical humanist is concerned when he learns that they inspire
‘both creation and destruction.' (8) He wonders how patients can
cope with such ‘ buried treasures.' (9) They are archetypes, aweinspiring products of the psyche.(10)
The Medical Humanist is forced to the conclusion that
archetypes do not challenge a person to act as a free person but
are excuses for the way in which his life runs. In his
autobiography Jung states: ‘My life is a story of the selfrealization of the unconscious.’ (11) This clearly means that he
was not responsible, the unconscious took away his
responsibility for his life, a clear rejection of Medical Humanities.
His patients are also absolved from responsibilities. ‘When, for
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instance, a highly-honoured scholar in his seventies deserts his
family and marries a 20-year-old red-haired actress, then, we
know, the gods (archetypes) have claimed another victim,
showing their demonic supremacy.’ (12)
The archetype, the shadow, completes a picture which denies
the case of ethical striving for Jung's followers: The shadow
which must not be suppressed: ‘trying to live as better and
nobler people than we are involves us in endless hypocrisy and
deceit, and imposes such a strain on us that we often collapse
and become worse than we need have been.’ (13)
Medical Humanities cannot exist in the world of this shadow. My
task is to construct a treatment that allows Medical Humanities to
express its tenets.
A Psychotherapy, based on the acknowledgement of
Ethical Freedom
As has been hinted when criticising Freud's definition of
conscience, it is conceived by medical humanists rather as a
freely accepted authority of moral right and moral wrong and it
offers a basis for a therapy.
For the religious person, conscience is regarded to be a divine
call, but for the non-religious person it stands for duty which
people owe to themselves and to others.
It is of course the patient's and not the therapist’s conscience.
His or her duty is to find a way of confronting the patients with
their own conscience. But the therapists must be aware that their
patients’ conscience may be unreliable and must not be
confronted. A severely depressed patient may feel guilt which is
a symptom of his illness and has no moral justification. By
confronting such a psychotic person with an assumed guilt would
be a serious medical neglect, it may lead to a suicide. Such
patients have to be treated as objects of medical science, for
instance with an anti-depressant or with electro-convulsive
therapy.
Conscience may lose its validity: The obsessional person
considers it to be his duty to touch some object dozens of time or
to make sure that the gas has been turned off. He returns to the
oven again and again. Such people are aware of the
senselessness of their actions.
Conscience may be misapplied. There are cases when
possessive parents ruin their children's lives by insisting that
they must be entirely at their disposal. In such a case, the
therapist has to make the son or daughter aware of his or her
duty to himself or herself. Such patients need an appropriate
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psychotherapy.
In my book Medicine for the Whole Person (14) I called this
psychotherapy ‘A True-Self Psychotherapy.' I gave details of its
methods. They can be adapted to individuals or to groups.
Patients are encouraged to tell their life stories and to face
conflicts that have occurred, whether in their professional or
personal relations. How honestly were these conflicts met? is a
constant question. If patients are in a group, members of the
group are encouraged to voice their opinion, relating a fellow
patient's problem to their own.
In order to stir their conscience, patients are confronted with
works of art that provide deeper realisation of life. Sir Jacob
Epstein's ‘The Madonna and Child ‘ is a sculpture that expresses
suffering, pain, love and compassion. Patients who consult me in
Harley Street are advised to gain a moving experience by
walking to nearby Cavendish Square to see the work. I also
show patients reproductions of this sculpture.
In appreciating this and other works of art. I am guided by Ernst
Cassirer's observation that ‘in the creativeness of art we must
seek the evidence for and the fundamental manifestation of the
creativeness of life.’ (15)
Patients are also provided with sheets of paper and crayons to
picture some emotional conflict. These products are not works of
art, but can provide valuable insight into people’s lives.
Mental Health films are shown, portraying conflicts of childhood,
adolescence and adulthood, providing opportunities to confront
emotional conflicts.
Dreams are interpreted as challenges, they may be the means of
raising the unconscious conscience into consciousness when
calling upon a dreamer to face a situation which he or she has
avoided in their wakeful state.
Finally reveries: patients, sitting or lying down, are told to close
their eyes, relax their bodies and imagine that they are in a
theatre. They are then told to report what is going on on the
stage. They are given a chance to play out the drama of their
lives, their conflicts and possible solutions. The therapist acts as
the producer of this drama, suggesting some deeper
understanding. The reverie is terminated when the therapist
counts from 5 to 1 and tells the patients to open their eyes.
Some patients conduct their reveries at home and report results
when they meet the therapist next time.
There is no need for such elaborate methods in every case. A
single interview provides an illustration
A Clinical Illustration
A single lonely woman, aged 62, consulted me in a state of
severe anxiety. A lump in one breast had been diagnosed as
cancer and after the removal of the breast the disease was
shown to have had infiltrated lymphatic tissues. She was told by
the oncologist that the chemotherapy which she will receive
cannot cure the cancer and that she will probably die within one
or two years.
She asked the cancer specialist whether a healthy diet, as
advocated in one of my books, would help her. She was told that
food would make no difference to her disease, his advice was:
‘You left the treatment until it was too late for a cure, now enjoy
any food.’
This hedonistic oncological treatment was not successful, and
the patient was left feeling even more frightened. My task was to
try to enable her to summon her freedom to face her death.
I did not mention food, as this was not relevant. I asked: "Are you
religious?” I expected that this faith would provide necessary
strength. She told me that she had been brought up as a
Catholic, she prays regularly, but does not attend church.
I immediately telephoned Farm Street Church, a Jesuit church in
London which has helped my patients in severe emotional
crises. This patient was given an interview with one of the
priests, and she told me later that he had helped her to face her
death.
But some more personal help was required at the interview with
me, as her religious faith was not very strong. She asked me:
"Do you believe in God, Doctor? " I told her how I was trying to
cope with death without religious faith. I quoted Goethe who in
one of his poems relates the ethical principle to a person’s
immortality: "What a good man can achieve, cannot be achieved
within the narrow confines of his life. His influence on those who
accept moral goodness continues after his death, his good word,
his good deed, they strive for ever as he strove while alive. ". My
patient thought for a while and then said:" I have done good to
people and the thought of my influence continuing after my death
is a comfort for me."
The third thing which I did for her was to order homeopathic
remedies, to help her with her fear of death and with the serious
side-effects that cancer patients experience from the
chemotherapy. The homeopathic remedy is not for certain bodily
or mental diseases. The remedy is for a type of person, including
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bodily, emotional and spiritual aspects of the personality.
I received one telephone message: I had helped her when
contacting the priest, also when opening her mind to the
persistent good influence we have on others and thirdly when
ordering the remedy that helps all aspects of the human
personality.
Who is in need of True-Self Psychotherapy?
Of course the answer is: who has not attained the power of
Ethical Freedom. Those in need are people who have not
accepted the ethic of the freedom of conscience and who are
caught in the faulty ethic of Hedonism. Thus Medical
Humanities, a philosophical discipline, is linked with people's
ethical views, applied to their psychiatric suffering. When you
eliminate the most important spiritual dimension of the human
being, you are bound to suffer terrible consequences, a Social
Spiritual Malaise. In my book Medicine for the Whole Person I
have related Mental Illness to a person's ethical orientation.
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The British Journal of Psychiatry provides information about the
seriousness of this malaise, the extent of neurotic illness. The
diagnostic label is ‘mixed anxiety and depressive disorder’ or
‘generalized anxiety disorder’.
The astonishing thing is that the particular complaints are not
usually considered to be psychiatric illnesses. They are in the
following order of frequency: fatigue 27%, sleep problems 25%,
irritability 22% and worry 20%. England, Scotland and Wales
have a 14% neurotic health problem. (16)
The trouble is that medical science has no remedy for these
millions. A tranquillizer has a temporary effect, but patients
become dependent on the drug; therefore doctors are told not to
give such prescriptions for more than a week. This is no use, as
the symptoms continue.
Counselling
Many GPs ask a Counsellor to see such patients. What type of
treatment provide the Counsellors? They are trained in a great
number of schools. The underlying theory may be
psychosynthesis, person-centred psychotherapy,
psychodynamics. The Middlesex University offers accredited
diplomas, MSc, BA in Counselling , the British Association for
Psychoanalytic and Psychodynamic offers Supervision
Graduate Research, The Minster Centre offers courses in
Integrative Psychotherapy, leading to a Diploma or an MA., the
Lincoln Clinic and Centre trains counsellors in Psychoanalytic
Psychotherapy. The training involves personal counselling to
make sure that the counsellor must be able to offer
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unconditional positive regard for the clients. The emotional
stresses are heavy for the candidates. They are ‘notorious for
de-stabilising marriages’ (17).
This summary draws the following conclusion for Medical
Humanities: Counselling accepts the deterministic principle of
science, university teaching leading to various degrees has
nothing to do with Ethical Freedom. Clients are not asked to
consider their ethical convictions. My cancer patient was
encouraged to find strength in religious faith and in the influence
she and others can exert on those who share faith in an ethical
conscience. Such faith cannot be provided or mobilized by any
of the academic courses, offered to prospective counsellors,
there are no examinations which test grades of Ethical
Freedom. We are left with our need to make a commitment to
the ethic of conscience.
Infringement of Ethical Freedom by Genetic
Determinism
Counsellors and scientifically minded psychotherapists are not
alone in infringing Ethical Freedom. The science of genetics
which is based on the Darwinian Theory of Evolution is a major
factor which opposes Medical Humanities including even
criminal responsibility.
Robert Wright considers that the legal system that finds
criminals guilty is ‘outmoded’, as behaviour is not the person's
responsibility but is ‘reducible to evolutionary impulse’. (18)
These followers of Evolutionary Psychology ‘explain
international violence in terms of evolutionary pressures on
males.’ Warfare, they claim, can be understood as an adaptive
strategy for acquiring the resources to mate and produce
offspring that will carry on genetic endowment
Evolutionary explanations combine the credibility of science with
the certainty of religion. They are convenient at a time when
governments, faced with cost constrain, are seeking to
dismantle the welfare state. Why support job training, welfare of
children or childcare programmes when those targeted are
biologically incapable of benefiting from the effort? Evolutionary
principles imply genetic destiny.
Evolution, defined as an eternal principle 'writ large’, becomes a
way to justify existing social categories and to deflect critical
examination of powers underlying social policy. Why couldn't
God have used the mechanism of evolution to create
differently? (19)
This use would not only destroy the essence of Medical
Humanities which rely on personal responsibility, but would also
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destroy the essence of religion, denying the possibility of sin.
Another example of denying a justification of Humanistic Ethic is
the following: ‘This book is written in the conviction that our
existence once presented the greatest of all mysteries, but that
is a mystery no longer because it is solved. Darwin and Wallace
solved it.’ The ‘solution’ only covers accounts of ‘biological
complexity’, (20) but human existence is not just a biological
phenomenon.
Biological complexity in no way solves the mystery of our
existence. We cannot understand nor explain nature’s creativity
and human creativity in particular which is fundamental for
Medical Humanities.
Do changes in material-social circumstances explain changes in
our values such as a woman's attitude regarding the importance
of wealth of a prospective husband or the number of children
born in a certain family? Have such people just ‘escaped’
Evolutionary Psychology, as Steven Rose argues? (21)
We can agree that economical conditions play a part. If a
particular society experiences greater prosperity than was the
case in the past, people may adopt different attitudes. But
women ’decide’ to marry certain men and the couple ’decide’
that they want more children than they had wanted before.
It is crucial for Medical Humanities to affirm that such vital
decisions are manifestations of Ethical Freedom. This does not
mean that purely logical concerns are not involved. The
question may be "can we afford to have so many children, can
we feed them?" A woman may ask herself. "Should I marry a
particular man who not only has not much money now, but is
not likely ever to earn enough to keep a family?” Marital love
can break if there is not enough money to provide for the needs
of the family.
Such denials of the monopoly of the validity of social and
genetic determinism are vital for Medical Humanities.
A Refutation of Darwinian Psychiatry
How relevant are refutations of Darwinian genetic determinism
for medical practice? An answer to this question can be found in
an issue of The British Journal of Psychiatry which is the organ
of the Royal College of Psychiatry. The title of the Editorial is:
‘Psychiatry and Darwinism’, to which author Rhiad T. Abed adds
a subtitle, ‘Time to reconsider?’ He remarks that at present
psychiatry has no single theory but ‘a number of competing (and
occasionally incompatible) paradigms have coexisted within the
field'. A ‘striking weakness’ results for psychiatry if there is an
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‘absence of the most rudimentary rules about the functions of
the human mind. In such an environment any theory, however
irrational, can demand equal attention. Unscientific and
erroneous claims that cannot be directly tested empirically can
flourish.'
Medical Humanities which are not scientific but personal-ethical
and which affirm the dimension of Ethical Freedom and
responsibility have been proposed in this paper as a rational
basis for all medicine including psychiatry. The author of the
Editorial has a different solution: Integrating Psychology and
Psychiatry into Biology …That is of course the Darwinian
solution, providing ‘the ideal overall framework within which a
new and reformed scientific psychiatry can be formulated.’ We
are left with, as the only valid principle for consideration with the
human brain, its biological structure. It is supposed to enable us
‘to form hypotheses about depression, obsessional-compulsive
disorder and the anti-social personality disorder.’ (21)
The question raised by Medical Humanities, is: how can such
structure provide answers to these disorders which are by no
means biological, but which are related to questions about the
meaning of life, about the difficulties of coping with these
experiences?
Darwinian psychiatry fails to allow for the challenges that occur
in human lives, including those of all types of illness.
An irrelevant outcome of an important research subject
Darwinian psychiatry has chosen marital infidelity as a research
subject. The aim was to predict differences between men and
women in their responses to marital infidelity. These were
supposed to reveal consequences for reproductive fitness in
men and women in different cultures. The males were expected
to be primarily distressed by the sexual infidelity of their
partners because of paternal uncertainty. Only secondarily
would they be jealous of their rivals. The women, on the other
hand, were expected to feel the reverse: first, jealousy of their
successful rivals, secondarily concern about paternity
uncertainty. This prediction has been upheld in a number of
studies across different cultures.
The author sees in this project a contribution to evolutionary
paradigms. The right question is supposed to have yielded
‘novel hypotheses, leading to significant advances in
understanding.’ (22)
The result of this research is supposed to be in the region of
gender psychology. As procreation of children is involved in this
study, we are supposed to have obtained knowledge of
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psychology, linked with biology.
The objection from the point of view of Medical Humanities to
this project is that it entirely misses the significance of its
subject, marital infidelity. The study has left out the fundamental
importance of love which cannot be divorced from sex.
‘Reproductive fitness’ is not the fundamental issue for the
medical humanist. Marital infidelity constitutes a serious crisis in
a marriage. The unfaithful partner is guilty of having broken the
marital trust. The question of paternal certainty can be solved
through DNA testing. But this does not solve the problem how
this baby can be integrated into the husband's family if the
child's father is the lover. Can this marriage endure? The
answer depends on the commitment which the partners have to
each other. If marital infidelity is just a matter of jealousy and
paternal certainty, the chances are that the couple will split up
and seek ‘reproductive fitness’ with new partners.
The current rate of divorces in this country is nearly sixty per
cent. The main victims are the children. Compared with children
brought up by their natural parents, those whose parents
divorced are more likely to leave school with low educational
qualifications, experience early sexual activity with unmarried
teenage pregnancy, display behaviour aggression, substance
abuse, delinquency, depression, unemployment or earning low
pay as adults. The author of the article from which these terrible
effects of divorce are quoted provides a psychological
explanation which is of very fundamental importance and has
not the irrelevance of the author of Darwinian psychiatry.
People expect marriage to be self-fulfilling, but this expectation
is not possible if some see marriages as a ‘business
opportunity’. (23)
Business involves only some material success. If this is not
forthcoming, the business is changed for one that appears to be
more lucrative. In business there is no question of regard for the
competing other business. We are left to guess how many
marriage partners belong to this business category. Many share
with the business attitude one of selfish expectations in their
marriage and when these do not materialise, a divorce ensues.
This selfish attitude is contrary to the idea of marriage when
each partner expects mutual unselfishness, so that each
receives as well as gives. Medical Humanities is deeply
concerned with the serious results of divorce.
A Case invalidating genetic deterministic monopoly
One of my patients whom I shall call Jane is an identical twin.
She and her sister Joan have the same genes. They were
brought up by their parents together and no important changes
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in their environment occurred which affected one differently
from the other. They are physically very similar, but are totally
different spiritually. All her life has my patient suffered from her
sister's malicious sadistic desire to diminish her, to prove her
own superiority and power.
She prevented Jane from entering a medical school, making a
great success of her own medical career. When they meet,
Jane is always in fear, expecting another attack.
This case proves that we are not entirely determined by our
genes. The ethical personal freedom which is basic for Medical
Humanities has been saved.
Conclusion
I am a Medical Humanist. In this paper I have formulated the
basis, the foundation, for the treatment of the human beings
who ask for my medical help. The Ethic of Conscience is for me
this foundation, a manifestation of Freedom which rises above
scientific knowledge which I fully accept in its own right. It is
based on the presupposition of necessity or determinism. I had
to reject its incursion into the dimension of Ethical Freedom by
scientific psychotherapies, by counselling and by genetics,
applied to biological and psychological evolution, to psychiatry
and to personal heredity
References
(1) Jaspers, Karl The Perennial Scope of Philosophy,
Philosophical Library, New York 1949 pp 65, 69, 74.
(2) Freud, S. Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego,
The Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psycho-Analysis,
London, vol. 19, 1955, p. 90.
(3) Freud, S, Civilization and its Discontents, 3. edition, Hogarth
Press and the Institute of Psycho-analysis 1946 p. 102.
(4) Ibid. p. 83.
(5) Andrew, Gavin ‘The Essential Psychotherapies’ in The
British Journal of Psychiatry, 1993, no 162, pp. 447-51.
(6) Jacobi, Jolan The Psychology of C.G.Jung, An Introduction
with Illustrations, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co, Ltd,
London 1942, p.143.
(7) Fordham, Frieda, An Introduction to Jung's Psychology,
Penguin Books Ltd, 1953, p 66.
(8) Ibid. p. 27.
(9) Ibid. p. 25.
(10) Ibid. p. 25.
(11) Jung, C. G, Memoirs, Dreams, Reflections, recorded and
edited by Aniela Jaffe, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London 1953,
p. 17.
(12) Jung C. G The Integration of the Personality, Kegan Paul,
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Trench, Trubner & Co, London 1940, p. 80.
(13) Fordham Frieda, op. cit. p. 51.
(14) Ledermann, E.K. Medicine for the Whole Person; A
Critique of Scientific Medicine, Element Books 1997, chapter 4.
(15) Cassirer, Ernst An Essay on Man, An Introduction of a
Philosophy of Human Culture, Yale University, U.S.A.1944,
p161.
(16) Mason, P and Wilkinson, G ‘The Prevalence of psychiatric
morbidity in Great Britain’ in The British Journal of Psychiatry,
January 1996, vol. 168, pp 1-3.
(17) Williams, Mary, letter in Counselling, The Journal of the
British Association for Counselling, November l998, Vol. 9 No 4,
p. 262.
(18) Nelkin, Dorothy ‘Less Selfish than Sacred? Genes and the
Religious Impulse in Evolutionary Psychology ’ in Alas, Poor
Darwin; Arguments Against Evolutionary Psychology Edited by
Hilary Rose and Steven Rose, Jonathan Cape, London 2000
p.20.
(19) Ibid. pp 21-23.
(20) Dawkins, Richard The Blind Watchmaker, Longman,
Scientific & Technical, Longman Group UK Limited, p. 19.
(21) Riadh T.Abed, ‘Psychiatry and Darwinism: Time to
consider?’ in The British Journal of Psychiatry, July 2000, vol.
177, p. 1-2.
(22) Ibid. p. 2.
(23) Waterhouse, Rosie ‘Divorce Inc. Nearly half of all
marriages end in divorce. It's so common, some see it not as a
stigma but as a business opportunity’ in The Sunday Times 10
2000 p. 14.