Primal Religion
Leaving Certificate Section C World Religions
Part 1 The Phenomenon of Religion
Topic 1.2 Primal Religion
Description of content


The nature of primal religion and its
importance for the study of religion
The concepts and phenomena of
o Mana
o Tabu
o Totem
o Shaman
Outcomes
As a result of studying this section, students should be able to
 Present a portrait of primal religion and give an
account of its important influence on all religion
 Write a brief paragraph on each of the following:
o Mana
o Tabu
o Totem
o Shaman
Leaving Certificate R.E. syllabus, p35
Please note that the following article is background information only on this topic. It in no way
constitutes a sample or exemplary answer on this topic.
Mana
Not to be confused with the biblical mana/ manna in Exodus 16 which provided sustenance for the
Israelites on their journey to the Promised Land, mana refers to an impersonal force or quality that resides in
people, animals and inanimate objects and can produce in the observer a sense of wonder or respect. It
refers to a concept among the speakers of Oceanic languages, including Melanesians, Polynesians and
Micronesians. It is sometimes understood as “the stuff of which magic is formed”, as well as the substance
of which souls are made. It appears to be a precursor of formal religion. It is a well known concept in
Polynesian religion and its use has been popularised in modern culture by anthropology. In Polynesian
culture (e.g. Maoir and Hawaiian) mana is similar to the English concept of “respect” and is linked to
authority, power and prestige. It also shares elements of “responsibility”, “balance” and “purity”. Mana is
an important foundation to the Hawaiian concept of spirituality, religion, society and all of reality, thus it
carries a complex meaning. It is not just people who possess mana. To have mana is to have authority and
influence, be that by persons, governments, places and inanimate objects. In Hawaiian “mana loa” means
“great power” or “almighty” (whereas the word “akua” is most commonly used to refer to God). In
Melanesian culture mana is perceived as a sacred impersonal force existing in the universe. Again, mana
can be in people, object, animals and plants. Similar to the idea of efficacy or luck, the Melanesians
believed that all success was traced back to mana. One could acquire or manipulate this luck in various
ways (e.g. through magic). Certain objects that contain mana can change a person’s luck. Such objects may
include charms or amulets. An example of this would be seen if a prosperous hunter used a charm that had
mana and he gave it to another person, then people believed that the prosperous hunter’s luck would transfer
to the next holder of the charm. In New Zealand Maoir, mana also refers to pride. In other cultures the
concept of mana has referred to the power of magic. However it was not the only principle and others
included the idea of seeking the intervention of a specific supernatural being, whether deity, saint or
deceased ancestor. The magic of mana was embedded into all talismans and fetishes, whether devoted to
ancient gods, Roman Catholic relics of saints, the spirits of the ancestors or the underlying elements that
make up the universe and all life within it. The concept of mana has been used in various cultures to justify
human sacrifices because the living-force or blood of sacrificial victims might contain supernatural powers
whose offering would please a deity.1
Tabu
A system of setting apart a person or an object as either sacred or accursed, originating from a
Polynesian word “tabultapu”, meaning a restriction or prohibition related to the sacred. The term has
passed into more general usage to describe the ritual prohibition or the restriction on certain categories of
people to enter the domain of the sacred. This may be temporary, as associated with periods of ritual
impurity such as menstruation, or permanent, such as gender or caste restrictions.2 Sometimes spelled
“taboo”, it is a system of social ordering that dictates that special objects and activities, owing to their sacred
nature, are set aside for specific groups and are strictly forbidden to others; common to many primal
peoples, including the Australian Aborigines.3 Aboriginal society is carefully structured. Certain people are
forbidden to participate in certain rituals. The basis of this structure is the concept of taboo, which dictates
that certain things and activities, owing to their sacred nature, are set aside for specific members of the
group and are forbidden to others. Violation of this principle has on occasion been punishable by death.
The sites and rituals associated with certain Ancestors are for men only. Others, such as those connected
with childbirth, are for women only. Restrictions are also based on maturity and on an individual’s amount
of religious training. Usually the older members of the tribe are in charge of important rituals. 4 The
concept exists in many Polynesian societies, including traditional Maori and Tongan cultures where
anything tapu (Maori) or tabu (tongan) is considered inviolable or sacrosanct due to its sacredness. Things
which are tabu must be left alone and should not be approached or interfered with. In some cases they may
not even be spoken of. In Maori society the concept of tapu was often used by tohunga (priests) to protect
resources from over exploitation, by declaring a fishery or other resource as tapu. The English word
“taboo” derives from this usage and was adopted by Captain Cook during his visit to Tonga in 1777. In
Hawaiian the word “kapu” is normally translated as “forbidden”. It refers to the ancient system of laws and
regulations. Breaking a kapu, even unintentionally, often meant death. Kapu restrictions included contact
with chiefs and all people of spiritual power. It was kapu to enter a chief’s personal area, to come in contact
with his hair or fingernail clippings, to look directly at him and to be in sight of him with a head raised
higher than his. It was kapu to wear red and yellow feathers (symbol of royalty) unless you were of highest
rank. Places that were considered kapu were represented by two crossed staffs, each with a white ball atop.
Kapu also restricted contact between the sexes. Men and women could not eat meals together. Certain
foods such as pork, certain bananas, and coconuts were considered kapu to women. The kapu system was
common in Hawaii until 1819 when King Kamehameha ll abolished it by the symbolic act of sharing a meal
of forbidden foods with the women of his court. The opposite of kapu is “noa” meaning “common” or
“free”. Some taboo activities or customs are prohibited under law and transgressions incur harsh penalties.
Other taboos result in embarrassment, shame and rudeness. More examples of taboo: The Nubas of East
Africa believed that they would die if they entered the house of their priestly king. However, they could
evade the death penalty by baring the left shoulder and getting the king to lay his hands on it. Among the
Maori anyone who had handled a corpse or participated in its burial was most unclean and was almost cut
1
Adapted from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mana
Greaves, R: Key Words in Religious Studies (p102), The Continuum International Publishing Group,
London, 2006
3
Brodd, J: World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery (p39), St. Mary’s Press, Winona, 2003
4
Ibid; p25
2
off from contact with others. He could not enter a house or come into contact with any person or thing
without infecting them. Food would be left for him on the ground where he would sit or kneel down and,
keeping his hands behind his back, would gnaw at the food, since his hands were not permitted to touch it.
Mourners of the dead were also secluded from the public. When their period of mourning was almost over
they had to smash all the dishes used during seclusion, and throw away all the garments worn during the
exclusion period. In Ireland too there were examples of taboo. The ancient kings of Ireland were subject to
many strange restrictions as listed in the Book of Rights. For example, a king was not permitted to stay in a
certain town on a particular day of the week, nor cross a river at a particular hour of the day, nor encamp for
nine days on a certain place.5
Totem
The word “totem” is derived from the Algonkian word “Dodem”, originally meaning “to be related to
someone” (i.e. someone who shares a family crest, or totem). A totem is an object which is imbued with
sanctity resulting from its identification with a particular clan, tribe or people and from which all the
members of that group are believed to be descendents. The totem functions as a guardian spirit and there
are generally prescriptions on eating, killing or touching the totem animal. Some totems exist in the form of
poles. Totemism: the beliefs and practices associated with religious forms that consider there to be a
familial relationship between humans and nature. Totemism is a feature of some tribal societies where
natural objects and creatures are seen to possess supernatural power.6 A totem is any entity which watches
over or assists a group of people, such as a family, clan or tribe. 7 Totems support larger groups than the
individual person. In kinship and descent, if the apical ancestor of a clan is nonhuman, it is called a totem.
Normally this belief accompanies a totemic myth. The word is of Ojibwa origin but totemistic beliefs are
not restricted to Native American Indians. Similar beliefs have been found in Western and Eastern Europe,
Africa, Australia and the Arctic polar region. The bald eagle might be considered the totem of the people of
the USA, though it carries no spiritual mythology amongst these people. Beyond tribal religion in modern
times some people adopt a personal spirit animal helper which has some kind of special meaning to them,
and incorrectly call this a totem. This practice is common in the New Age movement. Some even believe
that their animal helper acts as a spirit guide. Some Native Americans take a dim view of others’ adoption
of totem animals, arguing that a non-adherent cannot truly understand totemism apart from the cultural
context and that it may even represent a commercialisation of religious beliefs. Totem poles are
monumental sculptures carved from great trees, typically Western Redcedar, by a number of Native
American cultures along the Pacific northwest coast of North America.8
Shaman
A person who, because of his/her special personality and training, can make contact with the
supernatural world. Through trance experiences he/she is able to contact the deity, spirits or world of the
dead. Shamans maintain a special relationship with the worlds and beings that they visit, and can become
possessed by supernatural beings when in trance states, facilitating communication between the worlds.
Shamanic communication can be used to cure illness, to protect against hazardous enterprises such as
hunting expeditions or long journeys, or to bless harvests. Usually shamanism is found in small scale
5
Adapted from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taboo#Examples
Greaves: p104
7
Merriam-Webster Online Dectionary
8
Adapted from http://en.wikipedia.org.wiki/Totem
6
agricultural or hunting societies but has re-emerged as part of New Age and Neo Pagan religions in
advanced post-industrial societies.9 Shamanism refers to a range of traditional beliefs and practices similar
to Animism that claim the ability to diagnose and cure human suffering and, in some societies, the ability to
cause suffering. This is thought to be accomplished by traversing the axis mundi and forming a special
relationship with, or gaining control over spirits. Shamans are said to be able to control the weather,
divination, interpret dreams, astral projection and travelling to upper and lower worlds. Shamanic traditions
have existed since prehistoric times. Some anthropologists and scholars of religion have defined a shaman
as an intermediary between the natural world and the spiritual world, who travels between worlds in a state
of trance. Once in the spirit world the shaman can commune with the spirits for assistance in healing,
hunting or weather management. Ripinsky-Naxon describes shamans as “people who have a strong interest
in their surrounding environment and the society of which they are a part.” Other anthropologists argue that
“shamanism” is a culturally specific word and that by expanding it to fit any healer from any traditional
society it produces a false unity between these cultures and creates a false idea of an initial human religion
predating all others. Shamanism presumes that the visible world is pervaded by invisible forces or spirits
that affect the lives of the living. Shamanism, unlike animism, requires specialised knowledge or abilities
rather than a practice carried out by the majority. Shamans are not usually organised into full time ritual or
spiritual associations in the way that priestly people are.10
9
Greaves: p96
Adapted from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaman
10