Unit One (pp 18-21) Language Of
Literature
The Anglo-Saxon Period, 449–1066
The British Isles, just off the west coast of continental Europe, enter recorded history in the writings of
the Roman general Julius Caesar. In 55 B.C., fresh from his conquest of Celtic peoples known as
Gauls, Caesar sailed from what is now France to Britain, largest of the British Isles, to assert Rome's
authority over it. There he encountered a Celtic people called the Britons, from whom the island takes
its name. Also living on Britain were Picts, remnants of a pre-Celtic civilization, and farther west, on
Ireland (the next-largest British island) was another group of Celtic speakers, the Gaels.
The Britons had a thriving culture by most standards of the day. They were skilled in agriculture and
metalwork, traded with their Celtic neighbors overseas, and had an oral tradition of literature and
learning preserved by a priestly class known as druids. They were, however, no match for the
Romans. About a century after Caesar's visit, Roman armies returned to Britain to make good his
claim. Despite resistance, they rapidly conquered the Britons and drove the warlike
Illustration by John Sandford.
Picts northward to what is now Scotland. Britain became a province of the great Roman Empire,
and the Romans introduced cities, fine stone roads, written scholarship, and eventually
Christianity to the island. As they adapted to a more urban way of life, the "Romanized" Britons
came to depend on the Roman military for protection; but early in the fifth century, with much of
their empire being overrun by invaders, the Roman armies abandoned Britain to defend the city of
Rome. It was not long before Britain too became the target of invasion.
The Anglo-Saxon Period, 449-1066
In an invasion traditionally assigned to the year A.D. 449 but actually taking place over several
decades, Angles, Saxons, and other Germanic peoples (such as Jutes and Frisians) left their
northern European homelands and began settling on Britain's eastern and southern shores. The
Britons—perhaps led by a Christian commander named Arthur—fought a series of legendary
battles in an effort to stop the invasion. Eventually, however, they were driven to seek refuge in
Cornwall and Wales on the western fringes of the island; in the northern area now called Scotland,
where Gaels from Ireland were also settling; and in an area on the west coast of continental
Europe that would come to be known as Britanny. In southern and central Britain, Celtic culture
all but disappeared. The Germanic tribes eventually organized themselves into a confederation
of seven kingdoms called the Heptarchy. In the southeast was Kent, kingdom of the Jutes. Further
west were the Saxon kingdoms of Sussex, Essex, and Wessex. To the north were the kingdoms of the
Angles—East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria. Perhaps because the Angles were dominant in the early
history of the Heptarchy, the area of Germanic settlement became known as Angle-land, or England,
and its people came to be called the English. Modern scholars, however, usually employ the
term Anglo-Saxon to refer to the people and culture of this period of English history.
Like all cultures, that of the Anglo-Saxons changed over time. The early invaders were seafaring
wanderers whose lives were bleak, violent, and short. With them, they brought their pagan religion—
marked by a strong belief in wyrd, or fate—and their admiration for heroic warriors whose wyrd it was
to prevail in battle. As they settled into their new land, however, the Anglo-Saxons became an
agricultural people—less violent, more secure, more civilized. One of the most important civilizing
forces was the Christianity they began accepting late in the sixth century.
The Growth of Christianity
Despite the collapse of Roman power there, Christianity had never completely died out in the British
Isles. Early in the fifth century a Romanized Briton named Patrick had converted Ireland's Gaels to
Christianity. When the Gaels began colonizing Scotland, they brought Christianity in their wake. From
the isle of Iona off the Scottish coast, missionaries spread the faith among the Picts and Angles in the
north. Later, in 597, a Roman missionary named Augustine arrived in the kingdom of Kent, where he
established a monastery at Canterbury. From there, Christianity spread so rapidly that by 690 all of
Britain was at least nominally Christian.
The Danish Invasions
In the 790s, a new group of northern European invaders—the Danes, also known as the Vikings—
began to devastate Northumbria's flourishing culture. Coming at first to loot monasteries, the Danes in
time gained control of much of northern and eastern England. They were less successful in the south,
where their advance was halted by a powerful king of Wessex, Alfred the Great. After inflicting defeats
on the Danes in 878 and 886, Alfred forced them to agree to a truce and to accept Christianity.
Although Alfred's reign was a high point in Anglo-Saxon civilization, the tug-of-war with the Danes
resumed after his death. In 1016 a Dane named Canute even managed to become king of all England;
he proved a successful ruler and won the support of many Anglo-Saxon noblemen. Less successful
was the deeply religious Edward the Confessor, who came to the throne in 1042. Edward, who had no
children, had once sworn an oath making William, duke of Normandy, his heir—or so William claimed.
Later, Edward was persuaded to name Harold, earl of Wessex, as his heir. When Edward died in 1066,
the English witan (an advisory council of nobles and church officials) supported Harold's claim.
Incensed, William led his Normans in what was to be the last successful invasion of the island of
Britain: the Norman Conquest. Harold was killed at the Battle of Hastings, and on Christmas Day of
1066, a triumphant William—who would go down in history as William the Conqueror—was crowned
king of England.
Literary History
The spread of Christianity in Britain was accompanied by a spread of literacy and by the introduction
of the Roman alphabet in place of the runic alphabet. Though poetry remained primarily an oral art,
poems were now more likely to get written down. In this age before printing, however, the only books
were manuscripts that scribes copied by hand. Thus, only a fraction of Anglo-Saxon poetry has
survived, in manuscripts produced centuries after the poems were composed. The most famous
survivor is the epic Beowulf about a legendary hero of the northern European past. A manuscript
known as the Exeter Book contains many of the surviving Anglo-Saxon lyrics, including "The
Seafarer," "The Wife's Lament," and over 90 riddles.
Most Old English poems are anonymous. One of the few poets known by name is a monk called
Caedmon, described by the Venerable Bede in his famous eighth-century history of England. Like most
scholars of his day, Bede wrote in Latin, the language of the church. It was not until the reign of Alfred
the Great that writing in English began to be widespread. In 891, Alfred initiated the compiling of
the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a historic record in poetry and prose that was added to, on and off, until
early Norman times. He also encouraged English translations of portions of the Bible and other Latin
works.