Supplementary information
Primate brain size data were taken from (Stephan et al. 1981), while data on group
size are from Dunbar (1992) and Smuts et al (1987); we classified species’ social
systems ourselves, with reference to the primary literature and guidance from Smuts
et al. (1987) and van Schaik & Kappeler (2003). Carnivore brain sizes were taken
from (Dunbar & Bever 1998; Kruska 1988), and social system and group size from
(Gittleman 1989), except for missing species which were based on (Nowak 1999).
Ungulate brain size data were taken from several different sources (Jerison 1973;
Oboussier 1966); (Haarmann 1975; Mangold-Wirz 1966). Information on sociality,
group size, diet and habitat use were taken from additional published sources
(Brashares et al. 2000; Jarman 1974; Kingdon 1997; Nowak 1999). Ungulate
phylogeny was a composite based on several recently published trees (Flagstad et al.
2001), (Gatesy et al. 1997) (Murphy et al. 2001); carnivore phylogeny on (BinindaEmonds et al. 1999)et al18, and primate phylogeny was based on (Purvis 1995).
For primate total brain size, the best model retained log group size (F1,38 = 13.37,
p <0.001) and diet (F1,38 = 76.43, p < 0.001). For carnivores, the best model retained
social system (F3,81 = 5.29, p = 0.002) and strata use (F1,81= 16.30, p < 0.001, model
adjusted r2 = 0.22), whereas for ungulates, the best model retained social system (F3,61
= 4.52, p = 0.006) and diet (F4,61 = 4.12, p = 0.005, model adjusted r2 = 0.22).
Primate activity budget data were collected from the following sources:
Cercopithecus lhoesti (Kaplin & Moermond 2000); Cercopithecus mitis (Pazol &
Cords 2005); Lagothrix lagothricha (Defler 1995); Ateles belzebuth, A. geoffroyi, A.
paniscus (Korstjens et al. in press); P. ruformitratus, P. temminckii, P. tephrosceles,
P. badius (Korstjens & Dunbar in press); Aotus trivirgatus, Callecebus moloch, Cebus
apella, Allouatta palliata, Saguinus fusicollis, Saguinus imperator, Siamiri sciurus,
Papio anubis (Leonard & Robertson 1997); Presbytis entellus (Fashing 2001); Pan
paniscus, P.troglodytes (Lehmann et al. in press); Gorilla gorilla (Lehmann et al.
unpub. manuscript); Hylobates agillis, H. concolor, H. hoolock, H. klossii, H. lar, H.
muelleri, H. pileatus, H.syndactylus (Lan and Dunbar). Ungulate activity budgets
were collected from the following sources: Damaslicus dorcas, Redunca fulvorufula
(Klein & Fairall 1986), Kobus ellipsiprymnus (Wirtz & Oldekop 1991);
Theropithecus gelada (Dunbar unpub. Data), Ourebia ourebia (Adamczak 1999),
Aepyceros melampus, Raphicerus campestris, Tragelaphus strepsiceros (du Toit &
Yetman 2005); Oreotragus oreotragus (R.Dunbar, unpublished); Syncerus caffer
(Turner et al. 2005); Capra hircus (R.Dunbar, unpublished).
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Table S1. Definitions of the ecological and social criteria used in all analyses across the three focal taxa.
Factor
Diet
Habitat
Primates
>75% leaves
Vegetarian
>75% leaves and fruit
Grazer
>75% Grasses and annuals
Frugivore
>75% Fruit
Mixed-invertebrates
Primarily insects, molluscs, worms
plus other material
Browser
>75% leaves, bark
FolivoreFruigivore
>75% fruit
Mixed- vertebrates
Primarily small vertebrates, Some
fruit, plus some invertebrates.
Frugivore
>75% leaves and fruit
Browser-Frugivore
>75% fruit and browse
Mixed diet- fruit, gum,
insects, vertebrates
Grazer-Browser
>75% grasses and browse
Omnivore
Omnivore
Mixed including tubers and
some animal matter
Large vertebrates
Diet primarily composed of large
vertebrates and some carrion
Open
Species found in open grassland and savanna habitats
Mixed
Species found in either both open and forested habitats or in habitat matrices (e.g. woodland-savanna)
Closed
Species found in closed/forested habitats
Semiarboreal
Arboreal
Activity
Ungulates
Folivore
Terrestrial
Strata
Carnivores
Primarily moves and forages
on the group
Generally moves on the
ground, can forage and sleep
in the trees
Spends the most time
including resting, moving
and sleeping in trees
Terrestrial
Primarily moves and forages on the
group
Semiarboreal/Arboreal
Can move on the ground, often
forages and sleeps in trees
Diurnal
Active during daylight hours
Cathemeral/
All hours
Active either at dawn and dusk or at any hour
Nocturnal
Primarily active at night
Figure S1. Primate phylogeny and phylogenetic residuals
Latin
Lemur fulvus
Varecia variegatus
Lepilemur rufiventor
Avahi laniger
Avahi occidentalis
Propithecus verreauxi
Indri indri
Microcebus murinus
Cheirogaleus medius
Cheirogaleus major
Galagoides demidovii
Galago senegalensis
Otolemur crassicaudatus
Loris tardigradus
Nycticebus coucang
Perodictus potto
Tarsius spectrum
Callithrix jacchus
Cebuella pygmea
Saguinus oedipus
Saguinus fuscollis
Callimico geoldii
Cebus sp.
Saimiri sciureus
Aotus trivirgatus
Callicebus moloch
Pithecia monarchus
Alouatta sp.
Ateles geoffroyi
Lagothrix lagotricha
Macaca mulatta
Cercocebus albigena
Papio anubis
Cercopithecus ascanius
Cercopithecus mitis
Erythrocebus
Miopithecus talapoin
Procolobus badius
Nasalis larvatus
Hylobates lar
Gorilla gorilla
Pan troglodytes
Homo sapiens
Social
multi-male
multi-male
solitary
monogamous
monogamous
multi-male
monogamous
solitary
solitary
solitary
harem
harem
solitary
harem
solitary
solitary
monogamous
monogamous
monogamous
monogamous
monogamous
harem
multi-male
multi-male
monogamous
monogamous
multi-male
harem
multi-male
multi-male
multi-male
multi-male
multi-male
harem
harem
harem
multi-male
multi-male
harem
monogamous
harem
multi-male
monogamous
PGLS brain
0.02
-0.09
-0.34
-0.31
-0.21
-0.21
-0.23
-0.09
-0.17
-0.21
0.06
-0.05
-0.19
-0.07
-0.08
-0.14
-0.05
0.03
0.02
0.06
0.09
0.03
0.25
0.26
0.05
0.06
0.17
-0.11
0.14
0.25
0.09
0.13
0.06
0.25
0.01
0.16
0.30
0.04
-0.07
0.23
0.01
0.18
0.58
PGLS neocortex
brain residuals
-0.02
-0.06
-0.07
-0.05
-0.05
-0.05
-0.03
-0.05
-0.07
-0.09
-0.02
-0.04
-0.05
0.02
-0.03
-0.05
0.00
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.07
0.03
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.04
0.03
0.06
0.04
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.07
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.04
0.03
Figure S2. Ungulate phylogeny and social data
Species
Bos grunniens
Syncerus caffer
Tragelaphus scriptus
Tragelaphus spekii
Tragelaphus imberbis
Tragelaphus strepsiceros
Taurotragus oryx
Oreotragus oreotragus
Madoqua kirki
Neotragus moschatus
Raphicerus camptestris
Raphicerus melanotis
Ourebia ourebia
Gazella dorcas
Gazella granti
Gazella thomsoni
Antidorcas marsupialis
Antilope cervicapra
Litocranius walleri
Kobus leche
Kobus defassa
Kobus kob
Redunca fulvorufula
Redunca arundinum
Redunca redunca
Cephalophus natalensis
Cephalophus nigrifrons
Sylvicapra grimmia
Cephalophus monticola
Cephalophus zebra
Cephalophus leucogaster
Cephalophus sylvicultor
Oryx gazella
Oryx beisa
Hippotragus niger
Hippotragus equinus
Damaliscus lunatus
Alcelaphus buselaphus
Sigmoceros lichtensteini
Connochaetes taurinus
Hemitragus jemlahicus
Ammotragus lervia
Rupicapra rupicapra
Aepyceros melampus
Hydropotes
Capreolus
Alces
Odocoileus
Mazama
Rangifer tarandus
Cervus nippon
Cervus elaphus
Dama dama
Muntiacus
Giraffa camelopardalis
Okapia
Antilocapra
Hyemoschus aquaticus
Tragulus javanicus
Tragulus meminna
Choeropsis
Hippopotamus
Camelus bactrianus
Babyrousa babyrousa
Hylochoerus
Potomochoerus porcus
Phacochoerus aethiopicus
Sus scrofa
Tayassuidae
Social
PGLS brain
residuals
harem
multi-male
solitary
harem
harem
harem
multi-male
monogamous
monogamous
monogamous
solitary
solitary
harem
harem
harem
harem
multi-male
harem
harem
harem
harem
harem
harem
harem
harem
monogamous
monogamous
monogamous
monogamous
monogamous
monogamous
monogamous
harem
multi-male
harem
harem
harem
harem
harem
harem
harem
monogamous
harem
harem
solitary
harem
solitary
multi-male
solitary
multi-male
monogamous
harem
harem
solitary
harem
monogamous
harem
solitary
solitary
solitary
solitary
multi-male
harem
multi-male
multi-male
harem
harem
multi-male
harem
0.04
0.06
0.03
0.07
-0.02
0.13
0.05
-0.05
-0.07
-0.02
-0.11
-0.04
-0.11
-0.05
0.04
0.02
0.07
0.03
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.02
0.01
-0.03
-0.03
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.03
0.14
0.13
0.12
0.10
0.04
0.06
0.12
0.12
0.09
0.16
0.17
0.02
0.10
0.10
0.09
-0.08
0.11
0.20
0.07
0.20
0.16
0.19
0.23
0.18
0.22
0.18
0.23
0.25
-0.39
-0.35
-0.20
0.10
-0.18
0.18
-0.12
-0.29
-0.08
-0.08
0.06
0.05
Figure S3. Carnivore tree and social data.
Species
Martes foina
Martes martes
Martes pennanti
Eira barbara
Galictis vittata
Galictis cuja
Mustela nigripes
Mustela putorius
Mustela nivalis
Mustela erminea
Mustela vison
Meles meles
Melogale personata
Lutra canadensis
Lutra lutra
Pteronura brasiliensis
Conepatus humboldti
Conepatus chinga
Mephitis mephitis
Taxidea taxus
Procyon cancrivorus
Procyon lotor
Nasua rufa (narica?)
Nasua nasua
Bassariscus astutus
Potos flavus
Ailurus fulgens
Thalarctos maritimus
Ursus horribilis
Ursus arctos
Ursus americanus
Ursus torquatus
Melursus ursinus
Helarctos malayanus
Ailuropoda melanoleuca
Canis latrans
Canis lupus
Canis mesomelas
Canis aureus
Canis adustus
Lycaon pictus
Acinonyx jubatus
Cynictis penicillata
Nyctereutes procyonoides
Cerdocyon thous
Chrysocyon brachyurus
Cuon alpinus
Pseudalopex griseus
Pseudalopex culpaeus
Pseudalopex gymnocercus
Urocyon cinereoargenteus
Vulpes zerda
Vulpes velox
Alopex lagopus
Vulpes ruppelli
Vulpes vulpes
Otocyon megalotis
Genetta tigrina
Genetta servalina
Genetta genetta
Viverra tangalunga
Viverra civetta
Paradoxurus hermaphroditus
Cryptoprocta ferox
Crossarchus obscura
Crossarchus "zebra"
Mungos mungo
Ichneumia albicauda
Suricata suricata
Herpestes javanicus
Herpestes smithi
Hyaena brunnea
Hyaena hyaena
Crocuta crocuta
Proteles cristatus
Panthera tigris
Panthera pardus
Panthera leo
Panthera onca
Lynx rufus
Lynx canadensis
Leopardus pardalis
Caracal caracal
Felis silvestris
Leptailurus serval
Herpailurus yagouaroundi
Social
PGLS brain
residuals
solitary
solitary
solitary
monogamous
harem
harem
solitary
solitary
solitary
solitary
solitary
multi-male
solitary
solitary
solitary
monogamous
solitary
solitary
solitary
solitary
solitary
solitary
harem
harem
solitary
harem
monogamous
solitary
solitary
solitary
solitary
solitary
solitary
solitary
solitary
monogamous
multi-male
monogamous
monogamous
monogamous
multi-male
solitary
multi-male
monogamous
monogamous
monogamous
multi-male
monogamous
monogamous
monogamous
monogamous
monogamous
monogamous
monogamous
monogamous
monogamous
monogamous
solitary
solitary
solitary
solitary
solitary
solitary
solitary
multi-male
multi-male
multi-male
solitary
multi-male
harem
harem
multi-male
solitary
multi-male
solitary
solitary
solitary
multi-male
solitary
solitary
solitary
solitary
solitary
solitary
solitary
monogamous
0.06
0.10
-0.01
0.22
0.00
0.05
-0.06
-0.16
-0.06
-0.03
-0.33
-0.07
-0.06
0.01
0.24
0.08
-0.14
-0.03
-0.46
0.01
0.25
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.06
0.10
0.11
0.00
-0.08
-0.03
-0.07
0.08
-0.10
0.43
-0.01
0.11
0.05
0.01
0.03
0.03
0.09
-0.08
0.04
-0.18
0.04
0.03
0.22
0.05
0.08
0.11
0.13
0.14
0.07
0.13
0.01
0.05
-0.04
-0.05
-0.04
-0.05
-0.01
-0.15
-0.14
-0.03
-0.13
-0.12
-0.25
-0.06
0.03
-0.01
-0.06
-0.14
-0.12
-0.05
-0.03
-0.10
0.06
-0.11
0.13
0.13
-0.09
0.03
-0.02
0.06
-0.01
0.18