Life on an Ocean Planet – Teacher Curriculum Guide
History of Ocean Exploration and Marine Sciences – Chapter 2
NATIONAL SCIENCE EDUCATION CONTENT STANDARDS
Reference:
National Research Council, (1999). National Science Education Standards. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
Charted here are the science education content standards covered in Chapter 2, History of Ocean Exploration and Marine Sciences. As a result of activities provided for high school science students in this part of
the curriculum, the content of the standard identified below by a check (√) is to be understood or the abilities
are to be developed by the student.
CHAPTER 2 NATIONAL SCIENCE EDUCATION CONTENT STANDARDS, GRADES 9-12
Unifying Concepts
and Processes
Science as Inquiry
Systems, order, and
organization
 Abilities necessary to do
scientific inquiry
 Evidence, models,
 Understandings about
and explanation
scientific inquiry
 Change, constancy,
and measurement
Evolution and equilibrium
Form and function
Physical Science
Structure of atoms
The cell
Structure and properties
of matter
Chemical reactions
Molecular basis of heredity
Biological evolution
Motions and forces
Interdependence of organisms
Matter, energy, and organization in living systems
Behavior of organisms
Conservation of energy
and increase in disorder
Interactions of energy
and matter
Earth and Space
Science
Energy in the Earth
system
Geochemical cycles
Science and Technology
 Abilities of technological
design
 Understandings about
science and technology
Origin and evolution
of the Earth system
Origin and evolution
of the universe
Life Science
Science in Personal and
Social Perspectives
History and Nature
of Science
Personal and communi-  Science as a human enty health
deavor
Population growth
 Nature of scientific
knowledge
 Natural resources
 Historical perspectives
Environmental quality
Natural and human induced hazards
 Science and technology
in local, national, and
global challenges
OCEAN LITERACY – ESSENTIAL PRINCIPLES AND FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
Reference: www.coexploration.org/oceanliteracy.
Charted here are the Ocean Literacy: Essential Principles and Fundamental Concepts introduced or covered
in Chapter 2, Life on an Ocean Planet. Those principles and fundamental concepts checked (√) below
should be understood by the student.
For complete text of all the Fundamental Concepts under each Principle, see Section Two of this guide.
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Life on an Ocean Planet – Teacher Curriculum Guide
History of Ocean Exploration and Marine Sciences – Chapter 2
CHAPTER 2 CORRELATION TO OCEAN LITERACY:
ESSENTIAL PRINCIPLES AND FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
Principle 1
Principle 2
Principle 3
Principle 4
Principle 5
Principle 6
Principle 7
The Earth
has one big
ocean with
many features.
The ocean
and life in
the ocean
shape the
features of
the Earth.
The ocean
is a major
influence on
weather and
climate.
The ocean
makes Earth
habitable.
The ocean
supports a
great diversity of life
and ecosystems.
The ocean
and humans
are inextricably interconnected
The ocean
is largely
unexplored.
Fundamental Fundamental Fundamental Fundamental Fundamental Fundamental Fundamental
Concepts
Concepts
Concepts
Concepts
Concepts
Concepts
Concepts
A
B
C
D
E
√F
G
H
A
B
C
D
E
A
B
C
D
E
√F
G
A
B
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
A
√B
√C
D
E
F
G
√A
√B
C
D
E
√F
CHAPTER SCOPE AND SEQUENCING
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Life on an Ocean Planet – Teacher Curriculum Guide
History of Ocean Exploration and Marine Sciences – Chapter 2
CHAPTER SCOPE AND SEQUENCE FOR PLANNING:
HISTORY OF OCEAN EXPLORATION AND MARINE SCIENCES
Activity
Topic
Time Element
I. The History of Oceanography – Why Study It?
.3 hours
II. Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C.-800 A.D.)
2.4 hours
Lecture
A. Prehistory and the Rise of Seafaring
15 minutes
Lecture
B. Ancient Phoenician Explorations and Discoveries
15 minutes
Lecture
C. Ancient Polynesian Explorations and Discoveries
20 minutes
Lecture
D. Ancient Greek Exploration and Discoveries
20 minutes
Lecture
E. The Latitude/Longitude System
Laboratory/Activity #1
Sticks and Stones
30 minutes
Two 20-30 minute
periods on separate
days
III. The Middle Ages (800 A.D.-1400)
Lecture
A. The European Middle Ages
1.4 hours
20 minutes
Lecture
B. Viking Explorations and Discoveries
15 minutes
Lecture
C. Chinese Explorations and Discoveries
15 minutes
Laboratory/Activity #2
Navigation in the Middle Ages
50 minutes
IV. European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700)
A. The End of the Middle Ages and a Route Around
Lecture
Africa
Lecture
B. Exploration of the New World
Laboratory/Activity #3
2.0 hours
15 minutes
15 minutes
Two 30-45 minute
European Voyages of Discovery: Planning a Research
periods, plus homeExpedition
work time
V. The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
A. Cook’s Expeditions
Lecture
1.15 hours
20 minutes
Lecture
Lecture
B. The United States Exploring Expedition
C. Matthew Maury-Father of Physical Oceanography
15 minutes
15 minutes
Lecture
D. Darwin and the H.M.S. Beagle
10 minutes
Lecture
E. The Challenger Expedition
15 minutes
VI. Twentieth-Century Marine Science
A. The Oceanography Explosion
Lecture
3.3 hours
15 minutes
Lecture
B. Three Expeditions
15 minutes
Lecture
C. Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving
45 minutes
Lecture
D. ROVs, AUVs, Drifters, Satellites and Electronic
Navigation
45 minutes
Laboratory/Activity #4
Living and Working Underwater
Two 30-45 minute
periods plus homework time
Underwater Exploration Historical Timeline
.2 hours
LEARNING OUTCOMES
 What are three reasons to learn the history of
oceanography?
 When was the first recorded sea voyage, and
by what civilization?
 What are four main stages in the history of
oceanography?
 What did the Phoenicians contribute to ocean
exploration?
 What were the three primary reasons for early
civilization to interact with the ocean?
 What was the significance of early Polynesian
seafaring?
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Life on an Ocean Planet – Teacher Curriculum Guide
History of Ocean Exploration and Marine Sciences – Chapter 2
 How did ancient explorers navigate near shore
and in the open ocean?
 What invention in 1735 was a major breakthrough for open ocean navigation?
 What major ocean discovery is credited to the
Greek Pytheas?
 What geographical discoveries did the Cook
expeditions make?
 What two major contributions are credited to
the Greek Eratosthenes?
 Which continent did the United States’ Exploring Expedition prove exists?
 What were the significances of the maps of
Herodotus, Strabo, and Ptolemy?
 Why do we remember Matthew Maury as the
father of physical oceanography?
 What is the purpose of the latitude and longitude mapping system?
 How did Charles Darwin explain the formation
of coral reefs?
 What is a parallel? What is another name for
the 0° parallel? What is a meridian? Through
what city does the 0° meridian run?
 What theory did Darwin propose as a result of
his observations during the H.M.S. Beagle expedition?
 What effect did the Middle Ages have on the
knowledge of geography and science?
 What expedition is commonly recognized as
the first devoted entirely to marine science?
 What climate change affected Scandinavia in
the 9th century? What was the significance of
this change to exploration?
 What accomplishments and discoveries did
the H.M.S. Challenger make?
 By the year 1125, the Chinese were responsible for inventing what important navigational
tool?
 What two technological innovations did Chinese ships have by the mid 1400s?
 What were the primary motivations that led to
the ocean explorations of the 15th century?
 What three explorers established the route
around the Cape of Good Hope to India?
 What was the purpose of Christopher Columbus’ four expeditions?
 Who is credited as being the first European to
recognize that South America was a new continent?
 What was Vasco Nuñez de Balboa’s accomplishment?
 Who led the first expedition around the world?
Over what years did the voyage take place?
 Who led the second expedition around the
world? Over what years did the voyage take
place?
 In what way did the voyages of James Cook
differ from those of sea explorers before him?
 What change led to the growth and expansion
of modern oceanography in the 20th century?
 For what accomplishment do we recognize the
German Meteor expedition?
 What was the significance of the Atlantis?
 What noted discovery did the second H.M.S.
Challenger expedition make?
 How have submersibles and self-contained
diving changed the study of the ocean?
 What are the three types of submersible that
have been used for underwater research?
 What are the advantages and disadvantages
of submersibles and scuba?
 What is the difference between an ROV and
an AUV?
 How do drifters send their information to marine scientists and what type of information do
they collect?
 What are three types of sea surface observations that satellites can make to benefit oceanographers?
 How have Loran-C and GPS benefited seafaring and oceanography?
MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES
The following motivational strategies are included as suggestions for creating interest and curiosity, for
providing relevance of the content, for making connections between past and present learning experiences,
and for providing context for the lessons.
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Life on an Ocean Planet – Teacher Curriculum Guide
History of Ocean Exploration and Marine Sciences – Chapter 2
Questions to Elicit Prior Student Knowledge
To engage students and assess students’ prior knowledge of the overall chapter content and to guide their
learning, you may want to ask these questions before launching into each core chapter topic.
QUESTIONS TO ELICIT PRIOR STUDENT KNOWLEDGE
Topic
Question
The History of Oceanography –
Why Study It?
What can we gain from learning about the history of oceanography?
Ancient Uses and Explorations
(5000 B.C.-800 A.D.)
How were the oceans important to early societies?
The Middle Ages (800 A.D.1400)
Europeans did little exploration during the Middle Ages, but there
were other societies which advanced ocean science. Who did exploration at this time?
European Voyages of Discovery
(1400-1700)
What were the primary motives for European voyages of discovery?
How did competition between European nations influence history?
The Birth of Marine Science
(1700-1900)
What kinds of data did scientists in the 1700’s and 1800’s collect?
What instrument did they have?
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
How did the technology of the twentieth century change marine science? What social events influenced marine studies and technology
at this time?
Marine Career Discussion
In this chapter students learn about being a maritime archeologist as well as the study of people and their
interactions with the sea. Shipwrecks and other archaeological sites attract peoples’ interest. Preserving
these sites and artifacts, either underwater or in museums, allows people to experience them and to gain a
better understanding of history. John D. Broadwater, PhD, has participated in many challenging and rewarding underwater excavations. Dr. Broadwater’s work allows him to touch history and to learn the stories that
only shipwrecks can tell. A solid understanding of all branches of science and math helps him put all the
pieces of history he finds together.
As students study this chapter, have them take note of the skills needed to be a maritime archaeologist like Dr.
Broadwater. Have them think about how uncovering stories of the past influence what society does in the present
and the future. When and how did the study of marine science begin? How has conquest, trade, exploration, science, and technology played a role in the past to developing the study of oceanography as known today?
Mind Capture Demonstration
This teacher demonstration may be used to introduce this chapter or different parts of the chapter, or may
be used as a team inquiry-based activity.
History of Ocean Exploration and Marine Sciences – Introduce students to snorkeling and the sport of
scuba diving.
a.
Have a local scuba diving facility staff member present the wonders of snorkeling and scuba diving to
your students. Make sure facility staff members bring snorkeling and diving equipment to show students. Most scuba diving facilities will also have historical pieces of dive equipment on hand.
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Life on an Ocean Planet – Teacher Curriculum Guide
History of Ocean Exploration and Marine Sciences – Chapter 2
b.
If a scuba diver yourself, explain and show students the equipment necessary to snorkel and dive
safely.
c.
Ask if any of the students are snorkelers or divers; allow students to present to the class individually
or in groups.
EXPECTATIONS / STUDENT CONDUCT
 Students may be involved in guided discussion as the teacher explains the content of the chapter through
a teacher-led presentation. Students will be expected to respond to questions, ask questions, takes
notes, draw and label diagrams.
 Students may study the chapter individually as they read and respond to questions.
 Students may work in collaborative teams as they conduct inquiry-based activities and work on specific
enrichment experiences and assessments.
 Students should start each chapter by familiarizing themselves with the chapter vocabulary and morphemes list. Students may develop a chapter concept map using the vocabulary list. This initial concept
map can be compared with a summative concept map to determine what learning has taken place and
whether misconceptions remain.
VOCABULARY
 aqualung (p. 2-55)
 flora (p. 2-27)
 bathyscaphe (p. 2-37)
 genera (p. 2-31)
 bathysphere (p. 2-36)
 Global Positioning System (GPS) (p. 2-47)
 caisson disease (p. 2-53)
 hard-hat diving (p. 2-38)
 cartographer (p. 2-24)
 heliox (p. 2-53)
 chronometer (p. 2-23)
 Loran-C (p. 2-46)
 circumnavigation (p. 2-22)
 meridians (p. 2-13)
 decompression (p. 2-41)
 outrigger (p. 2-7)
 decompression sickness (p. 2-41)
 parallels (p. 2-12)
 decompression stops (p. 2-41)
 piloting (p. 2-9)
 equator (p. 2-12)
 Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) (p. 2-43)
 fauna (p. 2-27)
 submersible (p. 2-14)
MORPHEMES
 a – not, without
 exo – outside, external
 anthrop – human
 extremo – severe
 anthropo – jointed
 gastro – stomach, belly
 bi – two, twice, both
 geo – earth, soil
 bio – life, biology
 micro – small, requiring magnification
 chloro – green
 photo – light, radiant energy
 cyan – dark blue
 phyto – plant
 cyte – cell
 pneum – air, gas
 deca – ten
 poda – having a foot
 eco – environment, ecology
 poly – more than one
 endo – in, within, inside
 sub – under, beneath, subdivision
 entomo – insect
 super – a more inclusive group or category
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Life on an Ocean Planet – Teacher Curriculum Guide
History of Ocean Exploration and Marine Sciences – Chapter 2
TEACHING CHAPTER 2
Instructional Strategy – Teacher Led Presentation Exploration Through Discussion
HISTORY OF OCEAN EXPLORATION AND MARINE SCIENCES
I. The History of Oceanography-Why Study It?
Reference the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA) SciLinks Service
Topic: History of Oceanography
Go To: www.scilinks.org
Code: LOP2020
By the end of this section, students will be able to answer these questions:
1. What are three reasons to learn the history of oceanography?
2. What are the four main stages in the history of oceanography?
1. The history of oceanography is connected to the general history of the world. Our knowledge and
use of the ocean influences, and is influenced by commerce, warfare, world resources, and
weather patterns.
Guided discussion question(s): Pick a point in history and discuss why people would want to know
about the ocean. Bring up travel for trade, advantages in warfare, or the procurement of fish for food.
What are three reasons to learn the history of oceanography?
2. Want to learn the history of oceanography because:
a. It is connected to the world’s overall history. Understanding the history of oceanography is part
of understanding how the ocean shaped the past and may shape the future.
b. It helps you understand how current research questions developed, and how and why people
apply marine sciences today.
c. It is interesting. Oceanography grew out of humanity’s desire to explore and discover. It’s
about people, not the ocean and test tubes.
Guided discussion question(s): Pick a major historical event and discuss the role(s) played by the
ocean. You might choose a military event, like the Boston Tea Party, or an example of exploration, or
trade, such as the movement of spices to Europe from China.
What are the four main stages in the history of oceanography?
3 The history of oceanography can be divided into four main stages based on both time and the approach people took in learning about the ocean. They are:
a. Ancient uses and explorations
b. The Middle Ages
c. European voyages of discovery
d. The birth of marine science
II. Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
By the end of this section, students will be able to answer these questions:
1. What were the three primary reasons for early civilization to interact with the ocean?
2. When was the first recorded sea voyage, and by what civilization?
3. What did the Phoenicians contribute to ocean exploration?
4. What was the significance of early Polynesian seafaring?
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Life on an Ocean Planet – Teacher Curriculum Guide
History of Ocean Exploration and Marine Sciences – Chapter 2
5. How did ancient explorers navigate near shore and in the open ocean?
6. What major ocean discovery is credited to the Greek Pytheas?
7. What two major contributions are credited to the Greek Eratosthenes?
8. What were the significances of the maps of Herodotus, Strabo, and Ptolemy?
9. What is the purpose of the latitude and longitude mapping system?
10. What is a parallel? What is another name for the 0° parallel?
11. What is a meridian? Through what city does the 0° meridian run?
A. Prehistory and the Rise of Seafaring
What were the three primary reasons for early civilization to interact with the ocean?
1. The first ocean exploration wasn’t recorded, but archaeological evidence suggests three reasons
for early civilization to interact with the ocean:
a. The first was probably to search for food.
b. Trade with other cultures was a second reason.
c. The third reason for early voyages was discovery of new lands.
When was the first recorded sea voyage, and by what civilization?
2. The earliest recorded sea voyage is from 3200 B.C., when Egyptian Pharaoh Snefru brought ships
from Phoenicia to Egypt. This suggests that by about 3200 B.C. sea voyages were already commonplace.
B. Ancient Phoenician Explorations and Discoveries
What did the Phoenicians contribute to ocean exploration?
1. Archaeological evidence of shipwrecks in the region probably predates the Phoenician culture itself.
2. Trade motivated much of this trade along the North African Mediterranean coast.
3. The Phoenicians contributed to ocean exploration by establishing the first trade routes. Phoenician
trade routes ranged throughout the Mediterranean and as far as Great Britain, but stayed within
sight of land, using landmarks by day and stars at night to mark their course.
C. Ancient Polynesian Explorations and Discoveries
Reference the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA) SciLinks Service
Topic:
Navigation
Go To: www.scilinks.org
Code:
LOP2025
What was the significance of early Polynesian seafaring?
1. Archaeologists think that Polynesian watercraft were similar to dugout canoes, and were propelled
by sails and paddles. Outriggers provided stability.
2. On long voyages, two boats were lashed together with crossbeams and a deck.
3. Polynesian voyages of up to 3,200 kilometers (2000 miles) were carried out between 2000 B.C.
and 500 B.C., the earliest long distance open ocean travel.
4. These voyages allowed the settlement of islands spread out over about 26 million square kilometers over a period spanning about 1,000 years.
5. The significance of these voyages is that they were the first regular, open ocean long distance
voyages beyond the sight of land.
D. Ancient Greek Exploration and Discoveries
How did ancient explorers navigate near shore and in the open ocean?
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Life on an Ocean Planet – Teacher Curriculum Guide
History of Ocean Exploration and Marine Sciences – Chapter 2
1. Early ancient explorers stayed within sight of land and used visible landmarks to mark their
course, in a method known as piloting, still used by boaters today.
2. Later, as explorers ventured out of sight of land, the sun, constellations, and even cloud formations helped guide open ocean explorers. They may have also used birds and perhaps even
smell to learn when they were close to land.
3. The ancient Greeks were the first primary civilization to apply mathematics to navigation. They
produced sophisticated maps and recognized that the world was spherical, even though the information was “lost” during the Middle Ages.
What major ocean discovery is credited to the Greek Pytheas?
4. The Greek Pytheas is credited with discovering how to determine north-south position using the
angle of the North Star above the horizon. This was one of many mathematical applications the
Greeks developed for navigation. He also discovered the connection between lunar cycle and
tides in the Atlantic.
What two major contributions are credited to the Greek Eratosthenes?
5. Eratosthenes calculated the Earth’s circumference, and invented the latitude/longitude system. His
system was irregular because he altered the lines to go through important landmarks. Later, Hipparchus invented the regular grid system in use today.
Guided discussion question(s): North-south position, or latitude, can be determined using the North
Star or the angle of the sun. Ask students if longitude can be determined as easily. In discussion, tell
them that due to the Earth’s rotation, longitude can’t be determined unless the precise time is known.
Ask students how the need to determine longitude in seafaring may have contributed to time keeping
technology. Explain that longitude couldn’t be determined until sailors had a clock that could keep accurate time on board a ship. This didn’t happen until many centuries later, as students will see later in
the chapter.
What were the significances of the maps of Herodotus, Strabo, and Ptolemy?
6. Herodotus published a map that was one of the earliest maps of the world known by the Greeks.
No originals remain, but it is has been reconstructed from descriptions.
7. Strabo the Greek historian published a 17-book work called Geographic, describing the peoples
known by the Greeks, along with a map. It demonstrated the Greek’s expanding knowledge and
accuracy about the world.
8. Ptolemy published a map depicting the Earth as a sphere that was significant because it improved
upon Hipparchus’ latitude/longitude system. It divided the grid into degrees, minutes, and seconds
of arc, as used today. None of his maps have survived, but recreations have been made from descriptions.
E. The Latitude / Longitude System
What is the purpose of the latitude and longitude mapping system?
1. The purpose of the latitude/longitude grid is to identify specific locations on the Earth, even in the
absence of landmarks.
What is a parallel? What is another name for the 0° parallel?
2. Latitude lines run east and west and are known as parallels because they never intersect and are
equidistant.
a. The parallel called the equator is 0º and encircles the widest part of the Earth. The parallels at
each pole are 90º.
b. Each degree is subdivided into 60 minutes, with minutes subdivided into 60 seconds.
c. Latitudes north of the equator are designated “north latitude,” and those south of the equator
as “south” latitude.
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Life on an Ocean Planet – Teacher Curriculum Guide
History of Ocean Exploration and Marine Sciences – Chapter 2
Stress to students that they must include “north” or “south” when giving latitudes.
What is a meridian? Through what city does the 0° meridian run?
3. Longitude lines run north and south, and are known as meridians.
a. They originate (and converge) at the north and south poles.
b. The prime meridian (0º longitude) runs through Greenwich England.
c. From the prime meridian, lines of longitude to the east are known as east longitude, and to the
west, west longitude.
d. East and west longitude meet at 180º longitude, directly opposite of the prime meridian.
Stress to students that they must include “east” or “west” when giving longitudes.
III. The Middle Ages (800 A.D.-1400)
By the end of this section, students will be able to answer these questions:
1. What effect did the Middle Ages have on the knowledge of geography and science?
2. What climate change affected Scandinavia in the 9th century? What was the significance of this
change to exploration?
3. By the year 1125, the Chinese were responsible for inventing what important navigational tool?
4. What two technological innovations did Chinese ships have by the mid 1400s?
A. The European Middle Ages
What effect did the Middle Ages have on the knowledge of geography and science?
1. Decline of the Roman Empire broke Europe into many isolated communities.
a. This breakup hindered communication of scientific discoveries and knowledge.
b. The Catholic Church rose to power, which may have influenced the communication of scientific
discoveries.
Guided discussion question(s): The ancient Greeks recognized the Earth is a sphere, but during
the Middle Ages, most people believed it was flat. Discuss with students what changes had to take
place for such a change in beliefs, stressing the role of education and communication.
2. Education became much less common, and many scholarly works were lost because few people
could read them.
3. There was little ocean exploration, except by the Vikings.
B. Viking Explorations and Discoveries
What climate change affected Scandinavia in the 9th century? What was the significance of this
change to exploration?
1. In the 9th century, a warming global climate freed the North Atlantic Ice.
2. This allowed the Vikings to explore westward. The Vikings discovered Iceland and Greenland.
3. Eventually, Leif Eriksson landed in North America at Newfoundland, Canada.
C. Chinese Explorations and Discoveries
By the year 1125, the Chinese were responsible for inventing what important navigational tool?
1. Though aware of magnetism much earlier, the Chinese invented the compass in around 1000 A.D.
It came into use for seafaring shortly afterward.
What two technological innovations did Chinese ships have by the mid 1400s?
2. By the mid 1400s, Chinese ships were being built with central rudders and watertight compartments, both of which are used in modern ships.
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Life on an Ocean Planet – Teacher Curriculum Guide
History of Ocean Exploration and Marine Sciences – Chapter 2
IV. European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700)
By the end of this section, students will be able to answer these questions:
1. What were the primary motivations that led to the ocean explorations of the 15th century?
2. What three explorers established the route around the Cape of Good Hope to India?
3. What was the purpose of Christopher Columbus’ four expeditions?
4. Who is credited as being the first European to recognize that South America was a new continent?
5. What was Vasco Nunez de Balboa’s accomplishment?
6. Who led the first expedition around the world? Over what years did the voyage take place?
7. Who led the second expedition around the world? Over what years did the voyage take place?
A. The End of the Middle Ages and a Route Around Africa
1. The 1400s marked the birth of the Renaissance period.
a. There was new interest in discovery and education.
b. Principles and science known by the Greeks, Romans, and others were rediscovered in Europe.
What were the primary motivations that led to the ocean explorations of the 15th century?
2. Economics, politics, and religion were primary motives for long ocean voyages.
What three explorers established the route around the Cape of Good Hope to India?
3. Europeans sought a route around Africa to India for trade purposes.
a. Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal mapped the west coast of Africa in the early 1400s.
b. Bartholomeu Dias completed the first voyage around the Cape of Good Hope in 1487.
c. Vasco da Gama led the first expedition around the Cape of Good Hope to India ten years later.
B. Exploration of the New World
What was the purpose of Christopher Columbus’ four expeditions?
1. Like other explorers of the time, Columbus was seeking a route to Asia for trade with Europe.
a. Columbus’ estimate of the world’s size was too small because he used Ptolemy’s estimates.
This is why he thought he could reach India easier by sailing west instead of sailing east.
b. When he landed on a Caribbean island, he thought he’d reached India. It was later realized
he’d found a continent unknown to Europeans.
Who is credited as being the first European to recognize that South America was a new continent?
2. After Columbus, Amerigo Vespucci made several voyages to South America, recognizing it as a
new continent, which was named in his honor.
What was Vasco Nunez de Balboa’s accomplishment?
3. Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama, becoming the first European to discover and sail in the
Pacific Ocean.
Who led the first expedition around the world? Over what years did the voyage take place?
4. In 1519, Ferdinand Magellan set sail to circumnavigate the world.
a. He started the voyage with five ships and 260 men.
b. A single ship and eighteen surviving men completed the trip in 1522, without Magellan, who
died in the Philippines. The low survival rate discouraged further attempts to sail around the
world for more than 50 years.
Who led the second expedition around the world? Over what years did the voyage take place?
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5. Francis Drake completed the second circumnavigation of the world.
a. The expedition left England in 1577 to raid Spanish ships and settlements.
b. He returned to the west to avoid capture by the Spanish, landing in England in 1580.
V. The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
By the end of this section, students will be able to answer these questions:
1. In what way did the voyages of James Cook differ from those of sea explorers before him?
2. What invention in 1735 was a major breakthrough for open ocean navigation?
3. What geographical discoveries did the Cook expeditions make?
4. Which continent did the United States Exploring Expedition prove exists?
5. Why do we remember Matthew Maury as the father of physical oceanography?
6. How did Charles Darwin explain the formation of coral reefs?
7. What theory did Darwin propose as a result of his observations during the H.M.S. Beagle expedition?
8. What expedition is commonly recognized as the first devoted entirely to marine science?
9. What accomplishments and discoveries did the H.M.S. Challenger make?
A. Cook’s Expeditions
In what way did the voyages of James Cook differ from those of sea explorers before him?
1. Cook’s expeditions differed from previous sea expeditions because they were launched with science and exploration as their only goals.
What invention in 1735 was a major breakthrough for open ocean navigation?
2. The chronometer, an accurate clock invented in 1735 allowed the determination of longitude at
sea, enabling sailors to determine their exact position.
Guided discussion question: Discuss the inset on 2-25 of the chapter. The reward offered for discovering a means to find exact longitude at sea was the equivalent of $12 million in today’s currency.
What would students suggest as an accomplishment worthy of a similar reward today? Use this discussion to focus on how economics and needs help drive the quest for scientific discovery.
What geographical discoveries did the Cook expeditions make?
3. As an agent of the British Royal Navy, one of Cook’s orders was to attempt to discover the unknown southern continent, assumed to exist at the time.
a. Cook discovered many islands and explored Australia, but concluded it wasn’t the southern
continent assumed to exist.
b. He never found Antarctica, despite several attempts.
c. Cook died in the Hawaiian Islands after a failed attempt to find a Northwest Passage connecting the Pacific and Atlantic Ocean north of present day Canada. His contributions were extraordinary, and changed the western view of the world significantly.
B. The United States Exploring Expedition
1. Authorized by Congress in 1836, the expedition of six ships explored the southern ocean for almost four years.
a. Both coasts of South America, the west coast of the United States, and many southern Islands
were among the lands explored.
b. Nineteen volumes of maps, texts, and illustrations were included in a final report that documented expedition discoveries.
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Which continent did the United States Exploring Expedition prove exists?
2. The expedition landed on Antarctica, proving its existence.
C. Matthew Maury: Father of Physical Oceanography
Why do we remember Matthew Maury as the father of physical oceanography?
1. During the period of the United States Exploring Expedition, Maury became established as an authority on ocean exploration and science.
2. As superintendent of the Navy’s Depot of Charts and Instruments, he published research on
oceanography and meteorology.
a. He presented his system for recording oceanographic data at an international conference,
leading to its adoption worldwide.
b. He envisioned a worldwide pattern for winds and currents that could be used to make sailing
more efficient.
c. In 1855, he published The Physical Geography of the Sea, considered the first textbook on
modern physical oceanography.
D. Darwin and the H.M.S. Beagle
How did Charles Darwin explain the formation of coral reefs?
1. Darwin’s five year voyage provided the observations he used to conclude that coral reefs form by
growing upward as the sea floor sinks.
a. He noted that coral only grows in the shallow, upper zone of seawater, but coral reefs extended much deeper than this zone.
What theory did Darwin propose as a result of his observations during the H.M.S. Beagle expedition?
2. Darwin’s observations, particularly in the Galapagos Islands, led him to formulate his theories of
natural selection and evolution, creating a revolution in the field of biology
Guided discussion question: How did the fact that Darwin visited so many islands, and especially
the Galapagos, contribute to his theories on evolution and natural selection? Guide students to conclude that the limited number of species seen on most islands makes observations of adaptations to
suit the environment easier to identify. Were Darwin studying in areas of rich biodiversity, he may not
have reached the same conclusions.
E. The Challenger Expedition
What expedition is commonly recognized as the first devoted entirely to marine science?
1. The H.M.S. Challenger Expedition, launched in 1872, was the first voyage launched solely for marine science.
2. The converted warship, commanded by Charles Wyville Thomson and Sir John Murray, collected
physical, geological, chemical, and biological oceanographic data throughout its four year mission.
The report took over 23 years to complete, and filled 50 volumes.
What accomplishments and discoveries did the H.M.S. Challenger make?
3. The Challenger discovered the Marianas Trench and Mid-Atlantic Ridge, among many other discoveries highlighted below.
a. First soundings deeper than 4,000 meters.
b. Captured biological specimens from midwater and the bottom using towed devices.
c. Discovered marine organisms in the deepest parts of the ocean.
d. Sampled plankton from locations not previously studied.
e. Identified 715 new genera and 4,717 new species.
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4. NASA’s space shuttle Challenger was named in its honor. All NASA space shuttles are named for
famous exploring ships.
VI. Twentieth-Century Marine Science
By the end of this section, students will be able to answer these questions:
1. What change led to the growth and expansion of modern oceanography in the 20th century?
2. For what accomplishment do we recognize the German Meteor expedition?
3. What was the significance of the Atlantis?
4. What noted discovery did the second H.M.S. Challenger make?
5. How have submersibles and self-contained diving changed the study of the ocean?
6. What are the three types of submersible that have been used for underwater research?
7. What are the advantages and disadvantages of submersibles and scuba?
8. What is the difference between an ROV and an AUV?
9. How do drifters send their information to marine scientists and what type of information do they
collect?
10. What are the three types of sea surface observations that satellites can make to benefit oceanographers?
11. How have Loran-C and GPS benefited seafaring and oceanography?
A. The Oceanography Explosion
Reference the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA) SciLinks Service
Topic:
Ocean Research
Go To: www.scilinks.org
Code:
LOP2010
What change led to the growth and expansion of modern oceanography in the 20th century?
1. The spread of the Industrial Revolution lead to increased oceanographic study.
a. Steam engines and iron ships revolutionized ocean transportation.
b. The diesel engine, electric motor, and lead-acid battery made useful submarines possible.
2. Increased economic development and warfare also motivated oceanographic research.
B. Three Expeditions
For what accomplishment do we recognize the German Meteor expedition?
1. Beginning in 1925, the Meteor expedition crossed the Atlantic 14 times in just over two years.
a. They collected temperature, salinity, and depth information that established patterns of circulation in the Atlantic.
b. They used 67,400 echo-soundings to create the first detailed ocean floor map.
What was the significance of the Atlantis?
2. The U.S.S. Atlantis was the first ship specifically designed and built for ocean studies, and built
upon the studies of the Meteor beginning in 1931.
What noted discovery did the second H.M.S. Challenger expedition make?
3. The Challenger II expedition launched in 1951, located the deepest known spot in the ocean within the Marianas trench, approximately 11,000 meters (36,000 feet) deep, named Challenger Deep
in honor of the first Challenger expedition.
C. Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving
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Reference the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA) SciLinks Service
Topic:
Submarines and Undersea Technology
Go To: www.scilinks.org
Code: LOP2030
How have submersibles and self-contained diving changed the study of the ocean?
1. Submersibles allow scientists to select samples visually instead of blindly grabbing them, and allow direct observation of undersea phenomena.
What are the three types of submersible that have been used for underwater research?
2. Bathyspheres, bathyscaphes, and submersibles have been used to explore the deep.
a. Bathyspheres are simple sealed spheres suspended by a cable. They are no longer used.
b. Bathyscaphes are untethered craft that function like an underwater blimp, using incompressible gasoline to provide floatation and ballast weights that can be dropped to ascend. The bathyscaphe Trieste is the only vessel to ever have visited the bottom of Challenger Deep.
c. Deep-diving submersibles have replaced bathyspheres and bathyscaphes.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of submersibles and scuba?
3. Self-contained diving began to assume modern form in the mid-1800s, with the development of
diving helmets that supplied the diver with air from the surface.
4. The first practical scuba system was developed by Jacques Cousteau and Emile Gagnan in 1943,
and became the basis for the most widely used modern scuba equipment.
Guided discussion question: What types of scientific studies are most easily done by submersibles? What types of studies would be best done with scuba? Have students discuss the merits and
advantages of each for specific tasks based on the job, such as archaeology of a shallow shipwreck,
versus the study of deep ocean sediments.
5. Submersibles allow greater depth and long duration of dives, but are very costly, large, and require complex support from ships.
6. Scuba is simple, relatively inexpensive and quite portable, but places limits on depth and duration
of the dive. Scuba also has the advantage of dexterity – the ability of the scientist to use hands for
delicate tasks and procedures. Submersibles’ mechanical claws don’t presently match the the
human hand.
7. Hardsuits, such as the Newt Suit, merge the technologies of scuba and submersibles, protecting
the wearer from pressure but allowing almost full mobility, but they are more costly and complex
than scuba.
D. ROVs, AUVs, Drifters, Satellites and Electronic Navigation
Reference the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA) SciLinks Service
Topic:
Space Oceanography
Go To: www.scilinks.org
Code:
LOP2035
What is the difference between an ROV and an AUV?
1. Technology such as electronics and space travel have provided important contributions to oceanography. These include electronic navigation, remotely operated vehicles (ROV), autonomous underwater vehicles (AUV), drifters and ocean observation satellites.
a. Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) became common in the late 1970s. A ROV is a small,
unmanned submarine with propellers, video camera, and an umbilical to the surface or to a
submersible. ROVs are an economical way to match the capabilities of a submersible and the
dexterity of a scuba diver.
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b. Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs). AUVs are untethered robotic devices propelled
through the water by self-contained power systems. Piloted by an onboard computer, AUVs
are launched from the surface and are maneuverable in three dimensions. Some are driften by
self-contained power systems. Others use the difference in water layer temperatures to glide.
AUVs sample the ocean along precise preprogrammed underwater paths.
How do drifters send their information to marine scientists and what type of information do they
collect?
c. Drifters are instrument packages that measure temperature, salinity, pressure and currents.
They collect information and transmit it, with their exact position, to a satellite system. Some
drifters float at the surface. Others descend as deep as 2,000 meters (6,560 feet) for programmed durations, then rise to the surface to transmit their data.
What are three types of sea surface observations that satellites can make to benefit oceanographers?
2. Satellites orbit the Earth and assist oceanographers with global observations of the oceans. Satellites provide continuous measurements of variables such as surface height, shape, temperature
and color, over the entire planet.
a. Satellites assist oceanographers in understanding the influence and effect of the oceans on
the global climate systems.
b. Information gathered from satellites has largely replaced measurements taken directly at sea.
How have Loran-C and GPS benefited seafaring and oceanography?
3. The first electronic navigation came into use in the late 1960s. LORAN (LOng RAnge Navigation),
later called Loran-C, used land based radio transmitters along the coasts. However, accuracy varied with distance from the transmitters - the farther from a transmitter, the less accurate the position.
a. Loran-C changed navigation. Instead of accuracy within a kilometer, ships knew their location
within a few meters. Loran-C provided navigation information 24 hours a day in all weather. It
benefited seafaring by making it safer.
b. In the 1990s GPS (Global Positioning System) replaced Loran. GPS is based on signals from
orbiting satellites and works everywhere on Earth, all the time, in all weather and is more accurate – to 1-2 meters (3-6 feet).
c. Electronic navigation has benefited oceanography by allowing scientists to know exactly where
they are when they take samples or conduct research.
VII. Underwater Exploration Historical Timeline
You may choose to use the timeline to start a class discussion, or to assign student projects concerning
particular developments or historical periods in oceanography.
Instructional Strategy – Student Self-Study Exploration Through Reading
Guide students to read and study each major topic of the chapter rather than focus on the entire chapter at
one time. Before reading, focus students’ attention on the guided reading questions (green in the student
textbook). These are listed here for each major topic.
For each major topic in the chapter assess students’ prior knowledge. Instruct students to construct a concept map, prior to reading, using the list of vocabulary words for each major topic of the chapter. If students
need help constructing a concept map, review the directions with them.
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As students read about the topic, have them answer the “Study Questions” located in the textbox on the first
page of each section. After students read the section have them revise their concept maps. It may be beneficial to use a different colored pen or pencil so that students can see what they have learned from reading
and where their misconceptions of the subject matter lie. If you have divided students into study groups they
may share their individual concept maps with their group. Study groups may then construct a summary concept page based on the feedback of the other team members.
I. The History of Oceanography – Why Study It? Guided Reading Questions
1. What are three reasons to learn the history of oceanography?
2. What are four main stages in the history of oceanography?
VOCABULARY
 maritime
II. Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C.-800 A.D.) Guided Reading Questions
A. Prehistory and the Rise of Seafaring
1. What were the three primary reasons for early civilization to interact with the ocean?
2. When was the first recorded sea voyage, and by what civilization?
B. Ancient Phoenician Explorations and Discoveries
3. What did the Phoenicians contribute to ocean exploration?
C. Ancient Polynesian Explorations and Discoveries
4. What was the significance of early Polynesian seafaring?
D. Ancient Greek Exploration and Discoveries
5. How did ancient explorers navigate near shore and in the open ocean?
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6. What major ocean discovery is credited to the Greek Pytheas?
7. What two major contributions are credited to the Greek Eratosthenes?
8. What are the significances of the maps of Herodotus, Strabo, and Ptolemy?
E. The Latitude/Longitude System
9.
What is the purpose of the latitude and longitude mapping system?
10. What is a parallel? What is another name for the 0° parallel?
11. What is a meridian? Through what city does the 0° meridian run?
VOCABULARY
 meridian
 navigator
 outrigger
 piloting
 parallel
 remotely operated vehicle (ROV)
 seafaring
 submersible
III. The Middle Ages (800 A.D.-1400) Guided Reading Questions
A. The European Middle Ages
1. What effect did the Middle Ages have on the knowledge of geography and science?
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B. Viking Explorations and Discoveries
2. What climate change affected Scandinavia in the 9th century? What was the significance of this
change to exploration?
C. Chinese Explorations and Discoveries
3. By the year 1125, the Chinese were responsible for inventing what important navigational tool?
4. What two technological innovations did Chinese ships have by the mid 1400s?
VOCABULARY
 hull
 rudder
IV. European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700) Guided Reading Questions
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A. The End of the Middle Ages and a Route Around Africa
1. What were the primary motivations that led to the ocean explorations of the 15th century?
2. What three explorers established the route around the Cape of Good Hope to India?
B. Exploration of the New World
3. What was the purpose of Christopher Columbus’ four expeditions?
4. Who is credited as being the first European to recognize that South America was a new continent?
5. What was Vasco Nuñez de Balboa’s a accomplishment?
6. Who led the first expedition around the world? Over what years did the voyage take place?
7. Who led the second expedition around the world? Over what years did the voyage take place?
VOCABULARY
 circumnavigation
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History of Ocean Exploration and Marine Sciences – Chapter 2
V. The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900) Guided Reading Questions
A. Cook’s Expeditions
1. In what way did the voyages of James Cook differ from those of sea explorers before him?
2. What invention in 1735 was a major breakthrough for open ocean navigation?
3. What geographical discoveries did the Cook expeditions make?
B. The United States Exploring Expedition
4. Which continent did the United States Exploring Expedition prove exists?
C. Matthew Maury-Father of Physical Oceanography
5. Why do we remember Matthew Maury as the father of physical oceanography?
D. Darwin and the H.M.S. Beagle
6. How did Charles Darwin explain the formation of coral reefs?
7. What theory did Darwin propose as a result of his observations during the H.M.S. Beagle expedition?
E. The Challenger Expedition
8. What expedition is commonly recognized as the first devoted entirely to marine science?
9. What accomplishments and discoveries did the H.M.S. Challenger make?
VOCABULARY
 chronometer
 fauna
 flora
 genera
 hydrothermal vent
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History of Ocean Exploration and Marine Sciences – Chapter 2
VI. Twentieth-Century Marine Science Guided Reading Questions
A. The Oceanography Explosion
1. What change led to the growth and expansion of modern oceanography in the 20th century?
B. Three Expeditions
2. For what accomplishments do we recognize the German Meteor expedition?
3. What was the significance of the Atlantis?
4. What noted discovery did the second H.M.S. Challenger make?
C. Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving
5. How have submersibles and self-contained diving changed the study of the ocean?
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History of Ocean Exploration and Marine Sciences – Chapter 2
6. What are the three types of submersible that have been used for underwater research?
7. What are the advantages and disadvantages of submersibles and scuba?
D. ROVs, AUVs, Drifters, Satellites and Electronic Navigation
8. What is the difference between an ROV and an AUV?
9. How do drifters send their information to marine scientists and what type of information do they
collect?
10. What are the three types of sea surface observations that satellites can make to benefit oceanographers?
11. How have Loran-C and GPS benefited seafaring and oceanography?
VOCABULARY
 aqualung
 hard-hat diving
 ballast
 hardsuit
 bathyscaphe
 helix
 bathysphere
 Loran-C
 decompression
 manipulator arm
 decompression sickness
 open circuit scuba
 decompression stops
 support vessel
 echo-sounding
 global positioning system (GPS)
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History of Ocean Exploration and Marine Sciences – Chapter 2
ENRICHMENT EXPERIENCES
Elaborate (Integration of Other Sciences)
1. Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C.-800 A.D.) (science as inquiry, Earth and space science, science and technology, science in personal and social perspectives, history and nature of
science).
 Reference Figure 2-5 – Underwater archaeology.
 Have students draw up a plan on how they would study an underwater archaeological site. What
materials would they need? How would it be different from studying a site on the surface?
2. Twentieth-Century Marine Science (science as inquiry, science and technology, history and nature
of science).
 Reference Figures 2-54a – 1935 hardsuit and 2-54b – Modern one-atmosphere hardsuit.
 Have students design a mechanical claw for use in a hardsuit. They can use straws and strings to
mimic the hand, cutting notches in the straws to allow for flexibility.
3. Underwater Exploration Historical Timeline (science as inquiry, life science, physical science, science and technology, history and nature of science).
 Reference Figure 2-65 – 1511, Image from Vegetius De Re Militari.
 Have students discuss why the design in the figure could not possibly work, showing an understanding of pressure as it affects a snorkeler/diver.
Extension (Interdisciplinary Connections)
Marine Science and the Real World Questions
These questions provide students with an opportunity to apply major concepts in the chapter to real world
situations. They are located at the end of the chapter.
Activity 1 – Research Team Building
Everyone understands that scientific research requires the work of scientists, but what other people are
needed to support oceanographic research? Have students brainstorm to develop a list of people needed to
support modern oceanographic research, whether from a land-based station, or on board a ship. The list
should include electronics technicians to design and maintain instruments, engineers to design submersibles
and ROVs, and others, ranging from satellite designers to a ship’s cook. Have each student select one of
these positions and do research to find out what training and qualifications are needed to perform the work.
Activity 2 – Social Influences on Oceanography
The history of oceanography has been shaped by many other events throughout history, from the development of new technologies, to social phenomena such as wars or cultural shifts. Have students select a portion of the timeline in Chapter 2 and list these other factors which may have contributed to certain events
depicted in the timeline.
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