ACADEMIC WINDOW
PSYCHOLOGY: CLASS XI
SYLLABUS
Class XI (Theory)
One Theory Paper
Unit wise weight age
Units
Foundations of Psychology
I. Introduction to Psychology
3 Hours
MARKS :100 (70+30)
Marks
08
II. Methods of Psychology
09
III. The Bases of Human Behaviour
08
IV. Human Development
07
V. Sensory and Perceptual Processes
08
VI. Learning
08
VII. Human Memory
08
VIII Language and thought
07
IX. Motivation and Emotion
07
Practical (Projects, experiments, small studies)
30
CHAPTER 1: WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
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The term psychology originates from two Greek words “psyche” and “logos” meaning soul
and science or study of a subject respectively.
Formally psychology is defined as “a science which studies mental processes, experiences and
behaviour in different contexts”.
Although psychology is an old discipline, it is a young science.
What kind of science psychology is, still remains to be a matter of debate.
Modern psychology has developed because of the application of the scientific method to study
psychological phenomenon.
Psychology is recognised as a social science as it studies human behaviour in socio-cultural
contexts.
Thus. The nature of the discipline remains unclear.
Various common sense notions pertaining to psychology exist, e.g. everyone of us acts like
psychologist, psychologist and astrologers, tantriks are same etc.
In reality, these common sense notions are not correct as it is based on hindsight.
Scientific knowledge generated by psychology often runs against common sense.
Whereas psychology as a science looks for predictable patterns of behaviour and doesn’t
explained after the behaviour occurs.
Thus, led to the advent of various schools of thought: Structuralism, Functionalism,
Behaviourism, Psychoanalysis, Humanistic perspective.
Modern era of Indian psychology started in Calcutta University in 1915 due to the contribution
of scholars like Dr. N.N. Sengupta, Professor G. Bose, Durganand Sinha and others.
Since, the discipline was dominated by western psychology an attempt was made to search for
a new identity, i.e. phase of indigenisation during 1970s.
Over the years various field of specialisation have emerged - Cognitive, Biological,
Neuropsychology, Developmental, Social, Cross-Cultural & Cultural, Environmental, Health,
Clinical & Counselling, Industrial, Educational, Sports Psychology etc..
Psychologist generally engages in two kinds of activities – research in psychology &
application of psychology.
There exist a difference between Basic psychology and Applied psychology.
Basic psychology provides theories, principles forming the basis of application of psychology
and applied psychology provides different contexts where developed theories and principles
from research can be meaningfully applied.
Psychologists today work in a varied settings often referred to as “human service areas”.
Knowledge of psychology is rewarding from personal as well as social points of view.
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Review Questions:
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1 mark:
1. Define psychology.
2. Define introspection.
3. Define cognition.
4. Define constructivism.
5. Name a few Gestalt Psychologists.
6. Explain the equation B= F(P,E) as proposed by Kurt Lewin.
7. When was the first Psychological laboratory established?
8. Who is known as the father of psychology?
9. Who is the father of Psychoanalysis?
10. Name any two domains representing basic psychology.
11. Give an example to show that behaviour is an association between a stimulus and a
response.
12. What is neuropsychology?
13. Define psychoneuroimmunology.
14. What is a discipline?
15. What are mental process?
16. List a few mental process.
17. What is neuropsychology?
2 marks:
18. What is behaviour? Give examples of overt and covert behaviour.
19. State any two reasons to show why a particular discipline is hard to define.
20. Explain why experiences are subjective in nature.
21. What is the basic assumption of structuralism school of Psychology?
22. What is the basic assumption of functionalism school of psychology?
23. Give two reasons why psychology as the science of soul was rejected.
24. What are the different techniques adopted by Sigmund Freud to study the unconscious
mind?
25. Why psychology as a study of mind was was discarded?
26. When do we use our mental processes?
27. Name and explain the two disciplines that borrow concepts from psychology.
3 marks:
28. How can you differentiate between scientific psychology from everyday psychology?
29. Explain the statement “ Mind cannot exist without brain but mind is a separate entity”.
30. “Scientific knowledge generated by psychology often runs against common sense”.
Explain the statement with suitable examples.
31. Differentiate between basic Vs Applied psychology.
32. Explain Sigmund Freud’s view about human behaviour.
33. What are the main areas of focus of school psychology?
34. What is the focus of environmental psychology as the field of psychological application?
4 marks:
35. Describe the status of psychology in India.
36. Explain research and application as two important tasks of psychologists.
37. Explain the theme “Psychology like other sciences attempts to develop principles of
behaviour and mental processes.
38. Explain the theme “Human behaviour is a function of the attributes of persons and
environment.
39. Explain the statement “Human behaviour is caused”.
40. Why understanding of human behaviour is culturally constructed?
41. Explain the statement “Human behaviour can be controlled and modified through the
application of psychological principles”.
42. What are the problems for which collaboration of psychologist with other disciplines can
be fruitful? Discuss with the help of any two examples.
43. Describe some of the areas of everyday life where understanding of psychology can be
put to practice
44. Differentiate between: (2 points each)
a) Psychologist and a psychiatrist
b) Counsellor and clinical psychologist
c) Educational and school psychology
6 marks:
45. Name the two activities which psychologists engage in. Explain briefly the themes which
provide direction to research and application of psychology.
46. In terms of helping solve an important social problem such as crime, which branch of
psychology do you think is most suitable? Identify the field and discuss the concerns of
the psychologist working in the field.
47. Discuss the evolution of psychology.
48. Justify whether psychology is an art or a science.
49. Explain the different areas of specialization in psychology.
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CHAPTER-2: Methods of Enquiry in Psychology
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Like any scientific research, psychological enquiry has the following goals – description,
prediction, explanation, control of behaviour and application of knowledge.
 The Steps followed in Conducting Scientific Enquiry/ Research are: Conceptualising a problem,
collecting data, drawing conclusions, revising research conclusions.
 There exists an alternative paradigm of research.In recent years, a different method known as “
interpretive” ( focusing upon over explanation and prediction) has emerged in the discipline of
psychology.
 The different types of data or information collected in psychological enquiry are : demographic
information, physical information, physiological data, psychological information.
 Some of the important data collection methods used in Psychological Enquiry are:
a) Observation method
b) Experimental method
c) Field Experiments and Quasi Experiments
d) Co- relational Research
e) Survey Research
f) Psychological Testing
g) Case Study
 After the collection of data, the next task of the researcher is to draw conclusion of the data which
requires analysis of data.
 Technically speaking , a psychological test is a standardised and objective instrument which is used
to assess an individual’s standing in relation to others on some mental or behavioural
characteristics.
 Two things are worth noting in this definition: objectivity and standardisation.
 The two generally used methodological approaches for data analysis are:
a) Quantitative method: use of statistical methods in order to analyse the data.
b) Qualitative method: interpretive study of a specific issue or a problem.
 The researcher also need to face certain general problems while conducting psychological
measurements. The limitations are:
a) Lack of True Zero Point
b) Relative Nature of Psychological Tools
c) Subjective Interpretation of Qualitative Data
 Psychological researcher needs to follow certain ethics (moral principles) while conducting research:
a) Respect for persons privacy
b) Choice to participate in the study
c) Beneficence/ protecting the participants in the study from any harm
d) Justice/ sharing the benefits of research with all participants.
Review Questions:
1 Marks:
1. Define observation?
2. Define variable ?
3. Define correlation of coefficient?
4. Define debriefing?
5. What are the two types of methods used in psychological research in order to analyse the data?
6. What is objectivity?
7. What is a hypothesis?
8. Define a research problem.
9. What is data?
10. What is a variable?
11. What is an independent variable?
12. What is a dependent variable?
13. What are extraneous variable?
14. What is counterbalancing technique?
15. What is an experimental group?
16. What is a control group?
17. Define a psychological test.
18. What is reliability?
19. What is validity?
20. What are norms?
2 Marks:
21. What do you understand by the term “ interpretive” paradigm of research?
22. Give any two characteristics of data.
23. Give any two characteristics of variable.
24. Distinguish between experimental and control group.
25. State the characteristics of a good observer.
26. Write a short note on case study.
3 marks:
27. Differentiate between the following:
i. Naturalistic vs. Controlled observation
ii. Participant vs. Non-participant observation
iii.
Field Experiments and Laboratory experiments.
iv.
Field Experiments and Quasi experiments.
v. Standardized and Non –standardized interviews.
vi.
Verbal , non-verbal and performance test.
vii.
Individual and group tests.
viii.
Speed and Power test.
28. Differentiate between independent and dependent variable
29. Explain the concept positive, negative and zero correlation with an example for each.
30. Explain the characteristics of research.
31. Explain test-retest and split-half methods of estimating the reliability of a particular test.
32. Explain the different combinations of participants in an interview.
33. What are the advantages and disadvantages of adopting a case study approach?
34. Define quasi experiment along with an example.
35. How does scientific observation differ from day-to-day observation?
36. Name the three types of relevant variables and give example of each.
37. Differentiate between interview and a questionnaire.
38. What are the characteristics of a good interviewer?
39. Explain the merits and demerits of observation method.
40. Explain the merits and demerits of survey method.
41. Explain the merits and demerits of case study method.
42. Differentiate between qualitative and quantitative method of analysing data
4 marks:
43. What are the goals of scientific / psychological enquiry?
44. Describe the various steps involved in conducting a scientific enquiry.
45. What are the different types of data collected in psychological research? Give examples of
each.
46. How many types of observation are there? Discuss each briefly.
47. Define variable? Name the two types of variable and give examples of each.
48. How do experimental and control groups differ? Explain with the help of an example.
49. A researcher is studying the relationship between the speed of cycling and the presence of
people. Formulate a relevant hypothesis and identify the independent and dependent variables.
50. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of experimental method as a method of enquiry.
51. Dr. Krishnan is going to observe and record children’s play behaviour at a nursery school
without attempting to influence or control the behaviour. Which method of research is
involved? Explain the process and discuss its merits and demerits.
52. Describe the different techniques used by experimenters in order to control relevant variables?
53. What is an co-relational research? Describe briefly about it.
(4)
54. Define coefficient of correlation. Briefly describe its three types.
55. Give two examples of the situations where survey method can be used. What are the
limitations of this method?
56. Define psychological test. Explain the characteristics of a standardised psychological test .
57. How are psychological test classified? Explain each with the help of an example.
6 marks:
58. Describe the limitations of a psychological enquiry.
59. Describe the ethical guidelines that a psychologist needs to follow while conducting a
psychological enquiry.
60. Describe the different methods of collecting data along with the merits and demerits of each.
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Chapter 3: The Bases of Human Behaviour
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Evolution refers to gradual and orderly biological changes that result in a species from
their pre- existing forms in response to the changing adaptational demands of their
environment.
 Evolution occurs through the process of natural selection.
 An important determinant of our behaviour is the biological structures that we have
inherited from our ancestors in the form of developed body and brain.
 There are three important features of modern human beings which helps in differentiating
from their ancestors are:
a) Encephalization
b) Bipedalism
c) Free hand with a workable opposing thumb
 The biological system and also the cultural systems both are an important determinant of
human behaviour. These influences become more potent and visible as age increases.
 The biological system prevalent in human beings which has an influence on our behaviour
are:
a) Neurons : refers to the basic unit of human nervous system
b) Neural Impulse: information travels within the nervous system in the form of a nerve
impulse.
c) Synapse: The functional connection between the axon tip of a preceding neuron with the
dendrites of the other neuron.
d) The Nervous system : it can be classified into two parts:
i) Central Nervous System (CNS) : centre of all neural activity and it comprises of the
brain and the spinal cord
ii) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): composed of all the neurons and nerve fibres that
connect CNS to the rest of the body. It can be subdivided into Somatic Nervous
System and the Autonomic Nervous System.
e) Human brain can be subdivided into 3 parts:
 Hind brain: comprises of medulla oblongata, pons, cerebellum.
 Midbrain: relatively small in size and it connects the hindbrain with the forebrain.
 Forebrain: comprises of hypothalamus, thalamus, limbic system, cerebrum
f) Spinal Cord: refers to the long rope like collection of nerve fibres, which run along the
full length inside the spine.
g) Reflex Action: refers to an involuntary action that occurs very quickly after its specific
kind of stimulation ; e.g. eye blinking, pupil constriction, breathing etc.
h) The Endocrine System: also known as ductless glands which secrete specific chemical
substances called hormones which regulates some of human behaviour. The major
endocrine glands are:
 Pituitary gland- secretes growth hormone
 Thyroid gland- secretes thyroxin
 Adrenal gland- secretes Adrenocorticotrophic (ACTH) Hormone.
 Pancreas- secretes insulin
 Gonads- secretes gonadotrophic hormone (GTH)
 Human beings inherit characteristics from our parents in the form of genes which provides a
distinct biological blueprint and timetable for an individual’s development. These genes dictate
much of the course of an organism’s development.
 Human evolution involves both genetic and cultural transmissions. These transmission
processes are different in certain respects, but they are parallel features. Human nature has
evolved through an interplay of biological and cultural forces.
 Thus, the role of culture and society is important in determining our behaviour.
 The word culture refers to “the man-made part of the environment”. it comprises diverse
products of the behaviour of many people including ourselves. These products can be material
object, ideas, and social institutions. These products influence our behaviour although we may
not be aware of it.
 Since, one definite way of defining culture was not found innumerable definitions of culture
commonly was suggested which point towards some of its essential features1. Culture includes behavioural products of others who preceded us. It indicates both substantial
and abstract particulars that have prior existence in one form or another. Thus, culture is
always there as we begin life.
2. It contains values that will be expressed and a language in which to express them.
3. It contains a way of life that will be followed by most of us who grow up in that context.
 There are certain forms of behaviour which are displayed uniquely by human, and creations
of what we call culture. The process of enculturation and socialisation make us cultural beings.
1. Enculturation: it refers to all learning that takes place without direct, deliberation teaching.
We learn concepts, ideas and values simply because of their availability in our cultural context.
The key element of enculturation is learning by observation.
2. Socialisation: it is a process by which individuals acquire knowledge, skills and dispositions,
which enable them to participate as effective members of groups and society. It continues over
the entire life-span, and through which one learns and develops ways of effective functioning
at any stage of development.
 There are a number of people who relate to us and possess power to socialise us. Such people
are called “socialisation agents”. The various socialising agents are:
1.
Parents
2.
School
3.
Peer groups
4.
Media influences
 Acculturation refers to the cultural and psychological changes resulting from contact with
other cultures. It can take place any time in one’s life. There are four acculturation strategies.
They are:
1. Integration
2. Assimilation
3. Separation
4. Marginalisation
Review Questions:
1 Mark:
1. Define the following: a) Genetics b) Chromosomes c) Genes d) Mutation e) DNA f)
Memes g) Evolution h) Hormones i) Neuron j) Synapse k) Culture l) Enculturation m)
Acculturation
2 Marks:
1. State “all- or- none principle”.
2. Explain how does neuron transmit information.
3. How does ANS help us in dealing with an emergency situation?
4. Describe the 2 major functions of spinal cord.
5. Endocrine glands are called as ductless glands. Why?
6. Give examples of acculturation strategies and acculturation attitudes.
3 Marks
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How does evolutionary perspective explain the biological basis of behaviour?
Explain the structure of a neuron.
How can we distinguish between enculturation and socialisation?
What is meant by acculturation? Is acculturation a smooth process? Discuss.
Define Reflex action? Mention the examples of reflex action.
Differentiate between the following: (3)
a) Somatic Vs Autonomic Nervous system
b) Sympathetic Vs Parasympathetic Nervous system
c) Central Vs Peripheral Nervous System
d) Cranial Vs Spinal nerves
4 marks:
1.
2.
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4.
Name the 4 lobes of cerebral cortex. What functions do they perform?
Explain the meaning of culture and describe its important features.
Describe the main agents of socialisation.
Discuss the acculturative strategies adopted by individuals during the course of
acculturation.
5. How does the evolutionary perspective explain the biological basis of behaviour?
6. How can we distinguish between enculturation and socialization? Explain.
7. Is acculturation a smooth process? Discuss
6 marks:
1. Elaborately describe the structures of brain and explain the functions of each part
briefly.
2. Draw a diagram to represent the structure of a neuron and explain each part .
3. Name the various endocrine glands and the hormones secreted by them. How does the
endocrine system affect our behaviour.
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Chapter 4: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
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Development refers to the pattern of progressive, orderly and predictable changes that begin at
conception and continues throughout life. It is influenced by interplay of biological, cognitive
and socio-emotional processes.
 The concept of development is understood better with the life-span perspective(LSP) which
includes the following assumptions1. Development is lifelong.
2. The various processes of human development are interwoven in the development of a
person throughout the life-span.
3. Development is multi-directional.
4. Development is highly plastic
5. Development is influenced by historical conditions.
7. Development is the concern of a number of disciplines.
8. An individual responds and acts on contexts, which include what was inherited, the
physical environment, social, historical, and cultural context.
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Human development is influenced by interplay of heredity and environment.
Development does not take place in vacuum. It is always embedded in a particular
socio-cultural context. The environment can change or alter during any time of the
individual’s life-span.
Urie Bronfenbrenner’s contextual view of development(western context) emphasises
the role of environmental factors in the development of an individual in five
concentric circles.
Durganand Sinha’s view of development (Indian context) emphasises the process of
development in two concentric circles.
Human life proceeds through different stages. They arePrenatal stage: the period from conception to birth is known as the prenatal period.
Infancy: The brain develops at an amazing rate before and after birth. The neural
connections among these cells develop at a rapid rate.
Childhood: The child’s growth slows down during early childhood as compared to
infancy. The child develops physically as well as socially. The child also begins to
acquire the concept’s of good and bad. Lot of development occur at physical, motor,
cognitive levels and socio- emotional development.
According to Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the main characteristics of
sensorimotor stage are the child’s gradual recognition of the permanence of objects.
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The preoperational stage is marked by certain deficiencies in thinking such as
centration, irreversibility, and egocentrism.
During the concrete operations stage, children develop the ability to perform
operations on mental representations, making them capable of conservation. The stage
of formal operations is more abstract, systematic, and develops logical thought.
According to Kohlberg, moral reasoning progresses through three levels that are
related to age and determined by cognitive development.
Adolescence: is commonly defined as the stage of life that begins at the onset of
puberty, when sexual maturity, or the ability to reproduce is attained. Development
occurs at physical, cognitive level. Some majors concerns/ challenges faced during
adolescence : delinquency, substance abuse, and eating disorders.
Adulthood: An adult is generally defined as someone who is responsible, mature, self
supporting, and well integrated into society. In early adulthood, two major tasks are:
a) Exploring the possibilities for adult living.
b) Developing a stable life structure.
Transition in adulthood’s life occurs due to the following events--- Career and work,
Marriage, parenthood and family
Old Age: Traditionally the age of retirement was linked to old age. In old age feeling
of loss of energy, and dwindling of health and financial assets, lead to insecurity and
dependency.
Age-related physical transitions during adulthood include changes in appearance,
memory, and in the cognitive domain.
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
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4.
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6.
7.
8.
9.
1 MARK
What is development?
Define: genotype, phenotype, teratogens, attachment, object permanence.
What is evolution?
What is growth?
What is maturation?
Explain the term egocentrism?
What is imaginary audience?
What is personal fable?
What is an identity?
2 MARKS
1. How is development different from growth and maturation?
2. What are developmental tasks? Explain by giving examples.
3. Explain the phenomenon of hypothetical deductive reasoning.
4. Name and explain the two eating disorders.
3.MARKS:
1. Attachment bonds formed in childhood years have long- term effects. Explain taking
examples from daily life.
2. Explain the maternal characteristics the affect prenatal development.
3. Explain the concept of attachment with an experiment carried out by Harlow and Harlow
(1962).
4. Explain the stage of basic trust and mistrust as proposed by Eric Erickson.
5. “Environment of the child has a major role in the development of the child”. Support
your answer with examples.
4.MARKS
1. Describe the main features of life- span perspective on development.
2. Explain how environment affects development.
3. Explain Urie Bronfenbrenner’s contextual view of development.
4. Explain the ecological model for understanding the development of children.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
How do socio-cultural factors influence development?
Discuss the cognitive changes taking place in a developing child.
What is adolescence? Explain the concept of egocentrism.
What are the challenges faced by individuals on entry to adulthood?
What are the factors influencing the formation of identity during adolescence?
Support your answer with examples.
6 MARKS
10. Explain the development of infancy in terms of motor, sensory, cognitive, socioemotional development.
11. Explain the age of childhood focussing on physical, motor, cognitive, socio-emotional
and moral areas of development.
12. Explain the major areas of concerns of adolescence.
13. Explain some of the areas which demands adjustment on part of individuals who are
in the adulthood stage.
14. Explain the stage of “Old Age” as one of the challenging stage in the life span.
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CHAPTER-5: SENSORY, ATTENTIONAL AND PERCEPTUAL PROCESSES
 Our knowledge of the world around us depends on three basic interrelated processes
called: sensation, attention and perception.
 The external environment that surrounds us contains a wide variety of stimuli. As
human beings we are bestowed with a set of seven sense organs (eyes, ears, nose,
tongue, skin, kinaesthetic and vestibular). These sense organs are also known as
sensory receptors because they receive or gather information from a variety of
sources.
 The initial experience of a stimulus or an object registered by a particular sense organ
is called sensation. It is a process through which we detect and encode a variety of
physical stimuli. Different sense organs deal with different form of stimuli and serve
different purposes. Each sense organ is highly specialised for dealing with a
particular kind of information. Hence, each one of them is known as a sense
modality.
 Our sense organs function with certain limitations. In order to overcome the limitation
of sense organs a discipline called psychophysics got introduced. The two important
concepts under psychophysics area) Absolute threshold or absolute limen(AL)- it is the minimum value of a stimulus
required to activate a given sensory system.
b) Difference threshold or difference limen (DL) - it is the smallest difference in the
value of two stimuli that is necessary to notice them as different.
 Visual sensation starts when light enters the eyes and stimulates our visual receptors.
Human eyes are sensitive to a spectrum of light, the wave length of which ranges
from 380 nm to 780 nm.
 The human eye is made up of three layers :
1. Outer layer- it consist of cornea in front and sclera at the back.
2. Middle layer- is also known as choroid.
3. Inner layer-is also known as retina
 Working of Human Eye: Passing through conjunctiva, cornea, and pupil the light
enters the lens which focuses it on the retina. Retina is divided into two parts-the
nasal half and the temporal half. An inverted image of the object is formed on the
retina. The neural impulse is transmitted to the visual cortex through the optic nerve
where the image is re-inverted and processed. The optic nerve leaves the retina from
the area that has no photoreceptors. In this area visual sensitivity is completely
absent. Therefore, it is called the blind spot.
 The human eye can function at a very large range of light intensities. Sometimes we
have to undergo a rapid change in illumination levels. The process of getting adjusted
to different intensities of light is called “visual adaptation”. There are two types of
visual adaptation they area) Light adaptation-it refers to the process of adjusting to bright light after exposure to
dim light.
b) Dark adaptation-it refers to the process of adjusting to a dimly illuminated
environment after exposure to bright light.
 Colour is a psychological property of our sensory experience. It is created when our
brain interprets the information received from the external world.
 Our experience of colour can be described in terms of three basic dimensions. They
are:A) Hue-it is a property of chromatic colours.
B) Saturation-it refers to the relative amount of hue of a surface.
C) Brightness-it is the perceived intensity of light.
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a)
b)
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i)
ii)
iii)
The effect of a visual stimulus persists for some time even after the removal of that
stimulus from the visual field. This effect is called after image. After images are of
two types they are:Positive after image-it resembles the original stimulus in terms of hue, saturation and
brightness.
Negative after image- it appears in complementary colours.
Human ear is another important sense organ.
Auditory sensation begins when sound enters our ear and stimulates the chief organs
of hearing.
The human ear can be divided into three segments. They are:External ear: - it contains two main structures, namely pinna and auditory meatus.
Middle ear: - it consists of the tympanum followed by tympanic cavity. It is connected
to the pharynx with the help of Eustachian tube. From the cavity the vibration pass to
three ossicles known as malleus, incus, and stapes.
Inner ear: - it consists of the membranous labyrinth which is encapsulated in a bony
shell called bony labyrinth. The bony labyrinth has three semi circular canals. A
cavity called vestibular and a coiled structure called cochlea. There is a membranous
cochlea inside the bony cochlea known as scala media. It has got a spirally coiled
membrane called basilar membrane. It has got fine hair cells arranged in a series to
form the organ of corti.
Working of Human ear: The functioning of the ear starts as the pinna collects the sound
vibration and sends them to the tympanum through the auditory meatus.the vibration from
tympanic cavity gets transferred to the three ossicles and transmit them to the inner ear. The
cochlea receives the sound waves in the inner ear. Through vibration the endolymph is set in
motion which also vibrates the organ of corti. Finally, the impulses are send to the auditory
nerve and reaches the auditory cortex where the impulse is interpreted.
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Sound is a stimulus for ears. It results from pressure variation in the external
environment.
The physical dimensions of sound as a stimulus arei) Amplitude-it is a general measure of stimulus magnitude.
ii) Wavelength-it is the distance between the two crest.
iii) Frequency- sound waves are described in terms of their frequency, which is
measured in terms of cycle per second.
 The psychological dimensions of sound as a stimulus arei) Loudness: - it is determined by amplitude. It is measured in decibels (db).
ii) Pitch: - it refers to highness and lowness of sound.
iii) Timbre:- it refers to the nature or quality of a sound.
 Another important process that helps human beings to gather knowledge about the world is
attention process.
 Attention refers to the process through which certain stimuli are selected from a group of others.
 There are different types of attentioni) Selective attention-concerned mainly with the selection of a limited number of stimuli or
objects from a large number of stimuli.
ii) Sustained attention- refers to our ability to maintain attention on an object/ event for
longer durations.
 There are various factors that affect selective attention. It can be classified as:
i) External factors- it is related to the features of stimuli.
ii) Internal factors- it lie within the individual. Internal factors further can be divided
into two main categories they are—
a) Motivational factors-it is related to our biological or social needs.
b) Cognitive factors- it includes various factors like interest, attitude, and preparatory
set.
 A number of theories have been developed to explain the process of selective attention. The
main three theories arei) Filter theory- it was developed by Broadbent (1956). According to this theory, many
stimuli simultaneously enter our receptors creating a kind of ‘bottleneck’ situation
and then the selective filter filters out the unwanted stimulus for that moment of
time.
ii) Filter-attenuation theory- it was developed by triesman(1962). This theory proposes
that the stimuli not getting access to the selective filter at a given moment of time are
not completely blocked. The filter only weakens their strength.
iii) Multimode theory- it was developed by Johnston and Heinz(1978). This theory
believes that attention is a flexible system that allows selection of a stimulus over
others at three stages: sensory representations, semantic representations and at stage
three sensory and semantic representations enter the consciousness.
 Several factors can inhibit an individual’s performance on tasks of sustained attention they
are1. Sensory modality
2. Clarity of stimuli
3. Temporal uncertainty
4. Spatial uncertainty

Perceptual process is the another important process that helps us to gain meaning about
the world around us.
 Perception refers to the process by which we recognise, interpret or give meaning to the
information provided by sense organs.
 There are 2 processing approaches in perception:
i) Bottom-up processing: the idea that recognition process begins from the parts, which
serve as the basis for the recognition of the whole is known.
ii) Top-down processing: The notion that recognition process begins from the whole
which leads to identification of its various components is known as
 Human beings are creative beings and they try to understand the external world in their
own ways. There are various factors that influence perception:
a) Motivation: the needs and desires of a perceiver strongly influence her/his perception.
b) Expectations or perceptual sets: the expectations about what we might perceive in a
given situation also influence our perception.
c) Cognitive styles: it refers to a consistent way of dealing with our environment. It
significantly affects the way we perceive the environment. There are several cognitive
styles that people use. One most extensively used is “field dependent and field
independent”.
d) Cultural background and experiences: different experiences and learning opportunities
available to people in different cultural settings also influence their perception.
 Our visual field is a collection of different elements, such as points, lines and colours.
However, we perceive these elements as organised wholes or complete objects.
 The process of organising visual field into meaningful wholes is known as form perception.
 The most primitive organisation takes place in the form of figure-ground segregation.
 The gestalt psychologist have given us several laws to explain how and why different stimuli
in our visual field are organised into meaningful whole objects. The principles of perceptual
organizations are1. The principle of proximity
2. The principle of similarity
3. The principle of continuity
4. The principle of smallness
5. The principle of symmetry
6. The principle of surroundedness
7. The principle of closure
 Human beings have the ability to perceive not only the spatial attributes of various objects
but also the distance between the objects found in this space. This is referred to as
perception of space, depth and distance.
 Depth is perceived using two main sources of information, called cues. They are:
1) Monocular cues: monocular cues of depth perception are effective when the objects
are viewed with only one eye. Some important monocular cues that help in judging
the dimensional surfaces area) Relative size
b) Interposition or overlapping
c) Linear perspective
d) Aerial perspective
e) Light and shade
f) Relative height
g) Texture gradient
h) Motion parallax
2) Binocular cues: some important cues to depth perception in three dimensional space are
provided by both the eyes. Three of them area. Retinal or binocular disparity
b. Convergence
c. Accommodation
 Perception of the objects as relatively stable despite changes in the stimulation of sensory
receptors. This ability is referred to as perceptual constancy. There are three types of
perceptual constancies they are1. Size constancy
2. Shape constancy
3. Brightness constancy
 Human beings tend to misinterpret information received by our sensory organs.
 This misperceptions resulting from misinterpretation of information received by our sensory
organs are generally known as illusions.
 There are two types of illusions they are1. Universal/ Permanent illusions
2. Personal illusion: this section describes some important visual illusions they area. Geometrical illusions
b. Apparent movement illusions
 Socio- cultural factors play an important role in our perceptions by generating differential
familiarity with and salience of stimuli as well as certain habits of perceptual inference .
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1 MARKS
1. Identify the three processes that help in understanding the world.
2. Define the following: sensation, attention, perception, psychophysics, sense modality.
3. What is absolute threshold?
4. What is difference limen?
5. What is blind spot?
6. What is rhodopsin?
7. Name few primary colours.
8. Define amplitude, Loudness, Pitch, Timbre
9. What is selective attention?
10. What is sustained attention?
11. What is divided attention?
12. What are cognitive factors?
13. What is form perception?
14. Name a few Gestalt Psychologists.
15. What are illusions?
2 MARKS
1. Differentiate between:
a) Top-down processing & Bottom-up processing
b) Absolute threshold & Difference threshold
c) Monocular & Binocular Cues
d) Light & Dark Adaptation
e) Rods & Cones
f) Positive & Negative Afterimages
2. Explain the concept of good figure with an example.
3. Explain size constancy with an example.
4. Explain shape constancy with an example.
5. Explain brightness constancy with an example.
6. Explain the term perceptual constancies with an example.
3 MARKS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Explain the functional limitation of sense organs.
Explain the photochemical basis of light and dark adaptation.
What is colour vision? Describe the 3 basic dimensions of colour.
Describe the physical and psychological dimensions of sound.
Why do illusions occur?
Explain geometrical and apparent- movement illusion with examples.
Explain figure and ground segregation with an example.
Explain “phi-phenomenon” with example.
4 MARKS
1. How does auditory/ visual sensation take place?
2. Draw the structure of human eye/ ear and explain its parts in brief.
3. Explain the different dimensions of colour.
4. Explain the working of the ear.
5. State the characteristics on the basis of which figure and ground is separated.
6. Explain the properties of attention.
7. How do socio-cultural factors influence our perceptions?
8. Discuss the various laws of perceptual organisations.
9. Describe the monocular and binocular cues of depth perception.
10. Explain the three types of perceptual constancy elaborately.
6 MARKS
1. State the determinants of selective attention. How does selective attention differ from
sustained attention?
2. Discuss the three theories of selective attention.
3. Explain the factors that influence perception?
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Chapter: 6 LEARNING
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Learning is a key process in human behaviour.
It may be defined as “any relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioural
potential produced by experience”.
 There exist some important features of learning based on the above definition. They
are:
i) Learning always involves some kinds of experience.
ii) Behavioural changes that occur due to learning are relatively permanent.
iii) Learning involves a sequence of psychological events
iv) Learning is an inferred process and is different from performance.
 Based on the different paradigms of learning there exist different types of learning.
They are:
i) Classical Conditioning (CC): Pavlov first investigated CC on dogs. In this type of
learning an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus (CS) that signals
an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response (CR) that anticipates
and prepares the organism for US.
ii) Operant Conditioning (OC) : Skinner first investigated operant conditioning on a rat.
OC is a type of learning in which response is strengthened if followed by
reinforcement.
iii) Observational Learning : It refers to learning or acquiring knowledge by observing a
model’s behaviour. The performance depends on whether the model’s behaviour is
rewarded or punished.
iv) Cognitive learning: Learning which involves change in what the learner knows rather
than what he/ she does. This form of learning shows up in :
a) Insight learning: the process by which the solution to a problem suddenly becomes
clear.
b) Latent learning: the process in which a new behaviour is learned but not
demonstrated until reinforcement is provided for displaying it.
v) Verbal Learning: type of learning limited to human beings in which human beings
acquire knowledge about objects, events, and their features largely in terms of words.
vi) Concept Learning: a type of learning in which human beings acquire the ability to
organise objects, events, animals etc. into categories despite the difference in features.
Concept can be natural or artificial.
vii)
Skill Learning: Skill is defined as the ability to perform some complex task
smoothly and efficiently. They are learned by practice and exercise. It passes through
cognitive, associative and autonomous phases.
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The various determinants of Classical Conditioning are:
i) Time relations between stimuli
ii) Type of unconditioned stimuli
iii) Intensity of Conditioned stimuli
 The various determinants of Operant Conditioning are:
i) Types of Reinforcement
ii)
iii)
iv)
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Number of Reinforcement and other Features
Schedules of Reinforcement
Delayed Reinforcement
The various determinants of Verbal Learning are:
Length of the list to be learned
Meaningfulness of the material
The Key Learning Processes are :
Reinforcement: It refers to the operation of administering a reinforcer by the
experimenter. Rein forcers are stimuli that increase the rate of probability of the
responses that precede. The reinforcers may be primary or secondary.
Extinction: It refers to disappearance of a learned response due to removal of
reinforcement from the situation in which the response used to occur.
Generalisation & Discrimination: When a learned response occurs or is elicited by a
new stimulus, it is called generalisation. Whereas discrimination is a process
complimentary to generalisation and is a response due to difference.
Spontaneous Recovery: It occurs after a learned response is extinguished and is
dependent on the duration of time lapsed after the extinction session.
The different methods used in studying verbal learning are:
Paired-associate learning: it is a similar method as S-S conditioning and S-R
conditioning.
Serial Learning: participant is presented with the entire list and is required to produce
the items in the same serial order.
Free Recall: Participant is presented with a list of words at a fixed rate of exposure
duration and the participant is required to recall the words in any order they can.
Another important process that occurs in learning is known as transfer of learning.
It refers to the effects of prior learning on new learning. It may be general or specific.
It depends on the similarity of S-R associations in the two learning tasks.
The various factors that facilitate learning are :
Continuous vs. Partial reinforcement: In continuous reinforcement the participant is
given reinforcement after each target response and vice versa for partial
reinforcement.
Motivation: It energises an organism to act vigorously for attaining some goal.
Preparedness for Learning: The kind of S-S or S-R learning an organism can easily
acquire depends on the associative mechanism it is genetically endowed with or
prepared for.
Every individual has an learning style of their own.
Learning style refers to a learner’s consistent way of responding to and using stimuli
in the context of learning. It is derived from:
i) Perceptual Modality- auditory, visual, olfactory, tactile etc.
ii) Information Processing: - active/ reflective, sensing/intuitive, serial/ simultaneous etc.
iii) Personality Patterns- way we interact with our surroundings.
 Some individuals experience difficulty in terms of learning a new task/ activity etc.
 Such individuals are suffering from learning disability which refers to a heterogeneous group
of disorders manifested in terms of difficulty in the acquisition of learning, reading, writing,
speaking, reasoning, mathematical activities. For e.g. dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia etc.
 The principles of learning are applied in organisations, treatment of maladjustive reactions,
child rearing, school learning.
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1 MARKS
1. Define: learning, performance, operants , reinforce, cognitive map.
2. Give the meaning of orienting reflexes.
3. Give the meaning of schedules of reinforcement.
4. What is imitation?
5. What is social learning?
6. What is modelling?
7. What is category?
8. What is a skill?
9. What is a concept?
10. What re rules?
2 MARKS
1. What are the distinguishing features of learning?
2. Differentiate between:
a) Classical & Operant conditioning
b) Primary & Secondary reinforce
c) Natural concepts & artificial concepts
d) General & Specific Transfer
e) Continuous & Partial reinforcement
f) Relational & Analytical style of learning
g) Generalisation & Discrimination
3 MARKS
1.
2.
3.
4.
How does classical conditioning demonstrate learning by association?
Explain the distinctive features of learning.
Explain Skinner’s operant conditioning.
Discuss the factors that influence the course of operant conditioning/ classical
conditioning.
5. A good role model is very important for a growing up child. Discuss the kind of
learning that supports it.
4.MARKS
1. Discuss the experiment conducted by Pavlov to demonstrate the phenomenon of
classical conditioning
2. What are the different schedules of reinforcement?
3. Discuss the determinants of classical conditioning.
4. Discuss the determinants of operant conditioning.
5. Explain the meaning of insightful learning and Latent learning with examples.
6. Explain the procedures for studying verbal learning.
7. How does transfer of learning takes place?
8. What is skill learning? Describe the three phases though which skill learning goes
through.
9. Describe the factors that facilitate learning.
10. What is learning style? Describe the various approaches of learning styles.
11. Explain the different forms of cognitive learning.
6 MARKS
1. What is learning disability? List out the symptoms of learning disabilities.
2. Highlight out the areas in which the principles of learning can be applied with suitable
examples.
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CHAPTER 7: HUMAN MEMORY
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Human memory refers to retaining and recalling information over a period of time
It consists of three interrelated processes:
a) Encoding- process by which information is recorded and registered for the first time
so that it becomes usable by our memory system.
b) Storage – process by which information is retained and held over a period of time
c) Retrieval – process by which stored information can be brought to his/ her awareness
so that it can be used to perform various cognitive tasks such as problem-solving,
decision-making etc.

There exist various theories of Memory which enables us to understand the complex
processes that occurs in terms of processing the information.
1) Information Processing Approach/ Stage Model of Memory : This model was
proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968. It compares memory processes with the
working of a computer and suggests that incoming information from the environment is
processed through three distinct stages :
a) Sensory Memory: It is a memory system that registers information from each of the
senses with reasonable accuracy.
b) Short-term Memory (STM): refers to a memory system which holds small amount of
information for a brief period of time (usually for 30 seconds or less).
c) Long-term Memory (LTM): refers to a permanent storehouse of all information
which is never forgotten.
2) Levels of Processing: It was proposed by Craik and Lockhart in 1972. It suggests that
information can be encoded at any of the three levels:
a) Physical/ structural level: analysing in terms of its physical/ structural features and it
is the shallowest level of processing.
b) Phonetic level: analysing in terms of the phonetic sounds attached to the letters and it
is the intermediate level of processing
c) Semantic level: analysing in terms of the meaning of the word and it is the deepest
level of processing.
 Long-term Memory (LTM ) has been classified in many ways:
a) Declarative & Procedural memory: Information pertaining to facts, names, dates is
known as declarative memory ; e,g, India got independence on 15th August, 1947.
Whereas memories relating to procedures for accomplishing various tasks and skills is
known as procedural memory; e.g. riding a bicycle.
b) Episodic & Semantic memory: Memories relating to our personal life experiences is
known as the episodic memory ; e.g. any pleasant / painful experiences.
Whereas memory of general awareness and knowledge is called as semantic memory;
e.g. meaning of the word non-violence.
 Contents of LTM get represented in terms of:
a) Concepts: refers to the mental categories for objects and events, which are similar to each other
in one or in more than one way; e.g. mango, rose.
b) Categories: refers to a concept but it also functions to organise similarities among other concept
based on common features; e.g. fruit, flower.
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c) Schemas: refers to the mental frameworks which represent our knowledge and assumptions
about the world; e.g. think of a schema of a drawing room.
d) Hierarchical Network Model: It was developed by Allan Collins and Ross (1969) and it
suggests that we can store all knowledge at a certain level that applies to all the members of a
category without having to repeat the information at the lower levels in the hierarchy.
Bartlett in the early thirties contended that memory is an active process and all the information
stored undergoes continuous change and modifications. Memorised information is influenced by
the meaning assigned to the stimulus material and once it is committed to our memory system, it
cannot remain in isolation from other cognitive processes.
Forgetting is an important aspect associated with the term memory.
It refers to loss of stored information over a period of time. Hermann Ebbinghaus first attempted
to understand the nature of forgetting.
Ebbinghaus found that course of forgetting follows a certain pattern ; i.e. forgetting is maximum
during the first hour and after that the rate of forgetting slows down and not much is forgotten
even after many days.
The various theories were developed in order to understand and explain the causes of forgetting
1) Forgetting due to Trace Decay / Disuse theory: It is the earliest theory of forgetting which
suggests that memory traces that are not used for a long time simply fades away and become
unavailable leading to forgetting.
2) Forgetting due to Interference: Most influential theory which suggests that forgetting occurs
due to interference (proactive and retroactive) between various information that the memory store
contains.
3) Forgetting due to Retrieval Failure: Forgetting also occurs because during the time of recall,
either the retrieval cues are absent/ inappropriate
There are various strategies for improving memory. This is referred to as mnemonics. The widely
used mnemonics are:
a) Mnemonics using Images: refers to creating vivid and interacting images of the materials
wished to be remembered. For e.g. keyword method, method of loci
b) Mnemonics using organisation: refers to imposing certain order on the material to be
remembered. For e.g. chunking, first-letter technique.
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1 MARK
1. Define: memory, mnemonics, concepts, encoding, storage, retrieval, chunking,
maintenance rehearsal, schema, cognitive economy, forgetting,mnemonics
2. State “dual coding hypothesis”.
2 MARKS
1. Differentiate between:
a) Declarative & Procedural memory
b) Episodic & Semantic memory
c) Retroactive & Proactive Interference
d) Maintenance & elaborative rehearsals
2. Explain the method of serial reproduction.
3. Explain the concept of nodes with an example.
3 MARKS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
How is information processed through sensory, short-term and long-term memory.
Explain the three interrelated stages of memory.
Explain the types of Long-term memory.
Describe the hierarchical organisation in long- term memory?
Why does forgetting take place?
4 MARKS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
“ Memory is a reconstructive process”. Justify the statement with suitable examples.
Describe the “Levels of Processing” model of memory.
Explain the methods of memory measurement.
Explain the Hierarchical Network model of memory.
Describe the mnemonics used to improve memory.
6 MARKS
1. Discuss elaborately the theories developed to understand memory.
2. Discuss the different causes of forgetting.
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CHAPTER 8: THINKING
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Thinking refers to a higher mental process through which we manipulate and analyse the
acquired or existing information.
 Thinking is mostly organised and goal directed.
 Thinking is an internal mental process which can be inferred from overt behaviours.
 Thinking is represented in the form of:
a) Mental Images: refers to a mental representation of a sensory experience which can be
used to think about things, places and events; e.g. imagining yourself standing in
front of Taj Mahal.
b) Concepts: refers to a mental representation of a category/ class of objects, ideas or
events that share common properties.
Another important process involved in thinking is problem- solving ability.
Problem- solving refers to thinking that is goal-directed or towards the solution of a specific
problem.
The two major obstacles to solving a problem are:
 Mental set: refers to a tendency of a person to solve problems by following already
tried mental operations or steps. It creates mental rigidity that obstructs the problem
solver to think of any new rules/strategies.
 Functional Fixedness: refers to failing to solve a problem because they are fixed on a
thing’s usual function.
 Lack of Motivation: refers to need to persist in efforts to find a solution.
Another form of thinking that human generally engages into is reasoning.
Reasoning refers to realistic thinking that helps to draw a conclusion from a set of facts.
There are different kinds of reasoning:
a) Deductive reasoning: refers to reasoning that begins with making a general
assumption that is known and then drawing specific conclusion based on this
assumption.
b) Inductive reasoning: refers to reasoning based on specific facts and observation.
c) Analogy: another form of reasoning that involves four parts e.g. water is to fish as air
is to human; white is to snow as black is to coal.
Another important process that involves thinking is decision-making.
Decision making refers to drawing conclusions, form opinions, evaluate events, objects, based
on knowledge and available evidences.
 Creative Thinking is another form of thinking which involves the production of novel and
original ideas or solution to problems. The features of creative thinking are:
a) Reality-oriented
b) Appropriate
c) Constructive
d) Socially desirable
 J. P. Guilford, a pioneer in creativity research proposed two types of creative thinking:
1) Convergent thinking: refers to thinking that is required to solve problems which
have only one correct answer. The mind converges to the correct solution.
2) Divergent thinking: refers to an open-ended thinking where the individual can
think of different answers to the questions or problems in terms of his/her
experience. It includes- fluency, flexibility, originality, elaboration.
 The process involved in creative thinking are:
a) Preparation
b) Incubation
c) Illumination
d) Verification
 There are certain barriers/ blocks to creative thinking which can be categorised as
a) Habitual- tendency to be over powered by habits particularly in one’s way of thinking
b) Perceptual- prevents us from being open to novel and original ideas.
c) Motivational - lack of motivation.
d) Emotional- fear of failure, fear of rejection etc.
e) Cultural Barriers: excessive adherence to traditions, expectations, stereotypes .
 The various strategies for creative thinking are- brainstorming, engaging in imaginative work,
develop independent thinking, self-confidence and optimistic attitude etc.
 In order to express our thoughts we need language to express our thinking in terms of words and
symbols.
 There exist an important relationship between thought and language:
a) Language as determinant of thought
b) Thought as determinant of Language
c) Different origin of thought and language (most acceptable view)
 The Russian psychologist ,Lev Vygotsky, argued that thoughts and languages develop in a child
separately until about 2 years of age, when they merge.
 Language refers to a system of symbols organised by means of certain rules that we use to
communicate with each other.
 The three basic characteristics of language are:
1) Language involves symbols
2) Language involves rules to organise these symbols
3) Language is used for communicating one’s thought, ideas, intentions and feelings to
others.
 Language is a complex system and unique to human beings. There exist a predictable pattern in
children’s acquisition of language all over the world; e.g. initial crying, cooing sounds, babbling
stage, echolalia, one word stage, holophrases, telegraphic speech.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 MARKS
1. Define thinking, mental image, concepts, functional fixedness, analogy, prototype,
creativity
2 MARKS
1. Differentiate between:
a)Deductive & Inductive reasoning
b)Convergent & Divergent thinking
2. Explain the nature/ features of thinking.
3. How is language acquired in human beings?
3 MARKS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
What is problem solving? Describe the two obstacles to solving problems.
How is judgement different from decision- making?
Explain the important features of divergent thinking?
How does reasoning help in solving problems?
Explain the linguistic relativity hypothesis.
Describe the relationship between thought and language.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
4 MARKS
What is a concept? Explain the role of concept in thinking process.
Discuss the building blocks of thought.
Explain the different components of divergent thinking.
Discuss the different steps in problem solving.
What are the various barriers to creative thinking?
How can creative thinking be enhanced?
How is language acquired in human beings?
6 MARKS
1.What is creative thinking? Explain the stages of creative thinking.
2. Discuss in detail the relationship between language and thought.
CHAPTER 9: MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
 The term motivation has been derived from the Latin word “movere” referring to movement of
activity.
 Motivation refers to a need or desire that energises and directs behaviour.
 Motives helps us to make predictions about behaviour in various contexts.
 The motivation follows a particular pattern which is diagrammatically represented in the form of
The Motivational Cycle:
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There are two types of motives :
a) Biological motives: motives guided by the physiological mechanism of the body; e.g.
hunger, thirst, sex.
b) Psychosocial motives: motives learned from the individual’s interactions with the
various environmental factors; e.g. need for achievement, affiliation, power, curiosity,
exploration etc.
 The most popular view on human motivation is given by Abraham Maslow. His theory is
named as “ Maslow’s Theory of Self-Actualisation/ Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.
 Maslow portrayed a picture of human behaviour by arranging the various needs in a hierarchy
in the form of a pyramid:
a) physiological needs- need for hunger, thirst etc.
b) safety needs- need to be free from threatened danger
c) Belongingness needs- need to seek out other people to love and to be loved
d) Esteem need- need to develop a sense of self-worth
e) Self-actualisation needs- individuals motive towards the fullest development of potential
 Frustration is a concept that is spoken about a lot in our normal conversation.
 It occurs when an anticipated desirable goal is not attained and the motive is blocked. The main
sources of frustration are:
a) Environmental forces
b) Personal factors
c) Conflict between different motives.
 Another concept widely studied upon by psychologist is conflict.
 Conflict occurs whenever a person must choose between contradictory needs, desires, motives
or demands. The basic forms of conflict are:
a) Approach-approach conflict: choosing between two positives and desirable
alternatives.
b) Avoidance-avoidance conflict: choosing between two negatives and undesirable
alternatives
c) Approach-avoidance conflict: a mix of positive and negative conflicts filled up with
ambivalence.
 Emotions is a concept which was studied by psychologists a lot.
 Emotions can be defined as a complex pattern of arousal, subjective feeling and cognitive
interpretation. Emotion varies from person to person. It varies in their intensity (high, low) and
quality (happiness, sadness, fear). Subjective factors and situational contexts influence the
experience of emotions.
 The theories which explained the physiological basis of emotions are:
1) James-Lange Theory of emotions (1884) : This theory suggests that environmental
stimuli elicit physiological responses from viscera ( internal organs like heart, lungs),
which in turn are associated with muscle movement; i.e. particular events/ stimuli
provoke particular physiological changes and the individual’s perception of these
changes results in the emotion being experienced.
2) The Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotions (1927 & 1934): This theory suggests that the
entire process of emotion is mediated by thalamus which after perception of the
emotion- provoking stimulus, conveys this information simultaneously to the cerebral
cortex and to skeletal muscles and sympathetic nervous system. The cerebral cortex
then determines the nature of the perceived stimulus based on past experiences and
the subjective experience of emotion.
 The theory which explains the cognitive basis of emotion is:
1) Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion (1962): proposed a two- factor theory in which
emotions comprise of two ingredients: physical arousal and cognitive label. It suggested
that emotional experience requires a conscious interpretation of the arousal.
 Cultural basis of emotion emphasises that learning plays an important role on emotions in
two ways:
a) Cultural learning influences the expression of emotions more than what is
experienced.
b) Learning has a great deal to do with the stimuli that produce emotional reactions.
 Emotions are inferred from verbal ( e.g. vocal features of speech) and non-verbal expressions
(e.g. facial expressions, posture etc.) which help individual to express one’s emotions and to
understand the feeling of others.
 Effective management of emotion is the key to effective social functioning in modern times.
The strategies through which emotion can be managed are:
 Enhancing self-awareness
 Appraise the situation objectively
 Self-monitoring
 Self-modeling
 Perceptual reorganisation and cognitive restructuring
 Building creativity
 Developing and nurturing good relationships
 Empathy
 Participating in community service
 Anger is a result of our thinking and hence is controllable by our thoughts only.
 Various ways of enhancing positive emotions are:
a) Personality traits of optimism, hopefulness, happiness, positive self-regard
b) Finding positive meaning in dire circumstances
c) Developing quality connects with others
d) Being engaged in work
e) Faith of leading a purposeful life
f) Positive interpretations of most daily events.
Review Questions:
1 Marks
1.
2.
3.
4.
Define the following: motivation, emotion, need, drive, instinct
Identify the two types of motives .
State “ frustration-aggression hypothesis”.
Identify the 3 basic forms of conflicts.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
2 Marks
Differentiate between biological and psychosocial motives.
What are the important features of motivation?
What are the important features of emotions?
How does culture influence the expression of emotions?
Write a short note on :
a)Enhancing Positive Emotions
b) Anger Management
1.
2.
3.
4.
3 Marks
What are the biological bases of hunger and thirst needs?
Explain the motivational cycle with an example.
How do need for achievement, affiliation, power influence the behaviour of adolescents? Explain
with examples.
Explain Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
4 Marks
1. Does physiological arousal precede/ follow an emotional experience. Explain.
2. Discuss any two theories that explains the physiological basis of emotions.
3. Explain the different types of conflict experienced by human being with examples.
6. Marks
1. Is it important to consciously interpret and label emotions in order to explain them? Discuss with
suitable examples.
2. Why is it important to manage negative emotions? Suggest ways to manage negative emotions.
___________________________
PRACTICALS ( 30 Marks):
1. Muller-Lyer Illusion
2. Meaningfulness of Learning
3. Attention Span
PROJECTS
1. To collect more information regarding the various branches of psychology.
2. To obtain names of books which have reference to applications of psychology.
3. To formulate a problem related to research study, propose a hypothesis and identify the variables
included in it.
4. Group activity related to explaining the various functions of nervous system with the help of
pictorial representation/ power point presentation.
5. O observe five families belonging to different culture and socio-economic background in the
neighbourhood and find out the distinct parental interaction with their sons and daughters.
6. Prepare a life journey of “Who am I” ?
7. To collect different advertisement from magazines and reflect on the external factors in selective
attention.
8. To study proactive and retroactive interference and determine the kind of transfer of learning.
9. Group activity to make collage of news headlines, advertisement, cartoons etc. and arrange them
to depict a particular thing. Write an original message/slogan to describe it. Reflect on the steps
and the barriers you experienced in thinking of original ideas.
10. Think of an instance when you were unable to control your anger. Reflect on the ways of
controlling it.
TERM TEST I- 2012-13
Roll No. :
Code No- 037/1
SUBJECT: Psychology
TIME: 2 hrs.
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

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CLASS- XI
M.M:- 50
Please check that this question paper contains two printed pages.
Code number given on the right hand side of the question paper should be written on
the title page of the answer book by the candidate.
Please check that this question paper contains 20 questions.
Please write down the serial number of the question before attempting it.
General Instructions:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
All questions are compulsory.
Part A consists of Q No.1-8 which are of one mark each. Do as directed.
Part B consists of Q No 9-11 which are of two marks each. The answers to these questions
should not exceed 30-35 words.
Part C consists of Q No 12-15 which are of three marks each. The answers to these questions
should not exceed 60 words each.
Part D consists of W No 16-18 which are of four marks each. The answers to these questions
should not exceed 100 words each.
Part E consists of Q No 19-20 which are of six marks each. The answers to these questions
should not exceed 200-250 words each.
PART A
1. Mind cannot exist without brain but mind is a separate entity. ( True/ False)
2.__________________ studies how people of all ages learn
3. ___________________ is the process of knowing.
4. List out the three features of scientific research.
5. EEG stands for _________________________________________
6. Name the two activities psychologist engages in.
7. List out any two Indian psychologists.
8. Match the two lists and choose the correct match from the given options:
LIST A
LIST B
1. Structuralism
A. Organisation of the perceptual experiences
2. Constructivism
B Measurement of responses
3. Gestalt psychology C. Operation of consciousness
4. Behaviourism
D. Emphasis on social and cultural processes
OPTIONS:
(a) 1 − D, 2 − A, 3 − C, 4 – B
(b) 1 − C, 2 − D, 3 − A, 4 − B
(c) 1 − A, 2 − C, 3 − D, 4 − B
(d) 1 − B, 2 − C, 3 − A, 4 − D
PART B
9. Mention briefly about any two themes of research and applications in psychology?
10. What are the different types of data collected in psychological research? Give
examples of
each.
11. Define behaviour? Give examples of overt and covert behavior.
PART C
12. Write a short note on any two branches of psychology.
13. Differentiate between Independent and Dependent Variables
14. “Psychology a science or an art”. Justify.
15. Explain the goals of psychological enquiry.
PART D
16. Psychological researcher needs to follow certain ethics while conducting the
studies. Discuss
the various essential aspects of these ethical principles.
17. Describe the various steps involved in conducting scientific enquiry/research?
18. Discuss the two methods used for analysis of data.
PART E
19. Explain the various schools of psychology.
OR
Explain the various methods used in data collection for psychological research.
20. Describe the essential criteria of standardized psychological test.
OR
Describe the limitations involved in psychological enquiry.
_______________________________