Alternate Report
Submitted to
UN committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Geneva
during State Party (India) Report-2007
by
ACJP-INDIA, (Mumbai,India)
(part of the network of Ambedkar Centre for Justice and Peace, Global NGO)
1
Executive Summary and Recommendations
Right to equality and justice are the basic principles of human society in the contemporary
period of globalization and democratic governance. The traditional and historical bases of
deprivation and discrimination like –Race, Color, Ethnicity, Religion, and Descent are no more
relevant and therefore different governments and non government organizations across the world
have been making efforts to prevent such violation of human rights. The UNO under different forms
and committees do take cognizance of such incidents and directs/ guides the state party to over
come these inhuman acts. The committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD) is
one of such organ of the UNO, under the Council of Economic Social and Cultural Rights.
The caste based discrimination is a major problem in India linked to caste and religion that has
roots in its history and traditions. The forms of discrimination are multiple that lead to violation of
basic human rights. These forms of violation of rights can be categorized mainly into four major
heads:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Economic
Social
Educational
Cultural
Based on the main report, one can strongly believe that the Indian State Party has a long way to
go ! It is revealed that nearly 200 million Indians are being treated as untouchables – Dalits or
Scheduled Castes who are deprived of the basic amenities like drinking water, employment,
education, temple entry – rituals, good quality life etc. The crisis do not end with deprivation but
are resulted into various atrocities, harassments, boycotts, bonded-forced labour. Rapes, murders,
arson, dacoities are common features of every day life.
The national government has the treaty obligations but it passes legislation that the states are
expected to enforce, and the social uplift is left to the states, instead of the national government
bearing the financial and accountability duties. It is not merely an economic problem but it is about
social and state discrimination against Dalits, and about the unjust imbalance in advancement. The
national government’s failure to make progress in the uplift of Dalits as measured by the
2
improvement of Hindu castes, and by the wealth of the states and the country (and therefore the
capacity to make more progress in uplifting Dalits.
Despite various legal and constitutional provisions, the situation seems to very serious at all fronts
due to the social, economic, religious, cultural, educational and political domination of minority
(upper castes) which has been inherited from history and tradition of this country. We strongly
believe in democracy, equality, social justice and human dignity; and therefore, with humble
submission, make following recommendations for consideration of the Committee.
1. Based on the review of available literature, we feel that the facts, data and information are
superficial and unrealistic and therefore, we recommend that the committee undertakes a
survey at all India level with a trained and experienced research team. The scope of this
survey will be to cover all the aspects of human rights violation of Dalits and would evolve
the strategies to find out solutions with long term, medium and short term perspectives.
2. We demand to create new rehabilitation centers with special social-economic zones for the
Dalits.
3. National government should be held fully responsible for every aspect of violation of
human rights and for remedial programs.
4. The UNO should form a guiding and monitoring committee with Dalit appropriate
presentation
5. Immediate task is to work on the strategies and plans to sensitize all the instruments of
governance and common people with the help of progressive NGOs.
6. Keeping in mind, the coming 20 years are going to be crucial for human resource
development and the role of education in it; hence, educational strategies and plans be
developed for total coverage of Dalits with vocational education.
7. It is recommended that the UNO should contribute some funds for these activities in
addition to the special funding provided by the Indian government.
Ambedkar Center for Justice and Peace (ACJP)
3
This report is being presented under the universal declaration of Human Rights of 1948. The
UN committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD) is responsible for monitoring
states compliance with the International Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Racial
Discrimination. The convention guarantees rights of non-discrimination on the basis of “race,
colors, descent or national or ethnic origin. In the year 1966 CERD concluded that plight of Dalits
falls squarely under the prohibition of race based discrimination.
India as a state party is obliged to submit periodic reports with details of implementing the
rights guaranteed under convention. In view of the long overdue report India Submitted the 2nd to
5th reports together in 2006. However these reports do not mention clear mention of abuses against
Dalits documented by its own agencies or any other non-government organizations.
This report is based on the facts collected and documented from the various government
agencies pertaining to gross violation of Social Economic and Cultural Rights of the Dalits. In
addition, the report provides insights into the issues and plight of sufferings of Dalits from insiders’
perspective. Based on the lifelong struggle launched by Dr. B. R. Ambedkar for liberation and
dignity of Dalits, the Indian government adopted the constitution that ensures the equality, justice
and fraternity. Therefore, in order to achieve these objectives some special provisions have been
made available for the downtrodden in general and for the Scheduled Caste (SCs) and Scheduled
Tribes (STs) in particular. These provisions are mainly in the areas of education, employment in
public sector and political representation. Also in addition various Acts have been passed against
practice of untouchability (1955) violation of Civil Rights (1976) and prevention of Atrocities
(1989). Various schemes and programmes have been introduced for the welfare of these
communities. The constitution of India guarantees basic human rights; also known as Fundamental
rights. Violation of these rights could be challenged in the court. Also there is a provision in the
constitution ensuring non-discrimination based on race, gender, caste, color and religion. There are
progressive laws and human rights redressal agencies but these laws are not implemented
effectively.
Similarly, various plans, programs and schemes that are existing for social and
economic upliftment of the vulnerable groups are not implemented uniformly and effectively.
4
Who are Dalits?
According to the census report of 2001, India’s total population is 1028 million, out of
which 532 millions are males and 496 million females. Out of these, 167.2 million people are
termed as Scheduled Castes (SCs) constitutionally and traditionally known to be untouchable
communities or outcastes. Presently they are called as ‘Dalits’ by many movements and political
bodies. However, their history and social roots go back to be “racial group” of aboriginal people.
These people are imposed with stigmatized identity drawn from Hindu religion and caste system –
based on hierarchy, purity-pollution concepts and graded inequality. The caste system did not grant
any freedom to choose their occupation, education and cultural activities and hold property in any
form. It is only after independence that the constitution guaranteed them basic rights and adopted
special policy for their upliftment.
Despite these provisions, experiences and the facts revealed by various studies/surveys both,
government and non-government, tell us that during last six decades of freedom and democratic
governance, the over all situation of these communities is far beyond satisfaction. On the contrary,
the atrocities, exploitation and subjugation continue to happen on these communities.
In his
foreword, Justice A. S. Anand in the Report on Prevention of Atrocities Against Scheduled Castes,
published by National Human Rights Commission, 2004 says,
“The humiliation which persons belonging to the Scheduled Castes in
general and the Dalits in particular suffer even today, more than half a
century after India proclaimed itself to be a Republic is a matter of
shame!”
Major factors – responsible for such situation are:
1.
Lack of strong political will.
2.
Traditional strong biases and prejudices against the communities.
3.
Weak instruments of governance.
4.
General apathy among people.
5.
Bureaucracy – upper caste domination.
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6.
Least priority allotted to these issues.
7.
Gross unawareness and inaccessibility to the provisions to the SCs and STs.
8.
Lack of proper representation of Dalits at all levels.
9.
Poor budget allocation and under utilization of funds.
10.
lack of strong scientific approach to identify and analyse the issues with appropriate
remedies with strong will power.
As a result of these, the issue of Human Rights violation is missing out from the main
agenda at national level and at international level the attitude is to cover up these issues.
Article 2: Caste/Race based discrimination and violence against SCs and STs
Crimes against SC-ST
Since majority of the SC-ST live in rural and remote parts of the country and depend on
upper castes both socially and economically, they are subject to various atrocities and suppressions
like murder, rape, hurt, arson, boycott, etc. In India the social, economic and political power is
determined by castes(upper) that have monopoly over as tradition. These castes find easy to
execute their power on powerless and manage to escape legal actions due to nexus between
administration and police machineries – with political support (See Tables 1,2,3,4). Such reported
cases are 40 per cent only as the upper castes do not allow them to register with police or the police
refuse to register the cases.
Social Discrimination: Caste based discrimination is existing both in rural and urban areas,
however, we see it happening in latent ways in urban parts and manifest ways in rural parts in
different forms like entry into private houses, temples, village festivals, panchayats, village
functions etc. In urban areas, it is in the form of physical segregation, deprivation, denying access
to good quality life etc. Social discrimination is found in educational institutions also.
Bonded Labour
6
Under article 23 of the constitution although forced/bonded labour has been forbidden yet the
practice of traffic in human beings the shape of beggar or forced labour continued in the country in
one from or the other with different names same state Governments had enacted legislations to
abolish this evil practice before and after independence. In the earlier Reports of the Commissioner
for Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes instances of the existence of bonded labour system had
been indicated and remedial measures 0had also been suggested to eradicate the same, but it was
observed that the lukewarmness on the part of State Government implementing these lows had not
improved the situation. In order to eradicate this evil practice, the Central Government enacted the
‘Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act’ in 1976. The provocations of this Act have already been
discussed in our previous Report. Consequent upon the enforcement of the provisions of this Act
the State Governments made fresh efforts to identify the bonded labours in their respective States.
Out of 31 State/Union Territories so far ten States and one Union Territory have acknowledged the
existence of the bonded labourers and made efforts for their identification, release and
rehabilitation. According to the available information 1,05,180 bonded labourers
had been
identified in the following States/Union Territory out of whom 1,04,749 were released and 31,844
rehabilitated as on 31st May, 1978.
Forced and Bonded Labour
As stated in the previous Reports, the money-lending also gave birth to an obnoxious
system of forced and bonded labour known by different names in the States of Andhra Pradesh,
Jammu & Kashmir, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Maharashtra, Mysore, Orissa, Rajasthan and
Uttar Pradesh and the Union Territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli.
Information regarding the legislative and executive measures adopted by the various
State Governments and Union Territory Governments/Administrations, to check the practices of
bonded labour, have already been given in the previous Reports. Further information about bonded
labour practiced in Kerala, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh is contained in the following paragraphs.
Kerala
7
The Paniyans and the Adiyans living in the South and the North Wynad Talukas of
Kozhikode, and also in Cannanore District, are the victims of this practice. These people, while in
search of employment for the ensuing agricultural season, come in contact with landlords in need of
labourers for work in their extensive paddy fields and plantations, during the annual festival in
Vallurvaru Temple, some two miles from Manantody – the headquarters of North Wynad, in the
middle of April every year. The landlords offer money to these tribals, which is, generally a fixed
amount of Rs. 10.00 per head. There is a tactic understanding that, in return for the laon, the
Paniyan or the Adiyan concerned will work under that landlord for one year i.e. till the next festival;
but if he refuses to work under that landlord for one year i.e. till the next festival; but if he refuses to
work under that landlord the money has to be refunded and the tribal may be harassed in a number
of ways. The Paniyan or the Adiyan, so bound, is allowed to put a hut on the landlord’s land near
the field, but if he refuses to work he is forced to vacate his homestead. The wages given to such
persons are much lower than those paid to free labourers.
In order to help the tribals, the
Government of Kerala have recently appointed two welfare officers to work as Liaison Officers
among the Paniyans and the Adiyans and also a few Government functionaries to be incharge of
law and order and of development activities in that area.
Maharashtra
The survey of indebtedness undertaken by the Commissioner’s Organisation in
Maharashtra, made an attempt to ascertain the incidence of bonded labour, also, in this State. The
survey revealed that bonded labour was prevalent in Thana District, as a few cases were detected in
some of the Tribal Development Blocks in the district. The main feature of this system is that a
tribal pledges his labour, and sometimes labour of the other members of his family, in return for a
loan, and is released only when the loan is repaid. The period of bond of service ranges from 3 to 5
years. A case, however, came to notice in which a tribal had remained bonded for about 14 years.
The creditor is responsible for feeding the bonded persons who also get some clothing from him,
but no cash payment is made at all. The bonded person ahs to depend upon someone in his family
to procure the required money for securing his release. The agreements are only oral.
Forced Labour
8
Traffic in human beings and Begar and other similar forms of forced labour have been
prohibited under Articles 23 of the Constitution and any contravention of this provision has been
declared an offence punishable in accordance with law.
The State Government is however,
empowered to impose compulsory service for public purposes, but no discrimination can be made
while imposing such service in grounds of only religion, race, caste or class or any of them. Force
labour, wherever prevalent, is generally practiced to the disadvantage of the backward classes. The
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes generally belong to such classes and effort has been made
to find out the extent to which forced labour is imposed on these people.
It is true that this practice is not found generally, except in rare cases, in some of the
interior areas, but it is still prevalent in one form or the other. I have noticed that in the villages of
Dasmauthpur and Narayanpatna of Koraput Sub-Division and in the Sundergarh district of Orissa
State ‘Gothi’ system is in force. In Sundegarh district, ‘Gothi’ system which is a kin to forced
labour, is still in force, in which the Scheduled Tribe people are the victims. In some of the areas in
Vindhya Pradesh, a system called ‘Harwahi’ Pratha’ is prevalent. According to this custom, the
Scheduled Tribes are forced to work on the farms of individual zamindars without adequate
remunerations.
Recently it was reported that in Pandhurna Municipal Committee in Madhya
Pradesh, the municipal sweepers in addition to their normal duties, were required to bring stones
and sand from the stream beds for the construction of municipal works, such as houses and roads,
without extra remuneration. This case was, however, taken up with the State Government and it
was possible to have the matter amicably settled. It is reported that in the villages of Akkalkot
taluka of Sholapur District in Bombay, the Mahars, Ramoshis, etc., have to work as inferior village
servants without any remuneration. The State Government is looking into this complaint.
.
It is interesting to note that with the abolition of forced labour and the practice of
Untouchability under the Constitution, the Scheduled Caste persons have been to exercise their
civic rights at some of the place. This has annoyed the sanarnas resulting in a few cases in the social
boycott of the depressed class people. In the some of the villages in Punjab when Harijan refused to
do begar, they were denied passages through the fields of zamndars their cattle were not allowed to
graze even in common lands and some cases they were even socially boycotted. Similar, things
happened to Mahars in some of thevilalges in MadhyaPradesh and Rajasthan. Most of these cases
have, however, been amicably settled by the intervention of Government and social workers.
9
It is necessary that the caste Hindus should be given to understand that exploitation of human
labour without adequate remuneration is not only illegal but immoral. I trust that in a few years
such stray instances of forced labour will become rare and disappear. This can be expedited if
instructions are issued by the State Governments to their touring officers to ensure that whenever
they find the prevalence of this evil practice, the persons concerned are suitably warned and the
Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe victims of this custom encouraged to report such illegal acts
practiced against them to the authorities concerned. There is, however, no doubt that main cause of
such un-social practices is the economic dependence of the Scheduled Tribes and Scheduled Castes
on the caste Hindus.
Forced Occupation
Devadasi/Jogini (Divine Prostitution)
Tradition of Divine Prostitution wherein a woman is dedicated to a deity body as a sacred body has
been a part of customary practice in India for a long time. The practice continues even today due to
the extreme poverty of Dalits and other sections of the society who under the compulsion of
circumstances and exploitative mechanism allows this practice.
Manual Scavenging
The inhuman practice of manual removal of human excrements from dry toilets with base
hands, brooms or metal scrappers; carrying excrements in the basket to the dumping site is still
prevalent in most parts of India even today. According to the report (Local Daily Loksatta, July 21,
2004), there are 6.5 million Dalits in India engaged in scavenging out of which 65000 of them carry
night soil on their heads.
Child Labour
10
According to the Census report of India, 2001, there are as many as 17 million children in
the age group of 5-14 years engaged in child labour, of which majority belong to Dalit community.
Child Prostitution
Despite the stringent Provision of PITA, it is estimated that there are 500,000 child sex
workers in India and there is an annual increase of 8% to 10%. India’s child-flesh industry is
considered the second largest in the world. It is obvious that majority of children engaged in this
trade belong to Dalit Community due to poverty, exploitation and force. Of the total, there are
52.94% boys and 47.06% girls in the trade.
Article 3 : Residential Segregation
Residential segregation is a rule rather than exception attributed to impure status attached to
their occupations which are imposed on them and supposed to be unclean. This segregation limits
interaction and exchange, nurtures myths and misconceptions, easy for social boycott, atrocities.
There has been demand for rehabilitation where they are in majority.
Article 6: Accountability of State
The national government has treaty obligations but it passes legislation that the states are
expected to enforce and the social uplift is left to the states; instead of the national government
bearing the financial and accountability duties. The Indian government is hiding behind federalism.
Article 7:
Under this article the state party is obliged to adopt immediate and effective measures in the
fields of education, information and culture with a view to combating prejudices which lead to
racial discrimination.
Reservation Policy
11
The policy was introduced as compensation to their traditional and historical deprivation
applicable only in government and public sectors. However, the gains of the policy are poor and
limited mainly to urban areas because its implementation is poor due to bureaucracy which is
dominated by upper castes, and the issue is politicized. The SC-ST in general are unaware of
provisions under the policy. Lack of proper publicity, lack of positive and proactive attitude and
biases among common people are some of the prominent reasons behind such a situation (Table 5,
6).
Article 11: Right to an adequate Standard of Living
An adequate standard of living is determined by socio-economic and health conditions.
Dalits in India have no access to good socio-economic opportunities and therefore get deprived of
the right to adequate standard of living. Invariably, they are employed in unorganized/traditional
occupation that have very low wages and have no regular employment. They are under paid and
also the females are paid less wages as compared to males.
Article 12: Right to enjoyment of Physical and Mental Health
Due to physical segregation and practice of untouchability, these communities are deprived
of the right to enjoyment and of physical and mental health. Government medical facilities are
inadequate and rare in rural parts and private treatment is not affordable for them. The medical staff
refuse to treat them or visit their localities. All the medical schemes and national-international
health schemes do not reach them due to prejudices and discriminatory attitude of medical
personnel.
Further, physically, they are found to be not healthy due to lack of nutritious food hunger
and thus are prone to all kinds of diseases.
Article 13 and 14: Educational Backwardness
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Education is considered an important means of socio-economic development of these
communities. However, the best or quality education is inaccessible to them as it is urban biased,
rich biased and language (English) biased. The literacy rates among these community are poor
compared to general population. It is revealed by various studies that access to and performance in
education is very poor. For example, according to 2001 census report, the literacy rate at all India
level is 64.8 percent; out of which it is 75.3 percent among males and 53.7 percent among females.
Among the SCs it is 54.7 among SCs at all India level and their male-female distribution is 66.6 and
41.9 percent respectively. Generally, at higher level of education they go in for general education
(Arts, Science, Commerce), take longer time to complete and remain unemployed or
underemployed. Enrollment, sustenance and drop out are some of the problems continue to exist.
The causes are rooted in the policy planning, management of education besides poor budget
allocation (See Table 7, 8, 9). In order to meet the national academic standards and international
demands for educated youth, it is necessary to introduce ‘Dalits’ specific education by evolving
proper implementation mechanism.`
Economic Conditions
The rural poor in the 1960’s comprised of pauparised peasants, agrarian workers belonging
mostly to the depressed castes and tribes and other marginal groups and a large section of women.
The issues of poverty became a central question during 1964-71by the Lohia-Nehru-Nanda debates
in Lok Sabha about the nature of poverty and its extent. It was only during the fifth plan onwards
(1974-79) that poverty has become the main thrust with the slogan of ‘Garibi Hatao’. The Antipoverty programmes of today’s India involves 1 percent of GDP or 6 percent of the Central budget,
55 percent of which is allocated for food subsidy (PDS), 35 for Rural Works Programme and 5
percent is provided for self-employment programme (Kumar, Anand., 2006 and Saxena, N.C., and
John Farrington, 2003).
13
Percentage of Population below poverty line among SC/ST and rest of the Population
Category
Year
SC
ST
All Population
1977-78
56.3
68.10
48.30
1983-84
50.10 57.20
37.40
1987-88
41.50 49.90
29.90
Source: Government of India
Poverty estimates for the year 1993-94 among SC/ST and Others (percentage)
SC
ST
Others
Rural
Urban
Rural
Urban Combined
48.11
49.48
51.94
41.14
35.9
Source: Government of India
Poverty Estimates for the Year 1999-2000(NSS 55th round) Among SC/ST and Others Based
on Official Poverty Line.(percentage)
Others
SC/ST
24.5
35.8
Source: Meenakshi, J.V., and Ranjan Ray (2002), Table 3&4
The economic condition of SC and ST continuous to be worse off than the other sections of
Indian society. Around 50 percent of the SC and ST population is below poverty line whereas for
the rest of the population it is around 36 percent only in 1993-94. Though the tribals of India are
only about 8 per cent of the total population, they accounted for 40 per cent of the internally
displaced population, another major characteristic of poverty. Further the percentage decline in
poverty is around 13 percentage points for rest of the population from 1977-78 to 1993-94, where as
for SC the decline is around 7 percentage points the same for STs shows a decline by around 17
percentage points, however they continue to have preponderant share in poverty. When we look at
the states scenario of rural poverty, we find that Bihar (70%), U.P (59%), Orissa (49%), Haryana
(46.6%), Karnataka (46.4%), Madhya Pradesh (45.8%), W.Bengal and Assam (45%) have higher
percentage of SC population below poverty line. Whereas for ST the states which rank higher are
Orissa (71.2%), Bihar (70%), Himachal Pradesh (64%), W.Bengal (62%), Madhya Pradesh
(56.7%), and Maharashtra (50.6%). Though the data presented is for 1993-94, the change in poverty
decline has not been much among SC and ST groups over the years, as most of the states are
allocating less budget to the welfare of SC/ST in the post liberalization era and states which record
highest poverty like Bihar are also the states with lowest budgeted outlay and expenditure of central
assistance and needs to be looked into quite seriously.
14
Though poverty estimates have declined from 35.9 percent in 1993-94 for other categories
to 24.5 percent (1999/2000), a decline of 11 percentage points. However poverty for SC/ST
continues to be around 35.8 percent (Table 10, 11, 12, 13). Since the data selected for study is based
on samples of NSS survey one should be cautious in interpreting the data as the selected sample for
different states may not bring the true picture of overall poverty. Further since the other socioeconomic conditions of the SC/ST did not show any significant improvements over these years, the
data needs to be interpreted as only indicative.
Study on Poverty among SC/ST and Others by Meenakshi, J.V., and Ranjan Ray (2002), reveals
that states which have higher or closer to all-India SC/ST percentage of population below poverty
line(35.8%) include Orissa (63.1%), Bihar (61.8%), Madhya Pradesh (50.9%), Uttar Pradesh
(41.3%), Assam (38.4%), West Bengal (35.7%) and Maharashtra (32.7%). In fact one can correlate
the socio-economic deprivation which SC/STs faced from centuries in those states as being the
major cause of Poverty.
Employment Programmes and Their Evaluation
Jawahar Rozgar Yojana was launched on 1.4.1989 with the main objective of generating
additional gainful employment for the unemployed and underemployed in rural areas through
creation of rural infrastructure and community assets 22.5% of funds under Jawahar Rozgar
Yojana are required to be spent on the SC/ST beneficiaries. The Planning Commission while
considering the performance of this programme has quoted the concurrent evaluation of the
programme by the Ministry of Rural Development during June 1993-May, 1994, which has brought
out that roughly 11 days of employment was generated per person. At this level of performance,
the programme could not have made any significant impact on the income levels of the
beneficiaries.
The programme was not implemented in its true spirit and many a times the
emphasis was on creation of assets rather than on employment generation and in many States the
contractors executed the works using trucks and tractors instead of labour intensive approaches.
The Planning Commission has also noted the fudging of musters rolls and of measurement books.
There are complaints about providing employment to the personal supporters of the Pradhans or
workers willing to sign for higher wages while accepting the lower wages (Planning Commission
evaluation Reports on employment programmes). (See Tables 10, 11, 12, 13)
15
Employment Assurance Scheme was started in 1993 to create additional wage employment
in the backward blocks. After universalisation of the scheme it could not be continued as a demand
driven scheme due to shortage of funds and large demand from the landless agricultural labourers
for employment continues.
IRDP is the earliest self employment programme, which was started in 1980-81. IRDP had several
allied programmes like Training of rural Youth for Self-employment (TRYSEM), Development of
Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA). Ganga Kalyan Yojana (GKY) and Supply of
Improved Tool Kits to Rural Artisans (SITRA). These programmes envisage considerable flow of
benefits to SCs as well as to STs. However, the targets have not been set up separately for the SCs
and the STs. Under IRDP 50% of the funds were earmarked for SC/ST beneficiaries.

The multiple IRDP and allied programmes were implemented as separate programmes
without keeping in mind the overall objective of generating sustainable incomes. Only 3%
of the IRDP beneficiaries received training under TRYSEM and only 23% of those trained
under TRYSEM were assisted under IRDP.

The management of inherently unviable projects was in the hands of often illiterate and
unskilled beneficiaries with little or no past experience of managing an enterprise. The
IRDP did not take into account the disabilities from which the poor suffer, notably their
exclusion from the community decision-making.

For fear of default the banks were unwilling to lend to the poor and preferred the better off
applicants or the unscrupulous who would pocket the subsidy and repay the loan in
connivance with the bank staff.

Leakages, misappropriation of funds, violation of programme guidelines, selection of nonpoor as target group, absence of proper maintenance of accounts and poor quality of assets –
all these have been documented in various studies.
16
The emerging sectors of the industrial development have opened up new opportunities for
employment to the people. Educated youth of Scheduled Castes should be given training by
arranging special training programmes so that they can also avail of these opportunities (National
Commission on SC& ST, 2002).
Occupational Status
Occupational Status of SC reveals that the work force has shifted from cultivators and house hold
industry in 1961 to predominantly as agriculture labourers and other workers by 1991. Whereas for
ST the shift is again towards agricultural labourers though around 55 percent are still into
cultivation by 1991. Overall there has been a decline in status of rural occupations from selfemployed in cultivation and household industry towards mostly market oriented agriculture
labourers and other services. However, for general population the shift is mostly towards the other
services whereas the shift for SC and ST has occurred mostly as agricultural labourers. Since
agricultural operations are only seasonal in nature agricultural labourers remain under-employed for
most of the year and are also paid lower wages than the prescribed amount. Under-employment,
poverty and lower wages force of land less labourers, force even their children and women to work
at even lower levels of wages and in an exploitative conditions. Although considerable
diversification has taken place in the occupational profile of the Scheduled Castes many of them
continue to follow their traditional caste occupations. It has been estimated that in 1961 about 2
crore Scheduled Castes were engaged in their traditional occupation of leatherwork about 47 lakhs
were weavers and 30 lakhs fisherman. Most of these professions continued to be undeveloped and
carried on a very small scale. The educational deprivation of the Scheduled Castes has further
hampered the development of these professions on scientific lines. It may be mentioned that in
most of the developed countries of the world these occupations are organized on commercial lines
with attractive remuneration of those engaged in such occupations. The Government should take
steps for training, skill upgradation, co-operation and better organization of the traditional
occupations of the SCs to provide them help in the form of access of raw materials, finance and
marketing of the products.
The Table shows that in 1985-86 although SC cultivators formed 12.4 percent of all the
cultivators, the area operated upon by them was 7.7 percent of the total area and the size of their
17
average land holdings was only 1.05 hectares and that area operated upon by SCs was the lowest
and size of their holdings were the smallest amongst all the social groups. The Agricultural Census
– 1990-91 shows that average size of operational holdings of all the cultivators have further
decreased to 1.55 hectares from 1.69 hectares in 1985-86. The number of Scheduled Castes
operational holdings in the country was estimated as 13.42 million in 1990-91 while their number in
1985-86 was 12.04 millions, which indicated an increase of about 11.5% in 1990-91. The total area
operated by the Scheduled Caste holdings increased from 12.64 million hectares in 1985-86 to
13.17 million hectares, in 1990-91, representing an increase of 4.2 percent. Thus the area of
Scheduled Caste holdings has not increased in proportion to their numbers. Most of the Scheduled
Castes cultivators (72.2% in 1990-91) fall into the category of marginal farmers (land holdings
less than 1 hectares). This calls for effective implementation of land reforms and distribution of
surplus among SCs and proper recording of the occupancy rights of the tenants to ensure that tillers
are not vacated from the land they are cultivating. Studies like (Suryanarayana, M.H) on land
holdings have concluded that though land being one of the important physical endowment is
sufficient for economic upliftment. However capital, both human and physical are necessary for
promoting their welfare in a more realistic way.
Special Component Plan
Special Component Plan (SCP) for the development of SC and ST is under implementation since
the Sixth Five Year Plan. All the States, which have sizable SC population and the Central
Ministries, are expected to prepare SCP for the development of the Scheduled Castes.
In the case of States like Gujarat, Goa, Karnataka. Himalachal Pradesh, Punjab, Uttar
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and the NCT of Delhi the outlay provided for SCP was only half of
the proportion of their SC population. In the case of Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Sikkim,
Tripura and Chandigarh also outlay was considerably short of the percentage of SC
population in these States. Similar is the case of ST communities across different states. Among
these States Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Orissa, Tripura and Uttar Pradesh reported full
utilization of the outlay provided for the SCP.
18
Since all the programmes of the State Govts are coordinated under the program of SCP for
development of the Scheduled Castes, it is important that this programme be made effective.
Special Central Assistance
The main objective of SCA to SCP is to supplement the State’s efforts for additional thrust for
speedy development of the Scheduled Caste population by providing additional support to the SC
families to enhance their productivity and income to bring about occupational diversification.
Against release of Rs.36.20 crores in 1998-99, Bihar utilized Rs.18.21 crores only. One can see
form previous data on poverty in Bihar is around 60 percent and it becomes imperative on part of
Bihar state government to take concrete action against removal of poverty which is not even
attempted as is reflected from the data on utilization of funds for development of SC/STs. Since
further releases of the amount under the scheme depend upon the progress of utilization, delay in
reporting of the utilization to the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment (SJ&E) would
hamper further release and consequently progress in the implementation of programmes for
development of SCs.
States with large SC population, Maharashtra in 1997-98 and 1999-2000, Punjab and Rajasthan in
1998-99, Tamil Nadu in 1999 and Delhi in all three years have reported under utilization of the
SCA released by the government of India to these states. There is a need for preparing time bound
action plans to provide basis civic facilities like education, water supply, electricity, sanitation at
part with other sections of the society, to completely eradicate poverty and provide them
employment opportunities.
Special Component Plan (SCP) by the Central Ministries
The central ministries are also required to prepare the special component plans for the development
of the SC/STs at the time of formulation of their annual plans. needs to be allocated for the special
component plan. According to this plan Central Ministries and Departments have to open separate
budget heads/sub-heads with at least 15% of the total annual plan outlay is to be earmarked under
the special component plan. However at present 27 ministries/departments have expressed their
inability to formulate the special component plan because they feel that their activities cannot be
divided community-wise and only 14 ministries or departments are formulating the special SCP.
19
There is a definite need for creating separate statistics which also considers the socialeconomic dimensions of the expenditure to really evaluate the outcome of the plan
expenditure on most of the ministries.
Education
Special attention to the educational needs of socially marginalised communities such as the
scheduled castes and scheduled tribes is a national commitment, pursued in all the Five Year Plans.
In many States, the progress with respect to enrolment and participation of children belonging to
these sections has been quite satisfactory. However, statistics reveal that the objectives of equity are
still elusive in many parts of the country. Considering that the SC/ST population is not
homogeneous in all respects, the endeavour would be to refine the identification of target groups
even among the SC/STs and identify particular sub-groups which are seriously handicapped and
require greater attention Kaushik, Amik, (2003).
According to Institute of Statistics, UNESCO, India has never spent above 4%, and the average for
the past three decades is 3.3% the world average is 4.9% in this respect, even above our highest
score, even though there is repeated declaration of spending 6% or more on education. The Tapas
Mazumdar Committee, in 1999, calculated this cumulative gap between promise and reality, and
estimated that it will require an additional investment of Rs. 13,700 crores per year for the next ten
years to make up the short fall in budgetary commitments, which amounts to about 0.6% of the
current GDP (merely 60 paise of every Rs.100).Consider that recent increase in Defence spending
alone was twice this amount.
The table and graph on education expenditure clearly pinpoints the lack of commitment by the
government in spending on education. The average expenditure is around 3 percent of GDP which
should be much higher as the economy is growing at 6-7 percent per annum. It can also be
hypothesized that the scholarship and other programmes which are quite critical for the
development of marginalised groups needs to be further strengthened to enhance their socioeconomic status. There is no data separately available for education expenditure according to the
socio-economic status. Therefore it is imperative to generate separate date which takes into
consideration the socio-economic dimensions of the expenditure on education to really evaluate the
outcome of the plan expenditure on education.
20
Reservation
Reservation was the second most important political intervention in meeting the challenges of
poverty and deprivation. However persistent vicious circle of poverty and illiteracy force many
children to got to work when they should be in schools. Children who are labourers, lose education
and therefore employment opportunities when they are adults. Though reservation has been
effective in bringing some guranted employment at the lower levels. However it has not contributed
towards any qualitative shift in the lives of the poorer sections of theses communities.
Summary and Conclusions
It was only during the fifth plan onwards (1974-79) that poverty has become the main thrust with
the slogan of ‘Garibi Hatao’. The Anti-poverty programmes of today’s India involves 1 percent of
GDP or 6 percent of the Central budget, 55 percent of which is allocated for food subsidy (PDS), 35
for Rural Works Programme and 5 percent is provided for self-employment programmes. Though
poverty estimates have declined from 35.9 percent in 1993-94 for ‘other categories’ to 24.5 percent
(1999/2000), a decline of 11 percentage points. However since the other socio-economic conditions
of the SC/ST did not show any significant improvements over these years, the data needs to be
interpreted as only indicative. State level data shows that states which have higher or closer to allIndia SC/ST percentage of population below poverty line(35.8%) include Orissa (63.1%), Bihar
(61.8%), Madhya Pradesh (50.9%), Uttar Pradesh (41.3%), Assam (38.4%), West Bengal (35.7%)
and Maharashtra (32.7%). In fact one can correlate the socio-economic deprivation which SC/STs
faced from centuries in those states as being the major cause of Poverty.
Jawahar Rozgar Yojana provided roughly 11 days of employment. At this level of performance, the
programme could not have made any significant impact on the income levels of the beneficiaries.
Employment Assurance Scheme could not be continued as a demand driven scheme due to shortage
of funds and large demand from the landless agricultural labourers for employment continues. IRDP
is the earliest self employment programme. However, leakages, misappropriation of funds, violation
of programme guidelines, selection of non-poor as target group, absence of proper maintenance of
accounts and poor quality of assets. In terms of occupational status, for general population the shift
is mostly towards the ‘other services’ whereas the shift for SC and ST has occurred mostly as
21
agricultural labourers. Since agricultural operations are only seasonal in nature agricultural
labourers remain under-employed for most of the year and are also paid lower wages than the
prescribed amount. Under-employment, poverty and lower wages, force even their children and
women to work at even lower levels of wages and in an exploitative conditions. Although
considerable diversification has taken place in the occupational profile of the Scheduled Castes
many of them continue to follow their traditional caste occupations. It has been estimated that in
1961 about 2 crore Scheduled Castes were engaged in their traditional occupation of leatherwork
about 47 lakhs were weavers and 30 lakhs fisherman. Most of these professions continued to be
undeveloped and carried on a very small scale.
The area of Scheduled Caste holdings has not increased in proportion to their numbers. Most of the
Scheduled Castes cultivators (72.2% in 1990-91) fall into the category of marginal farmers (land
holdings less than 1 hectares).
This calls for effective implementation of land reforms and
distribution of surplus among SCs and proper recording of the occupancy rights of the tenants to
ensure that tillers are not vacated from the land they are cultivating. Further, capital, both human
and physical are necessary for promoting their welfare in a more realistic way.
As regarding the Special Component plan in states like Gujarat, Goa, Karnataka. Himalachal
Pradesh, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and the NCT of Delhi the outlay provided for SCP
was only half of the proportion of their SC population. In Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Sikkim, Tripura
and Chandigarh the budgeted outlay was considerably short of the percentage of SC population in
these States. Similar is the case of ST communities across different states.
India has never spent above 4% of its GDP for education, the average for the past three decades is
3.3% and the world average is 4.9% in this respect, though there is repeated declaration of spending
6% or more on education. However, statistics reveal that the objectives of equity are still elusive in
many parts of the country. There is a need to refine the identification of target groups even among
the SC/STs and identify particular sub-groups which are seriously handicapped and require greater
attention.
22
Thus, for good governance and successful democracy, protection of social, cultural and
economic rights of the traditionally marginalized communities like Dalits is a demand of the hours;
especially in the present era of globalization, human rights and justice. Since the issue under
reference is that of 160 million people, the Indian government cannot any more depend on ad-voc
arrangements with half hazard efforts. The UNO has a lot of scope to intervene positively which
stands of human rights and human dignity.
Table: 1
Volume of Criminal Cases Reported
Sr. No.
Years
No. of Cases
1.
1995
32996
2.
1996
31440
3.
1997
27944
4.
1998
25638
5.
1999
25093
Source: Report of Prevention of Atrocities Against Scheduled Castes and Tribes NHRC,
2004, New Delhi.
23
Table: 2
Incidence of Crime against SCs during 1999-2000
Sr. No.
Crime
Year
Year
1999
2000
1.
Murder
506
486
2.
Hurt
3241
3298
3.
Rape
1000
1034
4.
Kidnap & Adb.
228
242
5.
Decoity
36
37
6.
Robbery
109
93
7.
Arson
337
260
8.
PCR Act.
678
667
9.
SC-ST (POA) Act.
7301
6616
10.
Other Offence
11657
11009
Total
25093
23741
Source: Report on Prevention of Atrocities against Scheduled Caste, NHRC, 2004, GOI
24
Table : 3
Incidence and Rate of Crimes Committed Against SCs/STs during
2005
Sr. No.
Total
Percentage
SC
ST
SC
ST
1.
India
26,127
5713
100
100
2.
Andhra Pradesh
3117
515
11.9
9.0
3.
Madhya Pradesh
4356
1615
16.7
28.3
4.
Rajasthan
3795
863
14.5
15.1
5.
Karnataka
1780
-
6.8
-
6.
Gujarat
1307
237
5.0
4.1
7.
Bihar
1824
-
7.0
-
8.
Maharashtra
865
224
3.3
3.9
9.
Uttar Pradesh
4397
-
16.8
-
10.
Orissa
1439
602
5.5
10.5
11.
Assam
-
216
-
3.8
12.
Chhatisgarh
-
497
-
8.7
13.
Jharkhand
-
483
8.0
Source: National Crime Records Bureau, Ministry of Home Affairs, 2005 GOI.
25
26
Sr.
No.
State
Murder
SC
ST
Rape
SC
ST
Table : 4
Incidence of Crimes against SC/ST during 2005 (Crime-wise)
Kidnapping Dacoity Robbery Arson
Hurt
PCR
SC-ST Pof.
&
Atro. Act
Abducting
SC
ST SC ST SC ST SC ST SC ST SC ST
SC
ST
1.
India
669 164 1172 640
258
72
26
27
80
49
210
2
Andhra
Pradesh
37
12
74
34
21
2
0
0
0
1
3.
Madhya
Pradesh
96
48
340
294
19
14
0
1
9
4.
Rajasthan
56
11
136
29
18
3
0
0
5.
Karnataka
18
5
30
6
8
0
2
6.
Gujarat
10
4
20
19
18
6
7.
Bihar
12
0
16
2
5
8.
Maharashtra
15
10
83
41
9.
Uttar
Pradesh
323
0
224
10
Orissa
9
15
11.
Chhatisgarh
6
12.
Jharkhand
13
Assam
Other
Offences
SC
ST
Total
SC
Grand
Total
ST
38
3847 767 291 162
8497
1283
11077
2511 26127 5713
31840
9
1
459
70
61
0
1244
196
2112
199
3115
515
3632
3
38
15
950
199
1
0
344
252
2559
789
4356
1615
5971
4
1
32
5
399
117
1
0
415
91
2734
606
3795
863
4658
0
2
0
4
0
86
7
28
0
1108
85
494
88
1780
191
1971
7
17
17
20
8
2
270
32
6
0
434
73
517
64
1307
237
1544
3
4
0
6
2
19
0
319
11
95
0
1141
59
207
5
1824
82
1906
8
4
5
1
6
2
7
0
52
7
32
0
258
52
399
107
865
224
1089
0
99
0
5
0
22
0
57
0
427
2
28
0
1623
0
1589
4
4397
6
4403
33
30
6
4
0
2
4
2
5
5
259
96
0
0
639
204
484
244
1439
602
2041
20
59
104
3
9
0
0
0
0
0
0
71
81
1
0
115
93
199
190
454
497
951
13
13
8
20
1
4
0
0
0
0
8
3
71
30
8
160
64
152
104
101
277
483
760
21
23
14
19
25
21
3
4
8
14
7
5
111
63
0
0
0
0
93
67
282
216
498
Source: National Human Rights Commission, 2004, GOI.
Note: Figures are drawn only from reported cases which are roughly 40 percent
25
TABLE NO. 5
Representation of SC/STs in Central Government Services
(As on 1 January1999)
Group
Total
SCs
Percentage
STs
Percentage
A
93520
10558
11.29
3172
3.39
B
104963
13306
12.68
3512
3.35
C
D
2396426
378115
15.78
145482
6.07
949353
189761
19.99
66487
7.0
96435
63233
65.57
5314
5.51
3544262
591740
16.07
218653
6.17
3640697
654973
17.99
223967
6.15
Excluding
Safai
Karamchari
Safai
Karamchar
Total
(Excluding
Safai
Karamchari)
Total
(Including
Safai
Karamchari)
Source: India 2002, Government of India, p. 247.
26
Table No. 6
Position of SCs and STs in Teaching Posts at all the Department of the
University of Delhi and its affiliated Colleges as in 1995.
Position
Professors
Readers
lecturers
total
Total No. of Teacher
No. of SCs
No. of STs
Department
College
Department
College
Department
College
311
247
142
700
4*
2545
1963
4512
2
1
4
7
0
3
8
11
0
1
1
2
0
0
0
0
Note: *The Post of Professor in college has been introduced only in very recent years.
However the source mentioned below points to four posts of professor in the
Colleges (cited in Virginius Xaxa, Economic and Political Weekly, XXXVII
No. 28, p. 2853.)
27
Table : 7
Table on Expenditure of Education in India
Education
Expenditure as
Years
Proportion of GDP
2000-01
3.17
2001-02
2.98
2002-03
2.97
2003-04
2.78
2004-05(RE)
2.87
2005-06(BE)
2.81
Source: Economic Survey 2005-06, GOI
Education
Expenditure as
Proportion of Total
expenditure
11.3
10.6
10.3
9.7
9.9
10.1
Education expenditure
Education Expenditure as Proportion of GDP
12
Education Expenditure as Proportion of Total
expenditure
10
Percent
8
6
4
2
0
2000-01
2001-02
2002-03
2003-04
2004-05(RE)
28
2005-06(BE)
TABLE NO. 8
ENROLMENT OF SCHEDULED CASTE AND SCHEDULED
TRIBE CASTE STDENTS IN SCHOOLS
DURING 1980-81 TO 2000-2001.
Year
1980-81
1981-82
1982-83
1983-84
1984-85
1985-86
1986-87
1987-88
1988-89
1989-90
1990-91
1991-92
1992-93
1993-94
1994-95
1995-96
1996-97*
1997-98*
1998-99*
1999-2000*
2000-01*
Provisional
Primary (I-V)
Middle (VI-VIII)
High-Hr.
Secondary (IX-XII)
SC
ST
SC
ST
SC
ST
10981
11343
12051
12473
12691
13921
12526
14676
15202
15400
15794
16037
17351
17581
18432
19176
17906
18445
19500
20435
21195
4660
4921
5331
5729
4059
6580
6557
7229
7596
7798
7869
8033
8365
8595
9095
9415
8793
9011
9301
10650
10995
2223
2454
2647
3296
3666
3619
3414
3736
3841
3921
4160
4693
5411
5580
5213
5445
5956
5765
6136
6301
6694
742
835
926
1057
1216
1283
1434
1455
1503
1569
1707
1794
2029
2164
2248
2285
2545
2355
2556
2905
3084
1152
1246
1421
1777
1953
1810
1466
2028
2103
2331
2338
2581
2531
2808
2591
2741
2940
3156
3217
3784
3812
329
358
412
427
521
585
557
611
716
797
805
843
882
997
1129
1122
1208
1249
1308
1422
1490
Source: Azimji Premji Education Foundation
29
TABLE NO. 9
ALL INDIA LEVEL EDUCATIONAL ENROLMENT AT HIGHER
EDUCATION AMONG SCs AND NON SCs, 2001-2002
LEVELS
Ph.D.
ALL INDIA (GENERAL)
BOYS
GIRLS
TOTAL
(63.66)
(36.33)
53119
ALL INDIA (SCs)
BOYS GIRLS TOTAL
(6.82) (4.26)
3133
(5.89)
647016
(14.00) (9.72)
79466
(12.28)
6442789 (13.98( (8.17) 745181
(11.56)
790040
(8.81) (9.10)
70367
(8.90)
696608
16.13) (16.08) 112291
(16.11)
10453229 (9.95) (9.08) 1004772
(9.61)
8821095 706769 309813 1016582
(13.33) (8.79) (11.52)
*Post Graduate
(59.76)
(40.23)
**Under Graduate
(58.32)
(41.67)
***Professional
(69.47)
(30.52)
****Others
(63.19)
(36.82)
XI-XIIT
(60.22)
(39.77)
Total Enrolment
in Higher
Education
5300281 3520814
(60.08)
(39.91)
Source: Selected Educational Statistics-2001-2002, Govt. of India.
*Includes M. A., M. Sc., and M. Com.
**Includes B.A., B. Sc., and B.Com.
***Includes B. E., M. B. B. S., and B. Ed.
****Not includes in specified faculty.
30
Table 10
Percentage of Population Below Poverty Line by States
S.No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
States
Andhra
Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Gujarat
Haryana
Himachal
Pradesh
Karnataka
Kerala
Madhya
Pradesh
Maharashtra
Orissa
Punjab
Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu
Uttar
Pradesh
West
Bengal
All India
Rural
Scheduled
Scheduled
Castes
Tribes
26.02
25.66
Urban
Scheduled Scheduled
Castes
Tribes
43.82
46.68
45.38
70.66
32.26
46.56
36.89
41.44
69.75
31.20
41.55
63.94
14.34
55.16
44.99
23.58
18.52
7.11
35.76
35.47
0.00
0.00
46.36
36.43
45.83
37.33
37.34
56.69
61.59
31.59
65.00
0.00
62.05
1.08
51.64
48.95
22.08
38.38
44.05
58.99
50.58
71.26
27.00
46.23
44.37
37.11
52.56
47.45
24.96
48.63
61.50
58.02
61.06
64.85
0.00
13.21
30.08
36.88
45.29
61.95
37.73
19.41
48.11
51.94
49.48
41.14
Source: National Commission on Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (2002)
31
ya
uj
ar
at
Bi
ha
r
H
ar
G
32
Ta
an
m
il
N
ad
U
tta
u
rP
ra
de
W
sh
es
tB
en
ga
l
Al
lI
nd
ia
as
th
ja
b
ris
sa
Pu
n
O
ra
sh
tra
Percentage
M
Poverty Estimates (Official Poverty Line) NSS 55th round
70
ad
u
an
Al
l
In
di
a
en
ga
l
de
sh
rP
ra
tta
m
il
N
as
th
W
es
tB
U
Ta
ja
b
Pu
n
ris
sa
ra
ra
sh
t
O
a
es
h
Ke
ra
l
ta
ka
Pr
ad
aj
R
a
de
sh
ya
n
at
uj
ar
ar
H
G
ah
a
h
Bi
ha
r
lP
ra
ya
M
de
s
As
sa
m
Pr
a
Ka
rn
a
ac
ha
ad
h
im
H
hr
a
An
d
Percentage
Scheduled Castes rural
aj
R
a
es
h
Ke
ra
l
Pr
ad
ah
a
M
h
As
sa
m
de
s
Pr
a
ya
na
lP
ra
de
sh
Ka
rn
at
ak
a
ac
ha
ad
h
M
im
H
An
dh
ra
Percentage of People Below Poverty Line Among SC ST for 1993-94
80
Scheduled Tribes rural
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Major States
Others
SC/ST
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Table : 11
Poverty estimates for the year 1999-2000(NSS 55th round) among SC/ST and Others Based on
Official Poverty Line for Major States in India.(percentage)
Sl.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
States
Andhra Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Gujarat
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
Karnataka
Kerala
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Orissa
Punjab
Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu
Uttar Pradesh
West Bengal
All India
Others
10.8
38.6
44.6
10.1
6.3
4.8
14
6.7
37.1
20
47.5
3.7
10.2
18.3
29
28.4
24.5
SC/ST
14.9
38.4
61.8
17.9
15.3
5.6
20.8
13
50.9
32.7
63.1
7.4
17.7
24.7
41.3
35.7
35.8
Source: Meenakshi, J.V., and Ranjan Ray (2002), Table 3&4
Table : 12
Occupational Status of SC/ST
1961
1991
Genl
SC
ST
Genl
SC
ST
52.78 37.76 68.18 39.74 25.44 54.50
16.71 34.48 19.71 19.66 49.06 32.69
1 Cultivators
2 Agricultural
Laborers
3 Household
6.38
6.56
Industry
4 Other
24.13 21.20
Workers
Source: Census of India for 1961 and 1991
2.47
2.56
2.41
1.04
9.64
38.04
23.08
11.76
33
Occupational Classification of General, SC and ST
from 1961 to 1991
80.00
70.00
60.00
50.00
Percentage
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
Genl
SC
ST
Genl
1961
Cultivators
SC
ST
1991
Agricultural Laborers
Household Industry
Other Workers
Table : 13
Number Of Operational Holdings and Area Operated in India by Various Social Groups in 198081,1985-86 And 1990-91.
Number of Holdings (in
Area Operated (in lakhs hec.)
Average land holding (in
Lakhs)
hect.)
Social
Group
1980-81 1985-86 1990-91 1980-81 1985-86 1990-91 198019851990-91
81
86
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
115.22
126.39
131.73
Scheduled
100.52
120.41
134.22
1.15
1.05
0.98
(7.0)
(7.7)
(8.0)
Castes
(11.3)
(12.4)
(12.6)
167.04
172.34
179.09
Scheduled
68.54
76.48
86.70
2.44
2.25
2.07
(10.2)
(10.5)
(10.8)
Tribes
(7.7)
(7.9)
(8.1)
Others
719.77
774.66
845.45 1355.71 1346.89 1344.25
1.88
1.74
1.59
(82.8)
(81.8)
(81.2)
(81.00)
(79.7)
(79.3)
All Social
888.83
971.55
971.55 1637.97 1645.62 1655.07
1.84
1.69
1.55
(100.0) (100.00)
Groups
(100.00) (100.0) (100.00) (100.0)
Source: National Commission on Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (2002)
34
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36