Positive Youth Development Through Physical Activity and Sport: The
Experiences of Children in a Low-Income Inner City Edmonton Community
A Report For Alberta Centre for Child, Family, and Community Research
Prepared by
Nicholas L. Holt1
John C. Spence1
Amanda Newton2
Geoff D. C. Ball2
Richard Lerner3
1
Faculty of Physical Education and Recreation, University of Alberta
Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta
3 Institute for Applied Research in Youth Development, Tufts University
2
The following students also worked on this project and used some of the data for their
MA theses:
Zoe L. Sehn: Title of thesis: Providing physical education and extra-curricular sport
programs at an inner-city school. Faculty of Physical Education and Recreation,
University of Alberta.
Ceara-Tess Cunningham: Title of thesis: Planning and providing physical activity for
youth in Edmonton, Alberta. Faculty of Physical Education and Recreation, University of
Alberta.
Correspondence:
Nicholas L. Holt, PhD
Associate Professor, Faculty of Physical Education and Recreation
Population Health Investigator, Alberta Heritage Foundation for Medical Research
Van Vliet Centre
University of Alberta
Edmonton, AB, T6E 0H8
Tel: 780-492-7386
Email: nick.holt@ualberta.ca
Holt et al. Positive Youth Development Through Physical Activity and Sport
CONTENTS
Page 2
MAIN MESSAGES
Page 3
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Page 5
THE REPORT
Page 22
REFERENCES
1
Holt et al. Positive Youth Development Through Physical Activity and Sport
2
SUMMARY
MAIN ISSUES

Our goal was to understand more about the provision of physical activity (PA)
and its potential for producing positive outcomes. We interviewed children and
teachers from one school in an ethically-diverse, low-income Edmonton inner-city
neighbourhood. We also interviewed physical activity program providers.

The school provided intramurals, sport teams, and other recreational
opportunities for children. However, staff were overwhelmed with their extracurricular responsibilities and many left the school following the completion of our
study.

Some teachers attempted to teach positive ‘life skills’ such as confidence,
competence, caring, and compassion.

The Daily Physical Activity Initiative was not achieved in the school.

Several parks and playgrounds were available in the area, but children were
afraid to use them because of the presence of prostitutes, drug users, drug
dealers, drunks, homeless people, and gang members.

Efforts to teach life skills were constrained because children did not know how to
‘play together’ and resolve conflicts. Therefore, unsupervised play activities often
ended in fights or other aggressive acts.

Community organizations attempted to deliver PA programs to urban youth, but
they faced difficulties recruiting and retaining staff in the booming Alberta
economy. They often worked in a piecemeal fashion, lacking integration.
IMPLICATIONS FOR DECISION-MAKERS

Children in Edmonton’s inner-city do not need more parks and playgrounds. They
need parks and playgrounds that are free from drug- and alcohol-users,
prostitutes, and gang members.

Unsupervised free play is not the answer alone. Children also need adultsupervised programs in which they can be taught life skills that may transfer
across contexts.

Various non-profit organizations that provide PA programs must find ways to
work together and provide integrated services to children.

Teachers need more resources to provide extra-curricular programs.

Specialist Physical Education teachers are needed to help achieve the DPA.
Holt et al. Positive Youth Development Through Physical Activity and Sport
3
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Why study physical activity?
Engaging in regular physical activity can positively influence the lives of children and
youth in a number of ways, including enhancing their physical, psychological, social,
and emotional health. However, research suggests that Canadian children are not
meeting recommended guidelines for daily physical activity. Furthermore, some
populations, such as low-income urban youth, face a number of unique barriers.
Page: 3
This population merits further attention as they potentially stand to gain considerable
positive benefits from physical activity, yet it is this group that faces the most obstacles.
Therefore, our study examined the barriers and opportunities surrounding physical
activity (including play, sport, and physical education) for youth in one Canadian city.
Beacons of light
Specifically, we were interested in whether or not youth could acquire and learn positive
life skills through engaging in physical activity that could help them realize their potential
as productive members of society. We found that participating in sport and physical
activity did indeed teach students positive life skills such as working in cooperation with
others to achieve their goals. Additionally, some students reported that the new sport
skill they learned was the first thing they have ever been really confident about in their
lives. This suggests that physical activity can provide a beacon of light within the lives of
inner city children and youth. Findings also revealed that adult supervision and
supportive interactions between influential adults and youth is a crucial component that
facilitates positive youth participation in physical activity. For example, teachers and
coaches played an essential role in teaching the students specific sport and activityrelated skills in order to build the students’ confidence. Teachers also taught and
modeled respect and provided necessary structure to child and youth free play.
Neighbourhood constraints
However, significant barriers exist which prevent children from playing and engaging in
physical activity when they want to. These obstacles are linked primarily to
neighbourhood features that make it unsafe for children to play. Through this study we
see how important the context in which children live is to their physical activity
engagement, how appropriate adult supervision and support can help facilitate positive
youth development through physical activity, and how greater efforts are needed to
provide diverse youth populations with safe and appealing places to play.
Taking a closer look
To develop a rich understanding of the day-to-day lives of inner-city youth, we spent
one year at a public school located in the heart of Edmonton. We completed an analysis
of neighbourhood assets, such as parks and green spaces, and interviewed a total of 64
children and 8 school staff members. In the second year we interviewed 13 employees
Holt et al. Positive Youth Development Through Physical Activity and Sport
4
of non-profit organizations responsible for providing some type of physical activity
program for Edmonton’s urban youth.
What kids told us
Interviews with youth revealed that many of these children come from troubled homes
often rife with alcohol and drug abuse. Sadly, circumstances beyond the walls of their
homes were not any better. Children often perceived their neighbourhoods as
threatening and unsafe. For example, one 11-year old boy shared this story when asked
to describe the places and opportunities for activity in his neighbourhood. “There’s a lot
of crazy kids there. I got beaten up by one of them. He tried to take my money….when
he punched me I turned around and looked down in his pocket, there’s a knife handle.
I’m like, oh boy I better get outta here.”
Stranger danger
Another factor that inhibited children’s opportunities to engage in playful physical activity
in their neighbourhoods was the presence of adults who were perceived as being
dangers. These adults included drug users, drug dealers, drunks, prostitutes, and
homeless people. Although there were approximately eight parks in the neighborhood,
these adults tended to congregate in the children’s parks, leaving broken bottles,
needles, beer cans, solvent abuse materials, and other dangerous garbage. As a result,
children were often afraid to visit these play spaces.
Talking to the children clearly illuminated the difficult realities that many of them faced
on a daily basis. An anecdote shared by a research assistant reveals how the context
these children live in may act to desensitize them. Her story begins after she received a
phone call from the other research assistant working on the project. The research
assistant called in a panic, reporting a problem at the school: a body had been found in
the field and it wasn’t clear if the body was dead or injured, and children were gathered
around it.
I got to the school to find a boy about fifteen or sixteen years old who had
overdosed on some undisclosed substance and had passed out on the
basketball tarmac at the school. Thankfully he wasn’t actually dead, though it
was an easy assumption to make, what with apparently 40 or so children poking
him with sticks and yelling in his ear to no avail. One little girl went so far as to
take his hat off his head where she found a quarter, which she kept.
I asked myself what I would have done had I been a grade five student going out
to play basketball one sunny afternoon in April only to find that a dead body was
in the way. I think the last thing I’d have done is say to my friends “I get his
shoes!” I think the kids were desensitized. This was true not only for dead bodies,
but also a variety of things that are associated with living in poverty and the
inner-city; prostitutes, drug dealers, gangs and homelessness are all things these
kids had to cope with in their day-to-day lives, but also things at which they would
hardly bat an eyelash.
Holt et al. Positive Youth Development Through Physical Activity and Sport
5
Now we know…what’s next?
The realities faced by these youth underline the importance of positive adult interactions
in other facets of their life. Our study revealed that adult supervision and positive
behaviour modeling were essential for kids to reap the benefits of play, sport, and
physical activity. On a broader scale this study shows us that there is an opportunity to
enhance the lives of disadvantaged youth through physical activity, but attention needs
to be paid to broader issues such as harsh neighbourhood environments, safety, and
poverty in order for children to have safe places to play.
Holt et al. Positive Youth Development Through Physical Activity and Sport
6
REPORT
CONTEXT
Fewer than half of Canadian children between the ages of 4 and 11 are
sufficiently active to achieve optimal health and development.1 Furthermore,
approximately one third of Canadian children are overweight.2 A recent survey of 34
nations showed that Canada ranked as the fifth highest country for prevalence of
overweight and obese school-aged youth following Malta, US, Wales, and Greenland.3
In addition to contributing to concerns about obesity, sedentary behaviours do
little to enhance children’s cognitive, emotional, or social development. 4 These
problems are especially prevalent for children in low-income neighbourhoods,1 who
have reduced access to facilities, decreased levels of PA, and increased levels of
overweight compared to children in higher-income neighbourhoods.5 Developmental
psychologists argue that leisure time should be spent in productive ways, such as by
participating in high quality programs that will facilitate positive development.6 For
example, when children participate in organized structured activities like sport, they
report higher levels of intrinsic motivation, effort, and concentration than when they
watch television or spend time with friends.7,8 Through their involvement in PA, physical
education, and sport programs children may accrue positive developmental
experiences.
Purpose and Research Questions
The purpose of this study was to examine how children, teachers, and programmers
perceived opportunities for PA. We were also interested in the extent to which PA
provided opportunities to facilitate Positive Youth Development (PYD).
Holt et al. Positive Youth Development Through Physical Activity and Sport
7
Research Setting
Our research was based on an ethnically diverse, economically disadvantaged,
downtown Edmonton neighbourhood. The neighbourhood is located near the downtown
core. Other than English, the primary languages spoken in this community are Chinese,
Cantonese, and Vietnamese; there is also a small Aboriginal population (City of
Edmonton, 2001). According to 2001 census data, the median income of families in this
community was less than $21,000 per annum, making it the lowest income community
in Edmonton. Over 80% of occupied dwellings in the neighbourhood were built prior to
1980, with less than 1% built after 1996, and nearly 78% of these homes were rental
units. 25% of adults above the age of 20 had obtained less than a grade 9 education.
School enrolment in Edmonton’s core had also experienced a decline (City of
Edmonton, 2005) and the school we focused on during phase 1 of the study was 200
students below its enrolment capacity.
IMPLICATIONS
The findings have implications for several types of decision makers across various
types of organizations.
For school boards:

Specialist PE staff are required to help achieve the DPA initiative. Staff in the
present study were overworked, overwhelmed, and on the edge of burnout.

For PA programs to produce positive experiences and outcomes for children,
specially trained staff must provide supervised in-school and after-school
programs. Unsupervised or partially supervised programs are insufficient for
producing positive outcomes. Positive outcomes will only be achieved through
Holt et al. Positive Youth Development Through Physical Activity and Sport
8
the direct teaching of life skills rather than ‘hoping’ that PA alone will produce
positive psychological, social, and emotional outcomes.
For urban planners:

Consider children’s views when designing safe play spaces in neighbourhoods.
For non profit organizations:

Staff retention and volunteer recruitment are problems these organizations face.
These problems appear to impede the delivery of PA programs to youth in
Edmonton’s inner city. These organizations require financial resources to recruit
and retain staff.

At the current time, integration is limited and programs are provided in a
‘piecemeal’ manner. Non-profit organizations would benefit from adopting an
integrated approach whereby similar types of organizations (whether national or
local) find ways to pool their resources and work together to solve specific
problems.
For everyone:

We envisage a situation whereby school boards, city planners, social services,
and non-profit organizations can work together to provide specific, targeted,
supervised programs directly focused on clearly identified issues. One such issue
is PA. Improvements must be made in terms of providing and retaining trained
professionals, creating safe environments, and providing a range of programs.
We must continue to listen to children’s voices and include them in the planning
process. Finally, it is vitally important to evaluate the effectiveness of these
Holt et al. Positive Youth Development Through Physical Activity and Sport
9
changes in terms of children’s perceptions of places where they can play and be
physically active and in terms of objective measurement of PA and PYD.
APPROACH
A two phase project was conducted. First, ethical permission for phase 1 was
obtained from the Research Ethics Board (REB) in the Faculty of Physical Education
and Recreation at the University of Alberta. Next, ethical approval from the Edmonton
Public School Board (EPSB) was obtained. Separate REB approval was obtained for
phase 2, but EPSB approval was not required as phase 2 was not conducted within the
school system. All adult participants provided written informed consent. For the children,
written parental consent was obtained and the children themselves provided written
assent to participate in the study.
Phase 1 involved three data collection techniques: (a) a neighbourhood
assessment, (b) interviews with teachers, and (c) interviews with students. In order to
develop the fullest understanding of the context possible, a researcher was also
‘embedded’ in the school for an entire academic year. During phase 2 data were
collected via individual interviews with professionals responsible for the provision of PA
programs for Edmonton’s inner-city youth. Data were analyzed verbatim and listed as a
series of themes representing the key issues we uncovered.
Holt et al. Positive Youth Development Through Physical Activity and Sport
10
RESULTS
Table 1. Overview of Results
Theme
Sub-themes
Implications
Child Level Issues
Children Faced Challenging Home level support is
Home Circumstances
required
School Level Issues
School Staff Attempted to
Promote Positive
Behaviours
Aggressive Behaviours
Marred Positive Sport
Experiences
School Staff Burnout and
Retention
Despite some incredible
efforts from school staff,
these issues restricted
the extent to which the
school could provide PE,
PA, and sport programs.
Daily Physical Activity
Initiative
Neighbourhood Level
Issues
The Neighbourhood
Restricted Children’s Play
Children had too few safe
places to play and be
physically active.
Physical Activity Program
Level Issues
Recruitment and Retention
of Volunteers and Staff
Staff Face too Many Roles
and Responsibilities
Long-term Involvement of
Staff Members
Clear and Objective
Measurement of Program
Outcomes
Recruiting Influential Board
Members and Building
Beneficial Connections
Increasing Funding
Opportunities
Several issues restricted
the effective delivery of
PA programs to urban
youth.
Holt et al. Positive Youth Development Through Physical Activity and Sport
11
CHILD LEVEL ISSUES
Children Faced Challenging Home Circumstances
In addition to neighbourhood problems, the school staff thought students faced
very challenging personal circumstances at home. For example, one teacher said:
Well I think you’ve got your kids coming to school that are hungry, like they’re…
you know, a lot of them are coming from situations where they aren’t well-rested,
well-fed. Uhm… well-emotionally sometimes. ‘Cause there’s lots of things going
on in their lives that are stressful, and distressing, for them… like they’re not, the
experiences that they have are not the same as kids in other areas…. They’re in
a whole environment of, like, you know, the reality is, is they’re just, they’re not in
a supervised, warm, nurturing, honest, drug-free environment. They all have
parents that have issues with either drugs or alcohol… we’ve had issues with
[family members] in jail for murder. And that was a gang involvement thing, him
trying to get out of the gang.
Finally, another teacher remarked that:
They’ve been brought up to come home with stolen bikes, and nobody asks
where they come from, right? They know it’s wrong. Absolutely they know it’s
wrong, they’re not going to stop doing it. They get nice bikes, right? They know
that it’s not right to smoke pot or to drink. They drink and show up at school. You
know? They know that. Why did they show up here, why did they tell us this stuff,
why did they, why? Because they trust us. Because they know that if they fall
apart, we won’t walk out on them. That we’ll still hug them and say you’re a brat,
that you made a mistake and you’ve got to do something about it. They know.
Holt et al. Positive Youth Development Through Physical Activity and Sport
12
As the end of the previous quote shows, there was some support for the children in the
school. In summary then, while many children faced exceptionally challenging home
circumstances, there was support from some teachers in their school.
SCHOOL LEVEL ISSUES
School Staff Attempted to Promote Positive Behaviours
Linking to our previous theme which indicated that school staff were a source of
support for the children, we also found that school staff attempted to promote a range of
positive outcomes for the school children. The boys’ basketball coach thought helping
children to be confident in PE could potentially effect their confidence in other areas of
their lives. He said:
I guess, if they’re feeling success in gym and they’re not feeling success in
[another class] they’re going to feel competent at least in gym, which will
hopefully give them like, I can do this, maybe I can do something else too.
Hopefully that kind of attitude, you want to get a resilient, persistent attitude, like
they’ll try the three point shot like a million times until they get it, and they’re like
“Oh, I can do it” and they’ll try it out in maybe a game situation. You know, you
want to see progression and you get that, so it’s good.
Similarly, the PE teacher hoped that the development of confidence in PE would enable
students to attain a positive sense of self overall:
And that’s really, like that’s what my wish is, right? Is that they become confident
in something where they feel, like they’re good at, they can do other things in life
that they thought were challenging.
Another teacher said that within the confines of the school:
Holt et al. Positive Youth Development Through Physical Activity and Sport
13
The kids are valued as people. They’re respected. They’re not just people filling
desks. Like, they are people that you talk to, and you value what they have to
say and I think that’s a very important thing, ‘cause that doesn’t always happen at
every school.
Another teacher thought that PE class allowed students who may not have
always felt involved the opportunity of being connected:
You know what, the athletic programs and the phys-ed programs is one of the big
positives here, it is. And I’ve seen the kids it’s drawn in, I mean, kids that don’t fit
in, are belonging on these teams that are feeling like they’re a part of something,
and watching them shine, like what a wonderful feeling to watch, to see that.
Character development was an issue some teachers felt needed to be addressed
at school as students were not being educated on the rules of society at home. For
example, one teacher thought that students did know right from wrong, but felt that
discipline and a respect for rules and consequences had possibly never been enforced
except at school:
I’m a firm believer that people do stupid things, and that is ok. It’s how you
handle it afterwards that is hugely important. I think. Like, yes, everybody gets
pissed off and reefs a ball. Oh, it hit somebody in the head… Did you say sorry?
Did you feel bad? Did you… you know what I mean?…Talking about it… well
how did that make you feel? Why do you feel like that? And… right from wrong
and like understanding other people’s perspectives I think is a big one for them
too. Like, why do you think that person did that? Well, how were they feeling?
And so I think that’s a huge thing.
Holt et al. Positive Youth Development Through Physical Activity and Sport
14
In summary then, the PA programs provided at the school in question were used to help
promote some positive outcomes. However, the extent to which these outcomes
transferred beyond school PA programs remains unknown.
Aggressive Behaviours Marred Positive Sport Experiences
Although school staff worked hard to impart positive behaviours, staff and
children reported that games often ended abruptly because some children would
engage in excessive aggressive play, often causing injuries. A school staff member
provided an example of aggressive verbal behaviours she came across, and how she
had learned to deal with it:
I will be frank, I mean, they wouldn’t have any problem saying to you, “fucking
bitch.” Uh, but, you knew exactly where you stood. Whereas if you worked in
some of the other communities, they would look at you and say, “thank-you very
much,” and then go phone the, you know Capital Health or something to make a
complaint. These people are honest and in your face, and I kind of like that.
We found that some children were highly engaged in PE and sport programs in
the school, looking forward to and enjoying these activities. Other children were much
less engaged and their participation in PE and sport teams was sporadic. When less
engaged children were disruptive the teachers tended to punish the entire class.
Therefore, the more engaged children suffered for the actions of those children who
were less engaged.
School Staff Burnout and Retention
Another issue we identified related to the difficulties of keeping staff at the school
because of the demanding circumstances they faced. Seven of the 8 staff members
Holt et al. Positive Youth Development Through Physical Activity and Sport
15
interviewed had worked at the school for two years or less. Furthermore, following the
completion of Phase 1 of this study we discovered that 6 staff members left the school
at the end of the academic year. They were exhausted, burned out, and unable to cope
with the demands of their positions. For example, the PE teacher/athletic director
volunteered approximately 350 hours of her personal time to run lunchtime intramurals
and school sport teams. In fact, during the latter part of the academic year she
cancelled the lunchtime activities because she no longer had the energy to supervise
the students and no other teachers volunteered to assist.
Daily Physical Activity (DPA) Initiative
The DPA Initiative was implemented in September of 2005 by the Alberta
Government as part of a healthy lifestyle framework for students in Alberta (Alberta
Government, 2007). According to the Alberta Government (2007), daily PE classes are
considered an acceptable vehicle for the provision of DPA. Unfortunately, children at the
school did not receive daily PE. Although not a core subject, PE was mandatory for all
students. However, there was variation in the amount of scheduled PE classes the
students received (Table 2). The general trend throughout the school year was that the
younger students received fewer scheduled PE lessons per week than the older
students.
Table 2
Scheduled and ‘Actual’ Minutes in PE Lessons per Week and Hours of PE per Year by
Grade
Grade
Scheduled PE time
(mins)
*Actual PE time
(mins)
*Estimated PE time
per year (hours)
5
6
7
100
120
150
80
80
120
53
53
80
Holt et al. Positive Youth Development Through Physical Activity and Sport
8
9
Behaviour Class
150
150
200
120
120
160
16
80
80
106
Note. * Estimated based on observations of actual time students spent engaged in PE
during lessons per week.
Teachers felt that the DPA initiative, although good in theory, was not necessarily
feasible. One said:
Well I mean I think it makes a lot of sense, but I think, and I think it’s, um,
significantly easier to accommodate in elementary school, in elementary classes
than it is in Jr. High. I mean I think the premise of getting daily PA is great and I
think there’s lots of benefits but I think that, um, you know, I think that when it
comes to looking at how do you schedule that in certain schools, I’m not sure that
that really was given a lot of consideration when it was brought in.
NEIGHBOURHOOD LEVEL ISSUES
The Neighbourhood Restricted Children’s Play
Our initial neighbourhood analysis revealed that the neighbourhood was in poor
repair. Sidewalks were often cracked, blocked, or were missing sections for safe
walking. Buildings were abandoned and/or boarded up. There was garbage in the
streets, broken shop windows, and graffiti covered buildings. There were approximately
eight green spaces and playgrounds and other resources included two martial arts
clubs, a boxing club, and a youth club. Therefore, the area was relatively well-served for
providing PA opportunities in an objective sense.
But, we found that groups of presumably unemployed or homeless adults tended
to congregate in the green spaces. Also, drug dealers, addicts, and prostitutes were in
the area, and sometimes seemed to congregate around the youth clubs. Children
Holt et al. Positive Youth Development Through Physical Activity and Sport
17
confirmed our observations and several made it quite clear that neighbourhood dangers
restricted their free play activities. One child said “I do notice that there’s a lot of
prostitutes and stuff walking around our neighbourhood.” Another child said “Well, it’s
not the best neighbourhood… There’s a lot of bums and stuff… Just this morning there
was a teenager and a whole bunch of people [strangers] sitting on our porch.”
Other ‘dangerous people’ tended to hang around parks, and several children
were not allowed to go to parks on their own. Another child explained that he had no
friends to play with on his particular street because his friends lived a couple of streets
away. He was not allowed to walk to his friends’ houses in the evenings. Others were
allowed to meet their friends at parks, but parents stipulated that they must come home
very early.
A child described some of the dangers faced in the neighbourhood. He and his
friends had built a ‘fort’ near a local park. But then explained that when they went back
to the fort a couple of days later “there were needles all over inside there and I didn’t
want to go back there again.” In this case, drug users had taken over the children’s play
space. As these examples suggest, play spaces existed but children’s play was
restricted by dangerous features of the neighbourhood.
Neighbourhood dangers were corroborated by teachers in the school. Although
they did not live in the neighbourhood, by working there 5 days per week they were very
‘close’ to many situations. One female teacher said:
And my first day at work… the house across the street was cordoned off because
there was a murder, the night before… These kids see things in this
neighbourhood that you don’t see in a lot of neighbourhoods. You don’t see
Holt et al. Positive Youth Development Through Physical Activity and Sport
18
people passed out in the back alley. You don’t see Meth addicts tweaking [i.e.,
acting erratically] on the corners… you just don’t see that. Do I think that has a
negative impact? Can you imagine? Yeah! I saw it a couple of weeks ago… it
impacted me! It’s like, that’s a scary thing!
A member of one of the organizations responsible for providing PA at a centre in the
neighbourhood also recognized some of the factors that inhibited children’s’ PA, and
said:
Sometimes we don’t want [let children] go outside …because of the nature of
what is outside… homelessness. We don’t want to jeopardize the safety of our
children who are younger. The older children, not so much, we can sometimes
assess whether it’s a danger or not, But when you have some 5-year olds who
are relatively new to the program…. We have access the big park…for soccer.
Sometimes we don’t just [use it] because of where we are…or the people that we
see outside… So now if we go outside we are in jeopardy of either being danger
of getting rocks thrown at us…And part of the thing that’s in a lot of the areas that
we have clubs that is sort of hindering the kids’ ability to utilize those facilities is
gangs. That’s been a huge concern in specific areas, especially where the kidswe sometimes have trouble getting the kids to the clubs because they’re afraid to
come… And once they’re at the club they don’t want to leave. So a lot of our staff
end up driving the kids home.
In summary, these findings show that although there were PA facilities in the
neighbourhood, children’s access to these facilities were constrained by perceived
threats from adults and gangs.
Holt et al. Positive Youth Development Through Physical Activity and Sport
19
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY PROGRAM LEVEL ISSUES
Recruitment and Retention of Volunteers and Staff
Members of PA organizations faced challenges recruiting volunteers to help run
their programs. One said:
Yah, volunteer recruitment is probably is the number one thing for most of the
[i.e., branches of our organization]…the ability to give that time up was there
[referring to the past], whereas now that you know, free time is you know… the
Blackberry generation that we are that you know free time is so valuable that
volunteering doesn’t have that benefit to it anymore.”
Similar challenges were reported in connection to recruiting and retaining (paid)
staff members. Competitive wages and the Albertan economy seemed to be common
reasons that were given when participants were asked to comment on full-time staff
retention and recruitment issues. One participant said:
The retention piece is difficult for my program because of the fact that they [staff]
[were] university students [i.e., they hold degrees]. The retention already isn’t
going to be all high to begin with… however the wages that we can pay are
substantially lower to anything that any other half qualified person can get
anywhere else.
Another participant exemplified the problem, saying that “I’ve been here since July 2007
and uhm, I roughly seen about 6 staff leave.” In summary then, recruiting and retaining
staff was a problem because most organizations could not offer competitive challenges
in comparison to other industries in the booming Alberta economy. The transient nature
Holt et al. Positive Youth Development Through Physical Activity and Sport
20
of staff likely had a negative influence on the extent to which organizations were able to
provide PA opportunities for children and youth.
Staff Faced too Many Roles and Responsibilities
Like the teachers who appeared to be stressed and burned out, members of the
PA organizations reported similar problems. One participant said “Well right now I am
kind of everything for [name of organization] because I’m the day-to-day staff as well as
the chair, as well as the communications person as well as the marketer! So it’s kind of
the way it’s working right now which is why I am so busy!”
One result of the participants being overwhelmed was that their program delivery
suffered because they did not have the time to follow up on program evaluations. For
example, P4 said:
It’s good, but it’s just hard to collect [evaluations] especially for us. I find uhm, like
if I’m working with teachers, I’ll leave them the form but who knows if I’ll get it
back. Sometimes I do, sometimes I don’t and then it just ends up being…it’s
definitely hard for me especially with our organization, it’s so small that it’s me
that has to follow up with them and if I get busy with something else then that’s
one of the things that just gets [ignored]…
These quotes demonstrate the difficulty in program delivery when one individual was
responsible for too much work. Problems with program evaluation arose, as there was
just not enough time to devote to all facets of program implementation.
Long-term Involvement of Staff Members
Holt et al. Positive Youth Development Through Physical Activity and Sport
21
Despite the challenges organizations faced regarding staff recruitment and
retention, participants identified key staff members’ long-term involvement as an
important part of delivering successful programs. For example, P2 explained that:
You know programs like ours can tolerate a certain amount of in and out and flex,
but your key people, the key faces the kids are looking to see every week, like on
the Saturday rally when we bus them, they can’t have a different set of people
every 3 months rotating in a different practicum… it’s not going to happen! Most
of these kids have gone through a lot of abandonment and uhm, separation and
lots of issues around that…
This quote from P1 referred to the importance of staff members’ long-term involvement
in terms of addressing youths’ needs through building sustainable relationships.
Participants also described experiences where their long-term involvement with an
organization facilitated enjoyable moments with other staff members. P11 said “…what
motivated him much later in life to fix up bikes for kids was remembering how tough it
was himself as a child to not have anything he could call his own and how much he
treasured his first bike when he finally did get one...” When asked how this made a
difference in his job, he said “So uhm those are kind of moving stories too when you
suddenly see the connection and what’s you know what’s motivating this guy.” This
quote demonstrated the value of long-term staff involvement and building personal
relationships within an organization.
Clear and Objective Measurement of Program Outcomes
Nine out of the 13 participants identified the clear and objective measurement of
program outcomes as a valuable asset when structuring programs, assessing programs
Holt et al. Positive Youth Development Through Physical Activity and Sport
22
and making necessary changes to programs. For example, P7 provided this example
regarding the development of a new program. He said:
So for instance when I wanted to do the [type of program], ah, the Program
Director said ‘Why?’ and I said ‘Well, I think it might be great.’ [Program Director
replies] ‘Well, survey them, see if they want it, if they don’t want it you’re not
going to do it.’ Uhm, and that’s as simple as it is, we want a resource centre
that’s reflective of what the community wants. So we’ve always been high on
evaluation ever since I’ve been here…”
When asked to further elaborate on program evaluation, he said “…this has been
something that our Program Director feels very passionately about. She loves
evaluations and surveys and logic models and uhm, it’s part of her job satisfaction to
take it to this next level. Where we’re actually front runners in terms of how we
evaluate.” In a similar vein, P1 discussed assessing program outcomes saying:
Uhm, we have a full-time staff position, manager of mission effectiveness. Her
job is to ensure that everything we do is evaluated, uhm that we understand the
outcomes that we are achieving, we understand what we are not achieving. All of
out data is online, our funders can access at anytime 24 hours a day, 7 days a
week.
Later in the interview, she referenced to positive program outcomes, saying “…I mean
I’ve always felt passionate about it, but the more the research is coming out telling us
that fundamentally, we are changing children’s lives in positive ways. It everyday just
gives you that energy to just say well let’s just push a little harder.”
Holt et al. Positive Youth Development Through Physical Activity and Sport
23
Recruiting Influential Board Members and Building Beneficial Connections
Increasing Funding Opportunities
Smaller organizations (Local) generally sought to partner with agencies with
which they shared similar values whereas larger organizations (Provincial and National)
developed much broader partnerships with a variety of different stakeholders. It
appeared as if the organizations that aimed to develop broader partnerships (i.e.,
recruiting influential board members, partnering with other organizations) generated
greater funding opportunities. Six out of 13 individuals reported using strategies such as
recruiting influential board members and building beneficial connections in order to
increase funding opportunities, thereby contributing to the overall success of programs.
For example, P11 said “We have some things that we look for in board members,
which you find in common with most charities and non-profits…it’s the 3 W’s. It’s weight,
wealth and wisdom and weight is community connection and influence.” When asked to
explain why he looks for these qualities in board members, he went on to say “So the
ability uhm by reason of connections in the community to tackle, on our behalf, large
pools of volunteers or uhm significant donors uhm and to have a high profile name
attached to the organization maybe to help make publicity.” This quote from P11
highlighted the core qualities that characterize an appealing board member. P8 used a
similar description when asked what qualities he looked for in board members. He said:
You know most of the boards that are really successful have at least one person
that can pick up the phone and make a phone call and everybody knows who
that person is…yah that make that connection and push the buttons when they
Holt et al. Positive Youth Development Through Physical Activity and Sport
24
need to be pushed and they don’t have to do a whole lot other than that except
have that sort of influence.
Participants provided specific examples where board members were influential in
building connections, generating publicity and increasing funding opportunities for
organizations. P5 shared this example, saying:
It’s the biggest oil and gas show in the world. I didn’t even know it existed and
this is through one of our local [branch of organization] that actually has…he’s
the chair of the [branch of organization] …and he basically owns this company.
He’s the guy that goes around and buys all the little oil and gas companies and
turns them into big ones kind of thing. So they’ve invited us, they wanted to do a
part of their…it’s over 3 days, they’ve got a booth and one of the days they want
to have an [organization’s name] day.
Through his connection within the oil and gas industry, this board member facilitated a
significant fundraising opportunity for the organization. She went on to say, “So yah, yah
so we are hoping that we are able to raise some money there [oil and gas event]. They
have said that they’ll match up to 10, 000$.” This quote from P5 exemplifies the benefits
associated with having influential board members within organizations. Overall these
data indicated participants felt as if recruiting influential board members and developing
beneficial connections facilitated positive growth for organizations. It appeared as if
developing broad partnerships and building influential connections generated funding
opportunities and increased public awareness for organizations.
Holt et al. Positive Youth Development Through Physical Activity and Sport
25
FURTHER RESEARCH
We need to make changes to the urban and physical environment, provide additional
PE specialists to schools, help non-profit organizations integrate their work to promote
PA, and find a way to keep ‘scary people’ away from children’s play spaces. Then,
further research is required to evaluate the effectiveness of such innovations on
children’s perceptions of play, their actual levels of PA, and the positive developmental
outcomes they can accrue.
Holt et al. Positive Youth Development Through Physical Activity and Sport
26
REFERENCES
1Craig, C. L., Russell, S. J., Cameron, C., & Beaulieu, A. (1999). Foundation for joint
action: Reducing physical inactivity. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Fitness and Lifestyles
Research Institute.
2Tremblay, M. S., Katzmarzyk, P. T., & Willms, J. D. (2002). Temporal trends in
overweight and obesity in Canada, 1981-1996. International Journal of Obesity
Related Metabolic Disorders, 26, 538-543.
3Janssen, I., Katzmarzyk, P. T., Boyce, W. F., Vereecken, C., Milvihill, C., Roberts, C.,
Currie, C., & Pickett, W. (2005). Comparison of overweight and obesity
prevalence in school-aged youth from 34 countries and their relationships with
physical activity and dietary patterns. Obesity Reviews, 6, 123-132.
4Eccles, J. S., & Gootman, J. (Eds.) (2002). Community programs to promote youth
development. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
5Gordon-Larsen, P., McMurray, R. G., & Popkin, B. M. (2000). Determinants of
adolescent physical activity and inactivity patterns. Pediatrics, 105, E83.
6Eccles, J. S., Barber, B. L., Stone, M., & Hunt, J. (2003). Extracurricular activities and
adolescent development. Journal of Social Issues, 59, 865-889.
7Larson, R. W. (1994). Youth organizations, hobbies, and sports as developmental
contexts. In R. K. Silbereisen & E. Todt (Eds.), Adolescence in context: The
interplay of family, school, peers, and work in adjustment. (pp. 46-65). New York:
Springer-Verlag.
8Lowe Vandell, D. Shernoff, D. J., Pierce, K. M., Bolt, D. M., Dadisman, K., & Brown, B.
B. (2005). Activities, engagement, and emotion in after-school programs (and
elsewhere). New Directions for Youth Development, 105, 121-129.