1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 Electronic Supplementary Material This is the Electonic Appendix for the article GLOBAL PATTERNS IN MARINE DISPERSAL ESTIMATES: THE INFLUENCE OF GEOGRAPHY, TAXONOMIC CATEGORY AND LIFE HISTORY by Ian R. Bradbury, Benjamin Laurel, Paul V. R. Snelgrove, Paul Bentzen, and Steven E. Campana 34 35 36 Submitted to Proc. R. Soc. B. 2007 2 37 Electronic Appendix: 38 Review and Scales of Measurement of Dispersal in Marine Species: 39 For each estimate of dispersal, spatial and temporal scale of measurement, mean latitude, 40 and predominant habitat of the study were also considered. If not provided (i.e. latitude, 41 and scale of study), spatial scale was obtained using details from the text and available 42 maps (i.e. Google Earth) and was calculated as the maximum distance between sampled 43 locations. Temporal scale was taken as the duration of a study, and given the temporal 44 integration of long-term genetic approaches (see below) these studies were omitted for 45 this category. 46 47 Biogeographic Method. Biogeographic estimates of gene flow and dispersal have a long 48 history (Darlington 1957, Nathan et al. 2003) and focuses primarily on dispersal between 49 discrete habitats such as oceanic islands (e.g., Robertson 2001). In marine systems, this 50 approach encompasses three types of data: information on species biogeography, 51 occurrence of invasive species, and presence of recruits from a likely source into vacant 52 areas (Appendix 1). Our review suggests these studies typically focus on moderate 53 spatial scales (<100 km) over short temporal scales (< 1yr) and generate dispersal 54 estimates that on average fall within < 40km. 55 estimate by Scheltema (1971) of (teleplanic) gastropod larvae that cross ocean basin 56 distances as much as 4500 km. Because this estimate greatly exceeded the nearest closest 57 estimate (173 km), it was removed from further analysis. 58 The main outlier in this group is an 3 59 Eulerian Methods. Eulerian approaches usually involve the fixed-location collection and 60 counting of tagged individuals following a period of redistribution. Logistically, Eulerian 61 studies are often less challenging because they do not require tracking individuals. 62 However, Eulerian methods require that the number of individuals tagged be sufficient to 63 allow recaptures despite subsequent diffusion and dilution with space and time. Studies 64 that utilize otolith tags, either artificial or natural, have achieved some of the only 65 estimates of limited dispersal in reef and estuarine fish (Thresher 1999; Campana and 66 Thorrold 2001). But the challenge here is tagging and surveying enough individuals to 67 resolve the tail of the dispersal kernel. Furthermore, tag recovery most often necessitates 68 lethal sampling and time consuming visual and (or) expensive chemical assays, both of 69 which significantly limit the utility of this technique with respect to large marine 70 populations over large spatial scales. To date, Eulerian approaches have been applied to 71 fish species with limited dispersal ability (i.e. demersal eggs, or live bearers) and have 72 yielded results of local recruitment or homing on the order of 50-70% at an average 73 latitude of 19 degrees N or S. However, sampling in these studies usually fail to describe 74 the entire dispersal kernel (see Thorrold et al. 2001 for an exception.), often restricting 75 dispersal estimates to a single point. 76 77 Lagrangian Approaches. Lagrangian approaches follow individuals in space by 78 characterizing movements over time, either visually or through simulation studies of 79 transport (e.g., 3-d hydrodynamic models of ocean flow). Studies that visually track 80 individuals are limited to short distance dispersers with large larvae (e.g., ascidians) and 81 commonly yield dispersal estimates < 10km. Modeling-based studies are more 4 82 applicable to large scales, but often cannot account for behavior and mortality, thereby 83 limiting their applicability (see Cowen et al. 2000, 2005 for exceptions). However, the 84 utility in model-based approaches is that they may be parameterized for each species 85 within a habitat and provide community-level resolution that is seldom attainable 86 otherwise (Cowen et al. 2005). 87 88 Short-scale Genetic Analysis. Short-term genetic analysis refers to estimates of recent 89 dispersal, usually within a single generation, focusing primarily on successful dispersers 90 (i.e. effective dispersal). Short-term genetic studies utilize either parentage analysis, 91 where all possible parents in a population are genotyped (e.g., Jones et al, 2005) or 92 assignment tests, which assign individuals to their population of origin (e.g., Berry et al. 93 2004; Hauser et al. 2006). Parentage analysis is commonly used in terrestrial systems, 94 but has recently been used to measure reef fish dispersal (Jones et al. 2005). Because a 95 significant portion of all potential parents should be sampled in order for the approach to 96 be effective, this technique is limited to small populations with easy access to possible 97 parents. Assignment testing (e.g., Paetkau et al. 1999; Cornuet et al. 1999) has proven 98 effective in measuring dispersal in situations with moderate to high genetic 99 differentiation, and where a large number of loci have been sampled (Berry et al. 2004; 100 Hauser et al. 2006). In these situations, assignment testing can provide estimates of 101 dispersal on spatial scales unachievable with other methods. The limitation of this 102 technique is that moderate differentiation is usually required for high probably 103 assignment and at present these have rarely been applied to marine systems (but see 104 Ruzzante et al. 2006 for a similar approach using genetic mixture analysis). Estimates 5 105 of dispersal based on short-term genetic approaches suggest distances that are < 70 km or 106 about 32% homing to a point location. 107 108 Long-term Genetic Approaches. Long-term genetic estimates of dispersal are usually 109 achieved from spatial pattern in allelic variation and either Wright’s island model (Wright 110 1931) or isolation-by-distance models (IBD, Slatkin 1993). These approaches do not 111 distinguish between historical and recent dispersal and are subject to the usual limitations 112 of applied models (e.g., Whitlock and McCauley 1999). As such, the distinction between 113 long-term genetic approaches and correlates discussed below is not always clear. We 114 have chosen to restrict this cateogory to genetic studies which actually estimate dispersal 115 distances. Although this excludes a wealth of genetic studies on marine fish, many at high 116 latitudes (see Fig. A1), it highlights the species and habitats in which these long-term 117 genetic approaches to estimating dispersal are being applied. In situations with high gene 118 flow and low discrimination using assignment tests, these methods, particularly isolation- 119 by-distance, have proven useful (Bradbury and Bentzen 2007). Kinlan and Gaines (2003) 120 used a simulation-based approach to estimate mean dispersal in marine invertebrates and 121 fish and found estimates were generally < 200-300 km. 122 parameterization of the stepping-stone model, the equilibrium status (Bradbury and 123 Bentzen 2007), and the selection of species (Palumbi 2004) all contribute to uncertainty 124 regarding interpretation of the results. 125 distances of < 200 km for most marine species that have been examined. Several 126 promising new approaches have been presented in the last few years. Sotka and Palumbi 127 (2006) introduce a novel approach to dispersal estimation using clines in multi-locus While encouraging, the IBD-based estimates of dispersal suggest 6 128 genetic data, which suggests dispersal is usually <35% the clinal width in most species. 129 In addition, coalescent-based approaches (i.e. MIGRATE, Beerli and Felsenstein 1999), 130 which estimate dispersal and Ne simultaneously, are becoming common in terrestrial 131 studies and allow the resolution of asymmetric gene flow. However published examples 132 of the application of these approaches in marine species are still few. 133 134 Correlates of dispersal – genetic differentiation and PLD 135 Genetic differentiation. Estimates of genetic differentiation were included only from 136 studies that had two or more subpopulations and utilized one of three types of genetic 137 marker (i.e., mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), microsatellites, allozymes) and any studies 138 displaying large phylogenetic breaks associated with contemporary or historical isolation 139 were excluded. Allozyme studies also had to survey randomly-selected loci from 15 or 140 more individuals per subpopulation in order to be included in the database. In addition, 141 the studies had to either provide information on FST directly (e.g., global or pairwise FST) 142 or indirectly (e.g., allele frequency table, expected and observed heterozygosities). FST 143 estimates based on mtDNA were corrected following Kinlan and Gaines (2003) to allow 144 comparison with markers possessing biparental inheritance and diploid gene flow 145 assuming Wright’s island model and using the equation FST(diploid, biparental)=[1/(4*(2Nmmt)+1)] 146 where Nmt=0.5*[(1/FST,mt)-1]. 147 A genetic database of 247 species was assembled using the above methods and 148 criteria. To reduce bias associated with the overinclusion of well studied species, 149 representative studies were chosen and attempts were made to limit multiple entries to 150 differing marker types or when multiple values differed substaintially in which case we 7 151 attempted to represent the range of values. As non-signifcant FST values may be 152 indicative of high gene flow and dispersal, these included with the exception of single 153 locus (i.e mtDNA) estimates where low rates of mutation may reduce spatial variation 154 and bias inferences of dispersal. The majority of included estimates were based on 155 allozyme studies (58.1%) with 17.6% mtDNA and 24.5% microsatellite studies. Meta- 156 analysis of genetic studies using different markers may be problematic given 157 differences in heterozygosity among marker types. Correction for He based on Heddrick 158 (2005) was not possible as He estimates are rarely given for mtDNA studies, and 159 although the correction was attempted using haplotype diversity, corrected values were 160 not comparable and differed significantly from all other estimates. To examine the 161 hypothesis that a bias due to different marker usage in differing regions is present we 162 used ANOVA to test for significant effects of marker type on latitude, and explored 163 trends within each marker type as well as overall. Furthermore, to compare FST values 164 among multiple species, it is necessary to account for differences in the scale of 165 geographic sampling, which was done by calculating the maximum distance (Dx) between 166 sampled subpopulations for each study. The relationship of Dx and FST values for each 167 species were examined statistically using linear regression after log transformation, and 168 the residuals were used in further analysis. Spatial distances were seldom reported in 169 most studies, but geographic information was available either from maps of sampling 170 locations and/or a list of lat/long positions. 171 populations was calculated using Google Earth©. If a landmass separated populations, 172 distance measurements were made around the barrier at ca. 5 km offshore. This approach 173 assumes that gene flow is the predominant component represented in FST values. The maximum distance separating 8 174 Although other factors such as phylogeography may play a role, their influence should be 175 study / species specific and, assuming no systematic bias, they will contribute primarily 176 to variability rather than trend. 177 overrepresentation of species of a given family trends were also examined using family 178 averages. Moreover, to account for any biass due to an 179 180 Planktonic larval duration. For marine invertebrates (including algae and plants) 181 estimates of PLD encompass the period between fertilization and settlement or 182 metamorphosis, indicated visually either through actual settlement or morphological 183 transition. In marine fish this transition is most often delineated in otolith microstructure 184 that characterizes the habitat transition. 185 potential associated with the egg stage. Although species-specific egg stage duration data 186 is largely absent from the literature, we attempt to account for differences in dispersal 187 associated with the egg stage through the examination of egg type. The use of published 188 data on pelagic larval duration necessitates several generalizations and assumptions. For 189 example, the influence of factors such as temperature, salinity, and prey density on larval 190 duration can generally not be included as available information is insufficient. Moreover, 191 data given on larval duration often represent a single estimate of what is really a range of 192 possible values. Whenever possible, median duration values have been estimated for a 193 given taxa. Given that the majority of published data on dispersal potential for fish 194 species is from studies of otolith microstructure in settled juveniles or adults, it represents 195 the time since hatch rather than from fertilization and therefore does not account for egg 196 stage duration. Although egg stage duration may be very short (days) in tropical areas, it However, this approach neglects dispersal 9 197 may be on the order of weeks to months at higher latitudes. Currently, species-specific 198 egg stage duration is largely absent from the literature. However, because of the potential 199 importance of egg stage duration to dispersal potential, data was collected on egg type 200 (i.e. pelagic or demersal) for fish species in the both the PLD and FST databases. 201 202 Because this review examines trends and patterns in published data, it is subject to 203 the limitations of species selection made for reasons related to specific studies. We have 204 attempted to account for selection bias in several ways. First, the overall size of each 205 database was maximized to ensure an accurate representation of the published literature. 206 Second, comparison among the databases of larval duration data, egg type, and genetic 207 pattern should allow for broad-scale patterns to be identified independent of database- 208 specific biases which may exist. Third, the regression analysis included other factors 209 associated with species selection such as size and depth. Moreover, the persistence of 210 observed associations within marine fish species at the family level supports the absence 211 of a phylogenetic or selection bias in the sampled species. 10 Table A1. Estimates of dispersal distance or proportion local recruitment for marine species from the published literature. Approach Biogeography Process Measured Study Methodology Robertson 2001 Biogeographic review Effective dispersal Reed et al. 1988 Sammarco and Andrews 1989 Presence of Zoospores Gerrottede 1981 Keough and Chernoff 1987 Taxa Tempora Spatial l Scale Scale Mean Latitude Habitat Point estimate or distance Estimate (km) reef fish na 1000 -10 reef point Na Dispersal algae (3 sp) 1 4 33 coastal distance 4 Presence / Absence Dispersal Corals (2sp) 1 4 18 reef distance 1 Presence / Absence Dispersal Coral 1 1 32 coastal distance 0.0001 Presence / Absence Dispersal Bryzoan 1 50 29 coastal distance 0.1 Scheltema 1971 Presence / Absence Knoepffler-Peguy et al. 1985 Spread of invasive species Zechman and Mathieson 1985 Presence / Absence Dispersal Mollusk 1 5000 0 coastal distance 4500 Dispersal Algae na na 43 coastal distance 50 Dispersal Algae 1 20 43 coastal distance 35 Meinesz et al. 1993 Spread of invasive species Dispersal Algae na na 43 coastal distance 0.5 Davis and Butler 1989 Direct Observations Dispersal Ascidian 1 295 -34 coastal distance 0.0025 Grosholz and Ruiz 1995 Spread of invasive species Dispersal Crustacean na na 48 coastal distance 173 Luczak et al. 1993 Dispersal Mollusk na na 51 coastal distance 111 Average 1 196.3 26.9 Spread of invasive species 37.4 Eulerian Jones et al. 2005 Oxytetracycline tagging Dispersal Reef fish 2 10 -5 reef point 15.9-31.5 % Reviews: Campana and Thorrold 2001 Miller et al. 2005 Microchemical Dispersal Rockfish 1 500 44 coastal point 64% Thorrold et al. 2001 Microchemical Dispersal Weakfish 3 1500 35 Estuarine point 60-81% Levin 1990 Jones et al. 1999 Oxytetracycline tagging Dispersal Reef fish 1 10 -14 reef point 15-60% Orth et al. 1994 Presence / Absence Dispersal Sea Grass 3 5 38 coastal point 80% or 5m Swearer et al. 1999 Microchemical Dispersal Reef fish 1 50 17 reef point 70% Average 1.83 345.83 19.17 55.0 % 11 Lagrangian Short-term genetic analysis Bode and et al. (2006) Hydrographic modelling Hydrographic modelling and Arnold et al. 2005 Tracking Effective Dispersal Olson 1985 Direct Observations Marsh et al. 2001 Hydrographic modeling Stoner 1992 Worcester 1994 Jones et al. 2005 Gilg and Hilbish 2003 Coleman and Brawely 2005 Grosberg 1987 Reef fish 40 230 -16 reef distance 200 Bivalve 1 10 28 lagoon distance 4 Dispersal Ascidian 1 5 -14 reef distance 1 Dispersal Polychaete 1 200 9 vent distance 100 Direct Observations Dispersal Ascidian 1 10 19 reef distance 0.02 Direct Observations Dispersal coastal Distance Dispersal Ascidian 2 0.05 38 Average 7.67 75.8 10.67 1 51.00 Paternity analysis Hybrid zone and recruit genotyping Effective Dispersal Reef fish 1 yr 1 -5 reef Point 31.5% Effective Dispersal Bivalve 3 200 50 coastal distance 64 Assignment Effective Dispersal Algae 1 60 44 coastal distance 0.01 Assignment Effective Dispersal Ascidian 1 5 42 coastal distance 0.01 Average 1.5 66.5 32.75 16.08 Long-term genetic analysis Reviews: Palumbi 2003 Bradbury and Bentzen 2007 Miller et al. 2005 Gomez-Uchida and Banks 2005 Buonaccorsi et al. 2004 Microsatellite Effective Dispersal Rockfish na 500 44 coastal point 64% Microsatellite Effective Dispersal Rockfish na 1000 44 coastal distance 111 Microsatellite Effective Dispersal Rockfish na 1400 38 coastal distance 10 Microsatellite Effective Dispersal Rockfish Na 2200 37 Coastal Distance 10 various na na distance Hellberg et al. 2002 Buonaccorsi et al. 2005 Kinlan and Gaines 2003 various Effective Dispersal Average na na 1275 39.6 327.3 24.4 Various 43.66 km 54 % and Overall Average 2.98 39.8 km 12 Table A2. Database of marine invertebrate planktonic larval duration references. Group Species Reference Phaeophyta Alaria marginata Kusumo and Druehl 2000 Chlorophyta Enteromorpha sp. Jones and Babb 1968 Phaeophyceae Various seaweeds Laminaria hyperborea Various Kain 1964 Porifera Halichondria magniconulosa Maldonado & Young (1996) Porifera Halichondria panicea Amano(1986) Porifera Haliclona tubifera Maldonado & Young (1996) Porifera Sigmadocia caerulea Maldonado & Young (1996) Porifera Tedania ignis Maldonado & Young (1996) Cnidaria Acropora hyacinthus Harrison et al (1984) Cnidaria Favia fragum Carlon & Olson (1993) Cnidaria Catyophyllia smithi Tranter et al 1982 Cnidaria Cribrinopsis fernaldi Seibert & Spaulding( 1976) Cnidaria Cyphastrea serailia Williams & Harrison (1998) Cnidaria Agaricia agaricites Carlon & Olson (1993) Cnidaria Heteroxenia fuscenscens Zaslow and Benayahu (1996) Cnidaria Metridium senile Chia (1976); Hoffmann (1987) Cnidaria Urtricina crassicornis Chia & Spaulding (1972) Cnidaria Stomphia didemon Seibert (1973) Cnidaria Stylatula elongata Morris et al (1980) Polychaeta Crucigera zygophora Strathmann (1987) Polychaeta Protula pacifica Parker & Tunnicliffe(1994) Polychaeta Phylloddoce maculata Parker & Tunnicliffe(1994) Polychaeta Nereis procera Strathmann (1987) Polychaeta Serpula vermicularis Morris et al (1980) Polychaeta Lumbrineris inflata Chia (1976); Strathmann (1987) Polychaeta cirratulid sp. Morris et al (1980); Strathmann (1987) Polychaeta Plexauara kuna Lasker & Kim (1996) Crustacea harpacticoid copepod Hicks & Coull (1983) Crustacea Chorilia longipes Hines (1986) Crustacea Oregonia gracilis Hines (1986) Crustacea Cancridae Hines (1986) Crustacea Grapsidae Hines (1986) Crustacea Majidae Hines (1986) Crustacea Ocypodidae Hines (1986) Crustacea Pinnotheridae Hines (1986) Santelices (1990) 13 Crustacea Portunidae Hines (1986) Crustacea Xanthidae Hines (1986) Crustacea Chionoecetes opilio Squires (1996) Crustacea Hyas araneus Squires (1996) Crustacea Hyas coarctatus Squires (1996) Crustacea Cancer irroratus Squires (1996) Crustacea Homarus americanus Squires (1996) Crustacea Pandalus borealis Squires (1996) Crustacea Lebbeus polaris Squires (1996) Crustacea Lebbeus groenlandicus Squires (1996) Crustacea Sclerocrangon boreas Squires (1996) Crustacea Eualus pusiolus Squires (1996) Crustacea Eualus gaimardi Squires (1996) Crustacea Eualus fabricii Squires (1996) Mollusca Anachis avara Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Anachis translirata Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Aporrhais occidentalis Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Archidoris montereyensis Morris et al (1980) Mollusca Architectonica nobilis Scheltema (1989) Mollusca A. peracuta Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Bittium varium Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Bittium virginicum Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Bursa thomae Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Caecum cooperi Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Caecum pulchellum Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Calliostoma annulatum Mollusca Callistoma ligatum Hadfield & Strathmann (1990); Strathmann (1987) Holyoak (1988) Mollusca Cerithiopsis greeni Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Cerithiopsis subulata Scheltema (1989) Mollusca C. floridanum Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Cheilea equestris Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Cirsoterma dalli Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Conus sozoni Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Coralliophila deburghiae Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Crassodoma gigantea Morris et al (1980) Mollusca Crepidula fornicata Scheltema (1989) Mollusca C. plana Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Cymatium cynocephalum Scheltema (1989) 14 Mollusca C. gracile Scheltema (1989) Mollusca C. labiosum Scheltema (1989) Mollusca C. martinianum Scheltema (1989) Mollusca C. parthenopeum Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Cypraea cervus Scheltema (1989) Mollusca C. spurca acicularis Scheltema (1989) Mollusca C. zebra Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Cypraecassis testiculus Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Distorsio clathrata Scheltema (1989) Mollusca D. constricta mcgintyi Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Epitonium krebsii Scheltema (1989) Mollusca E. rupicolumn Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Erato maugeriae Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Eudolium crosseanum Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Kurtziella limonitella Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Littorina irrorata Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Lunatia heros Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Macoma balthica Gilbert (1978) Mollusca Mitrella lunata Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Mitra nodulosa Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Modulus modulus Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Moliolus modiolus deSchweinitz & Lutz (1976) Mollusca Nassarius ambiguus Scheltema (1989) Mollusca N. obsoletus Scheltema (1989) Mollusca N. trivittatus Scheltema (1989) Mollusca N. vibex Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Natica canrena Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Neosimna acicularis Scheltema (1989) Mollusca N. uniplicata Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Phalium granulatum Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Philippia krebsi Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Polinices lacteus Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Polinices duplicatus Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Rissoina decussata Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Seila adamsi Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Strombus alatus Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Thais haemastoma Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Tonna galea Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Torina bisculata Scheltema (1989) 15 Mollusca Triphora nigocincta Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Trivia candidula Scheltema (1989) Mollusca Petricola pholadiformis Mackie (1984) Mollusca Sinonovacula constricta Wang & Xu (1997) Mollusca solemyid sp. Gustafson (1985) Brachiopoda Laqueus californianus Valentine and Jablonski (1983) Brachiopoda Terebratulina sp. Valentine and Jablonski (1983) Brachiopoda Platidia hornii Rudwick (1970) Bryozoa Bugula stolonifera Woollaott et al (1989) Bryozoa Bicrisia edwardsiana Bryozoa Crisia occidentalis Bryozoa Filacrisia franciscana Bryozoa Rhamphostomella spinigera Nielsen (1970); Woollacott & Zimmer (1978) Nielsen (1970); Woollacott & Zimmer (1978) Nielsen (1970); Woollacott & Zimmer (1978) Woollacott & Zimmer (1978) Bryozoa Borgiola pustulosa Woollacott & Zimmer (1978) Bryozoa Bugula sp. Bryozoa Lyrula sp. Nielsen (1970); Woollacott & Zimmer (1978); Wollacott et al (1989) Woolacott & Zimmer (1978) Sipuncula Phascolosoma agassizi Rice (1967); Strathmann (1987) Echinodermata Pycnopdia helianthoides Echinodermata Crossaster papposus Greer (1962); Lambert(1981); Morris et al (1980); Strathmann (1978) Lambert (1981); Strathmann (1987) Echinodermata Hippasterias spinosa Lambert (1981) Echinodermata Florometra serratissima Echinodermata Strongylocentrotus franciscanus Mladenov & Chia (1983); Strathmann(1978) Morris et al (1980); Strathmann(1978); Strathmann (1987) Table A3. Database of marine fish planktonic larval duration references. Class Order Family Species Antherinopsidae Menidia peninsulae Reference Houde(1989) Clupeidae Clupea harengus Houde (1989) Clupeiformes Engraulidae Anchoa lamprotaenia Houde(1989) Actinopterygii Clupeiformes Engraulidae Anchoa mitchilli Houde(1989) Actinopterygii Clupeiformes Engraulidae Engraulis mordax Houde(1989) Actinopterygii Gadiformes Gadidae Gadus morhua Houde(1989) Actinopterygii Gadiformes Gadidae Melanogrammus aeglefinus Houde(1989) Actinopterygii Gadiformes Gadidae Theragra chalcogramma Houde(1989) Actinopterygii Gadiformes Merlucciidae merluccius productus Houde(1989) Actinopterygii Actinopterygii Antheriniformes Clupeiformes Actinopterygii 16 Actinopterygii Gonorynchiformes Chanidae Chanos chanos Houde(1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Acanthuridae Acanthurus bahianus Rocha et al.2002 Actinopterygii Perciformes Acanthuridae Acanthurus chirurgus Rocha et al.2002 Actinopterygii Perciformes Acanthuridae Acanthurus coeruleus Rocha et al.2002 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Anampses twistii Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Bodianus axillaries Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Bodianus diplotaenia Victor & Wellington 2000 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Bodianus mesothorax Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Cheilinus bimaculatus Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Cheilinus chlorourus Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Cheilinus fasciatus Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Cheilinus trilobatus Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Cheilio inermis Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Choerodon anchorago Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Cirrhilabrus cyanopleura Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Clepticus parrae Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Coris flavovittata Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Coris gaimard Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Coris variegata Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Halichoeres argus Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Halichoeres biocellatus Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Halichoeres chierchiae Victor 1986 Victor 1986; Victor & Wellington 2000; Wellington & Robertson 2001 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Halichoeres chloropterus Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Halichoeres chrysus Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Halichoeres discolor Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Halichoeres dispilus Victor & Wellington 2000 Victor & Wellington 2000; Wellington & Robertson 2001 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Halichoeres hortulanus Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Halichoeres insularis Victor & Wellington 2000 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Halichoeres margaritaceus Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Halichoeres marginatus Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Halichoeres melanotis Victor & Wellington 2000 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Halichoeres melanurus Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Halichoeres nebulosus Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Halichoeres nicholsi Victor 1986 Victor 1986; Wellington & Robertson 2001 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Halichoeres ornatissimus Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Halichoeres pictus Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Halichoeres poeyi Victor 1986 Victor 1986; Wellington & Robertson 2001 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Halichoeres prosopeion Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Halichoeres richmondi Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Halichoeres scapularis Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Halichoeres trimaculatus Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Hemigymnus fasciatus Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Hemigymnus melapterus Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Labrichthys unilineatus Victor 1986 17 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Labroides bicolor Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Labroides dimidiatus Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Labroides pectoralis Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Labroides phthirophagus Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Labropsis micronesica Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Labropsis xanthonota Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Lachnolaimus maximus Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Macropharyngodon geoffroy Macropharyngodon meleagris Macropharyngodon negrosensis Novaculichthys macrolepidotus Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Novaculichthys taeniourus Victor 1986 Victor 1986; Victor & Wellington Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Pseudocheilinus evanidus Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Pseudocheilinus hexataenia Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Pseudocheilinus octotaenia Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Pseudocheilinus tetrataenia Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Pseudojuloides cerasinus Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Pteragogus cryptus Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Pteragogus guttatus Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Stethojulis bandanensis Victor 1986 Victor 1986; Victor & Wellington 2000 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Stethojulis strigiventer Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Thalassoma amblycephalum Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Thalassoma grammaticum Victor & Wellington 2000 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Thalassoma hardwicke Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Thalassoma jansenii Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Thalassoma lucasanum Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Thalassoma lunare Victor 1986 Victor 1986; Victor & Wellington 2000 Victor 1986; Wilson & McCormick 1999 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Thalassoma purpureum Victor & Wellington 2000 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Thalassoma quinquevittatum Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Thalassoma trilobatum Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Xyrichtys splendens Victor 1986 Actinopterygii Perciformes Lutjanidae Lutjanus kasmira Lester and Ruttenberg 2005 Actinopterygii Perciformes Lutjanidae Hoplopagrus guentherii Zapata & Herrón 2002 Actinopterygii Perciformes Lutjanidae Lutjanus argentiventris Zapata & Herrón 2002 Actinopterygii Perciformes Lutjanidae Lutjanus guttatus Zapata & Herrón 2002 Actinopterygii Perciformes Lutjanidae Lutjanus novemfasciatus Zapata & Herrón 2002 Actinopterygii Perciformes Lutjanidae Lutjanus viridis Zapata & Herrón 2002 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacanthidae Apolemichthys trimaculatus Thresher & Brothers 1985 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacanthidae Centropyge bicolor Thresher & Brothers 1985 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacanthidae Centropyge bispinosus Thresher & Brothers 1985 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacanthidae Centropyge flavissimus Thresher & Brothers 1985 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacanthidae Centropyge heraldi Thresher & Brothers 1985 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacanthidae Centropyge loriculus Thresher & Brothers 1985 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacanthidae Centropyge multifasciatus Thresher & Brothers 1985 Victor 1986 Victor 1986 18 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacanthidae Centropyge nox Thresher & Brothers 1985 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacanthidae Centropyge potteri Thresher & Brothers 1985 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacanthidae Centropyge tibicen Thresher & Brothers 1985 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacanthidae Thresher & Brothers 1985 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacanthidae Centropyge vrolikii Chaetodontoplus mesoleucus Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacanthidae Pomacanthus annularis Thresher & Brothers 1985 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacanthidae Pomacanthus imperator Thresher & Brothers 1985 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacanthidae Pomacanthus navarchus Thresher & Brothers 1985 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacanthidae Pomacanthus semicirculatus Thresher & Brothers 1985 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacanthidae Thresher & Brothers 1985 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacanthidae Pomacanthus sexstriatus Pomacanthus xanthometopon Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacanthidae Pygoplites diacanthus Thresher & Brothers 1985 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Abudefduf concolor Victor & Wellington 2000 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Abudefduf declivifrons Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Abudefduf troschelii Victor & Wellington 2000 Victor & Wellington 2000; Wellington & Robertson 2001 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chromis alta Victor & Wellington 2000 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chromis atrilobata Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chromis limbaughi Victor & Wellington 2000 Victor & Wellington 2000; Wellington & Victor 1989 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Microspathodon bairdii Victor & Wellington 2000 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Microspathodon dorsalis Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Stegastes acapulcoensis Victor & Wellington 2000 Victor & Wellington 2000; Wellington & Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Stegastes arcifrons Victor & Wellington 2000 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Stegastes baldwini Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Stegastes flavilatus Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Stegastes leucorus beebei Victor & Wellington 2000 Victor & Wellington 2000; Wellington & Robertson 2001 Victor & Wellington 2000; Wellington & Victor 1989 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Stegastes leucorus leucorus Victor & Wellington 2000 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Stegastes rectifraenum Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Stegastes redemptus Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Abudefduf abdominalis Victor & Wellington 2000 Victor & Wellington 2000; Wellington & Victor 1989 Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Abudefduf concolor Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Abudefduf saxatilis Brothers et al (1983) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Abudefduf sexfasciatus Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Abudefduf sordidus Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Abudefduf taurus Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Abudefduf troschelii Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Abudefduf vaigiensis Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chromis agilis Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chromis alpha Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chromis alta Victor and Wellington 2000 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chromis atrilobata Victor and Wellington 2000 Thresher & Brothers 1985 Thresher & Brothers 1985 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chromis atripes Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chromis caudalis Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chromis cyanea Wellington & Victor (1989) 19 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chromis delta Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chromis hanui Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chromis insolata Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chromis lepidolepis Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chromis limbaughi Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chromis lineata Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chromis margaritifer Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chromis multilineata Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chromis punctipinnis Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chromis retrofasciata Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chromis ternatensis Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chromis vanderbilti Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chromis virdis Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chromis weberi Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chromis xanthura Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chrysiptera biocellata Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chrysiptera cyanea Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chrysiptera glauca Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chrysiptera leucopoma Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chrysiptera oxycephala Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chrysiptera rex Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chrysiptera traceyi Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Microspathodon chrysurus Wellington & Victor 1989 Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Acanthuridae Naso sp. Brothers et al (1983) Actinopterygii Perciformes Ammodytidae Ammodytes americanus Houde(1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Apogonidae Apogon cyanosoma Brothers et al (1983) Actinopterygii Perciformes Apogonidae Brothers et al (1983) Actinopterygii Perciformes Apogonidae Apogon doederlieni Cheilodipterus quinqeulineata Actinopterygii Perciformes Blenniidae Petroscirtes fallax Brothers et al (1983) Actinopterygii Perciformes Blenniidae Petroscirtes mitratus Brothers et al (1983) Actinopterygii Perciformes Chaetodontidae Chaetodon plebius Brothers et al (1983) Actinopterygii Perciformes Chaetodontidae Chaetodon rainfordi Brothers et al (1983) Actinopterygii Perciformes Chaetodontidae Chelmon rostratus Brothers et al (1983) Actinopterygii Perciformes Gobiidae Amblygobius rainfordi Brothers et al (1983) Actinopterygii Perciformes Gobiidae Coryphopterus nicholsi Shanks et al. 2003 Actinopterygii Perciformes Gobiidae Gobiodon sp. Brothers et al (1983) Actinopterygii Perciformes Gobiidae Shanks et al. 2003 Actinopterygii Perciformes Gobiidae Lythripnus dalli Paragobiodon enchinocephalus Actinopterygii Perciformes Gobiidae Paragobiodon lacunicola Brothers et al (1983) Actinopterygii Perciformes Gobiidae Paragobiodon melanosoma Brothers et al (1983) Actinopterygii Perciformes Haemulidae Haemulon flavolineatum Houde(1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Kyphosidae Medialuna californiensis Shanks et al. 2003 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Cirrhilabrus temminki Brothers et al (1983) Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Citharichthys sordidus Shanks et al. 2003 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Citharichthys stigmaeus Shanks et al. 2003 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Coris variegata Brothers et al (1983) Brothers et al (1983) Brothers et al (1983) 20 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Halichoeres hoeveni Brothers et al (1983) Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Halichoeres semicinctus Shanks et al. 2003 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Labroides dimidatus Brothers et al (1983) Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Oxyjulis californica Shanks et al. 2003 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Semicossyphus pulcher Shanks et al. 2003 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Thalassoma lunare Brothers et al (1983) Actinopterygii Perciformes Lethrinidae Lethrinus nebulosus Brothers et al (1983) Actinopterygii Perciformes Moronidae Dicentrarchus labrax Houde(1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Moronidae Morone americana Houde(1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Moronidae Morone saxatalis Houde(1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Nemipteridae Scolopsis dubiosus Brothers et al (1983) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Amblyglyphidodon aureus Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Amblyglyphidodon curacao Amblyglyphidodon leucogaster Amblyglyphidodon ternatensis Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Amphiprion chrysopterus Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Amphiprion clarkii Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Amphiprion melanopus Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Amphiprion perideraion Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Dascyllus albisella Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Dascyllus aranus Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Dascyllus melanurus Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Dascyllus reticulatus Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Dascyllus trimaculatus Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Dischistodus chrysopoecilus Wellington & Victor (1989) Wellington & Victor (1989) Dischistodus melanotus Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Actinopterygii Perciformes Actinopterygii Wellington & Victor (1989) Wellington & Victor (1989) Wellington & Victor (1989) Pomacentridae Dischistodus perspicillatus Dischistodus pseudochrysopoecilus Hemiglyphidodon plagiometopon Perciformes Pomacentridae Heterostichus rostratus Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Hypsypops rubicunda Shanks et al. 2003 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Hypsypops rubicundus Shanks et al. 2003 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Microspathodon dorsalis Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Neopomacentrus nemurus Victor & Wellington 2000 Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Paraglyphidodon nigoris Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Paraglyphidodon melas Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Wellington & Victor (1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Plectroglyphidodon dickii Plectroglyphidodon imparipennis Plectroglyphidodon lacrymatus Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Plectroglyphidodon sindonis Wellington & Victor 1989 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Stegastes leucostictus Wellington & Victor 1989 Actinopterygii Perciformes Sciaenidae Atractoscion noblis Actinopterygii Perciformes Sciaenidae Cynoscion nebulosus Emmett et al. 1991 Houde(1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Scombridae Scomber japonicus Houde(1989) Wellington & Victor (1989) Wellington & Victor (1989) Wellington & Victor 1989 Wellington & Victor 1989 21 Actinopterygii Perciformes Scombridae Scomber scombrus Houde(1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Serranidae Paralabrax clathratus Shanks et al. 2003 Actinopterygii Perciformes Serranidae Actinopterygii Perciformes Sparidae Paralabrax maculatofasciatus Shanks et al. 2003 Houde(1989) Archosargus rhomboidalis Actinopterygii Perciformes Sparidae Pagrus major Houde(1989) Actinopterygii Perciformes Sparidae Sparus aurata Houde(1989) Actinopterygii Pleuronectiformes Achiridae Achrius lineatus Houde(1989) Actinopterygii Pleuronectiformes Paralichthyidae Paralichthys californicus Shanks et al. 2003 Actinopterygii Pleuronectiformes Paralichthyidae Paralichthys dentatus Houde(1989) Actinopterygii Pleuronectiformes Pleuronectidae Eopsetta jordani Actinopterygii Pleuronectiformes Pleuronectidae Pleuronectes americanus Pearcy et al. 1977 Houde(1989) Actinopterygii Pleuronectiformes Sciaenidae Sciaenops ocellatus Actinopterygii Pleuronectiformes Scophthalmidae Scophthalmus maximus Froese & Pauly 2006 Houde(1989) Actinopterygii Pleuronectiformes Soleidae Solea solea Houde(1989) Actinopterygii Scorpaeniformes Cottidae Oligocottus maculosus Shanks et al. 2003 Actinopterygii Scorpaeniformes Sebastidae Sebastes aurora Shanks et al. 2003 Actinopterygii Scorpaeniformes Sebastidae Shanks et al. 2003 Actinopterygii Scorpaeniformes Sebastidae Sebastes carnatus Sebastes flavidus Actinopterygii Scorpaeniformes Sebastidae Sebastes inermis Mizusawa et al. 2004 Actinopterygii Scorpaeniformes Sebastidae Sebastes melanops Shanks et al. 2003 Actinopterygii Scorpaeniformes Sebastidae Sebastes melanostomus Shanks et al. 2003 Actinopterygii Scorpaeniformes Sebastidae Sebastes mystinus Shanks et al. 2003 Actinopterygii Scorpaeniformes Sebastidae Sebastes paucispinis Shanks et al. 2003 Actinopterygii Scorpaeniformes Sebastidae Sebastes serranoides Shanks et al. 2003 Actinopterygii Tetradontiformes Monacanthidae Monacanthus chinensis Brothers et al (1983) Actinopterygii Tetradontiformes Monacanthidae Paraluteres prionurus Brothers et al (1983) Shanks et al. 2003 Table A4. Database of marine invertebrate genetic study references used in the analysis of correlates of dispersal. Group Species Reference Angiosperm Kandella candel Sun et al. 1998 Angiosperm Thalassia testudinum Schlueter and Guttman 1998 Angiosperm Zostera marina Reusch et al. 2000 Angiosperm Zostera marina Muniz-Salazar 2005 Angiosperm Zostera noltii Diekmann et al. 2005 Angiosperm Cymodocea nodosa Alberto et al. 2006 Rhodophyta Caloglossa leprieurii Zuccarello et al. 2000 Rhodophyta Delisea pulchra Wright et al. 2000 Rhodophyta Gelidium canariensis Sosa et al. 1998 Rhodophyta Gelidium arbuscula. Sosa et al. 1998 Rhodophyta Lithothrix aspergillum Pearson and Murray 1997 Rhodophyta Fucus distichus Coleman and Brawely 2005 Phaeophyta Alaria marginata Kusumo and Druehl 2000 Phaeophyta Sargassum polyceratium Engelen et al. 2001 22 Chlorophyta Caulerpa racemosa Benzie et al. 1997 Chlorophyta Caulerpa serrulata Benzie et al. 1997 Chlorophyta Caulerpa taxifolia Benzie et al. 1997 Chlorophyta Caulerpa cupressoides Benzie et al. 1997 Bryozoa:Cheilostomatida Cryptosula pallasiana Watts and Thorpe 2006 Bryozoa:Cheilostomatida Schizoporella Unicornis Watts and Thorpe 2006 Bryozoa:Cheilostomatida Electra pilosa Watts and Thorpe 2006 Bryozoa:Cheilostomatida Membranipora membranacea Watts and Thorpe 2006 Cnidaria Acropora cuneata Ayre and Hughes 2000 Cnidaria Acropora cytherea Ayre and Hughes 2000 Cnidaria Acropora hyacinthus Ayre and Hughes 2000 Cnidaria Acropora palifera Ayre and Hughes 2000 Cnidaria Balanophyllia elegans Hellberg 1994, Cnidaria Pocillopora damicornis Ayre and Hughes 2000 Cnidaria Stylophora pistillata Ayre and Hughes 2000 Cnidaria Antipathes fiordensis Miller 1997 Cnidaria Pocillopora damicornis Whitaker 2006 Cnidaria Pocillopora meandrina Magalon et al. 2005 Cnidaria Seriatopora hystrix Maier et al. 2005 Crustacea:Cirripedia Chthamalus montagui Pannacciulli et al. 1997 Crustacea:Cirripedia Chthamalus montagui Pannacciulli et al. 1997 Crustacea:Cirripedia Chthamalus stellatus Pannacciulli et al. 1997 Crustacea:Cirripedia Chthamalus stellatus Pannacciulli et al. 1997 Crustacea:Decapoda Synalpheus brooksi Duffy 1993 Crustacea:Decapoda Synalpheus pectiniger Duffy 1993 Crustacea:Decapoda Homarus americanus Crivello et al. 2005 Crustacea:Decapoda Nephrops norvegicus Maltagilati et al. 1998 Crustacea:Decapoda Callichirus islagrande Bilodeau et al. 2005 Echinodermata:Asteroidea Acanthaster planci Nishida and Lucas 1988 Echinodermata:Asteroidea Echinometra lucunter McCartney et al. 2000 Echinodermata:Asteroidea Echinometra viridis McCartney et al. 2000 Echinodermata:Asteroidea Coscinasterias muricata Skold et al. 2003 Echinodermata:Asteroidea Asterina gibbosa Baus et al. 2005 Echinodermata:Echinoidea Echinometra mathaei Palumbi 1997, Echinodermata:Echinoidea Echinometra oblonga Palumbi 1997, Echinodermata:Echinoidea Heliocidaris erythrogramma McMillan et al. 1992 Echinodermata:Echinoidea Diadema antillarum Lessios et al. 2001 Echinodermata:Echinoidea Diadema paucispinum Lessios et al. 2001 Echinodermata:Echinoidea Diadema savigny Lessios et al. 2001 Echinodermata:holothuroidea Holothuria scabra Uthickle and Benzie 2001 Mollusca:Bivalvia Cerastoderma glaucum Mariani et al. 2002 Mollusca:Bivalvia Donax deltoides Murray-Jones and Ayre 1997 Mollusca:Bivalvia Pecten jacobaeus Ríos et al. 2002 Mollusca:Bivalvia Pecten maximus Ríos et al. 2002 Mollusca:Bivalvia Tridacna maxima Benzie and Williams 1997 Mollusca:Bivalvia Venus antiqua Gallardo et al. 1998 Mollusca:Bivalvia Nuculoma similis Etter et al. 2005 23 Mollusca:Bivalvia Deminuncula atacellana Etter et al. 2005 Mollusca:Gastropoda Haliotis roei Hancock 2000 Mollusca:Gastropoda Austrocochlea constricta Parsons 1996 Mollusca:Gastropoda Bembicium vittatum Parsons 1996 Mollusca:Gastropoda Bedeva hanleyi Hoskin 1997 Mollusca:Gastropoda Morula marginalba Hoskin 1997 Mollusca:Gastropoda Cominella lineolata Hoskin 1997 Mollusca:Gastropoda Concholepas concholepas Gallardo and Carrasco 1996 Mollusca:Gastropoda Hydrobia ventrosa Wilke and Davis 2000 Mollusca:Gastropoda Littoraria cingulata Johnson and Black 1998 Mollusca:Gastropoda Littorina striata De Wolf et al. 1998 Mollusca:Gastropoda Littorina subrotundata Kyle and Boulding 2000 Mollusca:Gastropoda Littorina plena Kyle and Boulding 2000 Mollusca:Gastropoda Drupella cornus Jonhson and Black 1993 Mollusca:Gastropoda Nucella lapillus Colson and Hughes 2004 Mollusca:Opisthobranchia Adalaria proxima Todd et al. 1998 Polychaeta Glycera dibranchiata Bristow and Vadas 1991 Polychaeta Hediste diversicolor Abbiati and Maltagliati 1996 Porifera:Dictyoceratidae Carterospongia flabellifera Benzie 1994 Porifera:Dictyoceratidae Phyllospongia alcicornis Benzie 1994 Porifera:Dictyoceratidae Collospongia auris Benzie 1994 Porifera:Dictyoceratidae Phyllospongia lamellose Benzie 1994 Table A5. Database of marine fish genetic study references used in the analysis of correlates of dispersal. Class Order Family Species Reference Actinopterygii Atherinformes Atherinopsidae Menidia menidia Johnson 1975 Actinopterygii Atherinformes Atherinopsidae Menidia peninsulae Johnson 1975 Actinopterygii Atherinformes Atherinopsidae Merluccius capensis Grant et al 1987 Actinopterygii Atherinformes Atherinopsidae Odontesthes argentinensis Beheregaray & Sunnucks 2001 Actinopterygii Aulopiformes Synodontidae Saurida elongata Yamaoka et al 1989 Actinopterygii Aulopiformes Synodontidae Saurida nov. sp. Yamaoka et al 1989 Actinopterygii Aulopiformes Synodontidae Saurida undosquamis Yamaoka et al 1989 Actinopterygii Beryciformes Trachichthyidae Hoplostethus atlanticus Smith 1986 Actinopterygii Clupeiformes Clupeidae Clupea pallasii Grant 1986 Actinopterygii Clupeiformes Clupeidae Sardina pilchardus Laurent et al. 2007 Actinopterygii Clupeiformes Clupeidae Sardinops sagax caerulea Hedgecock et al 1989 Actinopterygii Clupeiformes Engraulidae Engraulis capensis Grant 1985 Actinopterygii Clupeiformes Engraulidae Engraulis mordax Ward et al. 1994 Actinopterygii Clupeiformes Engraulidae Stolephorus heterolobus Daly and Richardson 1981 Actinopterygii Cyprinodontiformes Cyprinodontidae Floridichthys carpio Duggins et al. 1983 Actinopterygii Cyprinodontiformes Cyprinodontidae Floridichthys polyommus Duggins et al. 1983 Actinopterygii cyprinodontiformes Fundulidae Fundulus heterclitus Ropson et al. 1990 Actinopterygii Gadiformes Gadidae Gadus macrocephalus Grant et al 1987 Actinopterygii Gadiformes Gadidae Gadus morhua Grant and Stahl 1988 Actinopterygii Gadiformes Gadidae Gadus morhua Knutsen et al 2003 24 Actinopterygii Gadiformes Gadidae Micromesistius poutassou Ryan et al. 2005 Actinopterygii Gadiformes Gadidae Theragra chalcogramma O'reilly et al. 2004 Actinopterygii Gadiformes Merlucciidae Macruronus novaezelanidae Milton and Shaklee 1987 Actinopterygii Gadiformes Merlucciidae Merluccius merluccius Grant et al 1987 Actinopterygii Gadiformes Merlucciidae Merluccius paradoxus Lundy et al 2000 Actinopterygii Gadiformes Merlucciidae Merluccius productus Grant et al 1987 Actinopterygii Gadiformes Merlucciidae Micromesistius australis Iwamoto et al 2004 Actinopterygii Gadiformes Phycidae Urophycis tenuis Authors unpublished data. Actinopterygii Gasterosteiformes Gasterosteidae Gasterosteus aculeatus Makinen et al. 2006 Actinopterygii Gonorynchiformes Chanidae Chanos chanos Winans 1980 Actinopterygii Gsmeriformes Osmeridae Mallotus villosus Mork and Fris-Sorenson 1983 Actinopterygii Lophiformes Lophidae Lophius piscatorius Crozier 1987 Actinopterygii osmeriformes Osmeridae Mallotus villosus Roed et al. 2003 Actinopterygii Actinopterygii Perciformes Acanthuridae Acanthurus bahianus Rocha et al 2002 Perciformes Acanthuridae Acanthurus chirurgus Rocha et al 2002 Actinopterygii Perciformes Acanthuridae Acanthurus coeruleus Rocha et al 2002 Actinopterygii Perciformes Acanthuridae Acanthurus triostegus Planes and Fauvelot 2002 Actinopterygii Perciformes Apogonidae Apogon doederleini Gerlach et al. 2007 Actinopterygii Perciformes Apogonidae Pterapogon kauderni Hoffman et al. 2005 Actinopterygii Perciformes Blennidae Hypsoblennius jenkinsi Present 1987 Actinopterygii Perciformes Carangidae Decapterus russelli Perrin and Borsa 2001 Actinopterygii Perciformes Centrolophidae Hyperoglyphe antarctica Ward et al 1994 Actinopterygii Perciformes Chaetodontidae Chaetodon citrinellus Fauvelot and Planes 2002 Actinopterygii Perciformes Chaetodontidae Chaetodon quadrimaculatus Fauvelot and Planes 2002 Actinopterygii Perciformes Chaetodontidae Forcipiger flavissmus Fauvelot and Planes 2002 Actinopterygii Perciformes Cheilodactylidae Nemadactylus macropterus Ward et al 1994 Actinopterygii Perciformes Clupeidae Clupea harengus Jorgensen et al. 2005 Actinopterygii Perciformes Embiotocidae Embiotoca jacksoni Waples 1987 Actinopterygii Perciformes Gobidae Elacatinus evelynae Taylor and Hellberg 2003 Actinopterygii Perciformes Gobidae Gobius niger Benharrat et al. 1981 Actinopterygii Perciformes Gobidae Ophioblennius atlanticus Muss et al. 2001 Actinopterygii Perciformes Gobidae Ophioblennius steindachneri Muss et al. 2001 Actinopterygii Perciformes Gobidae Pomatoschistus microps Gysels et al 2004 Actinopterygii Perciformes Gobidae Pomatoschistus minutus Pampoulie et al. 2004 Actinopterygii Perciformes Gobiidae Lythrypnus dalli Waples 1987 Actinopterygii Perciformes Istiophoridae Tetraturus albidus Graves and McDowell 2006 Actinopterygii Perciformes Kyphosidae Girella nigricans Waples 1987 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labridae Semicossyphus pulcher Waples 1987 Actinopterygii Perciformes Labrisomidae Alloclinus holderi Waples 1987 Actinopterygii Perciformes Latidae Lates calcarifer Chenoweth et al. 1998 Actinopterygii Perciformes Lethrinidae Lethrinus miniatus Herwerden et al 2003 Actinopterygii Perciformes Lutjanidae Lutjanus campechanus Heist and Gold 2000 Actinopterygii Perciformes Lutjanidae Lutjanus erythropterus Salini et al. 2006 Actinopterygii Perciformes Lutjanidae Lutjanus malabaricus Salini et al. 2006 Actinopterygii Perciformes Lutjanidae Pristipomoides multidens Ovenden et al 2004 Actinopterygii Perciformes Moronidae Dicentrarchus labrax Lemaire et al 2000 Actinopterygii Perciformes Moronidae Dicentrarchus labrax Garcia De Leon et al 1997 Actinopterygii Perciformes Moronidae Eupomacentrus partitus Castilho and McAndrew 1998 Actinopterygii Perciformes Mullidae Mullus barbatus Garoia et al. 2004 Actinopterygii Perciformes Mullidae Mullus barbatus Garoia et al. 2004 25 Actinopterygii Perciformes Mullidae Mullus surmuletus Mamuris et al 2002 Actinopterygii Perciformes Nototheniidae Dissostichus eleginoides Shaw et al. 2004 Actinopterygii Perciformes Nototheniidae Dissostichus eleginoides Smith and McVeagh 2000 Actinopterygii Perciformes Nototheniidae Dissostichus eleginoides Smith and McVeagh 2000 Actinopterygii Perciformes Nototheniidae Dissostichus eleginoides Shaw et al. 2004 Actinopterygii Perciformes Polynemidae Polynemus sheridani Chenoweth and Hughes 2003 Actinopterygii Perciformes Polyprionidae Polyprion amercanus Ball et al 2000 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Acanthochromis polyacanthus Doherty et al. 1995 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Acanthochromis polyacanthus Gerlach et al. 2007 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Amphiprion clarkii bell et al 1982 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chromis atripectoralis Doherty et al. 1995 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Chromis chromis Domingues et al. 2005 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Dascyllus aruanus Fauvelot and Planes 2002 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Dascyllus trimaculatus Bernardi et al. 2001 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Eupomacentrus partitus Lacson et al 1989 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Pomacentrus coelestis Gerlach et al. 2007 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Pomacentrus moluccensis Doherty et al. 1995 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Pomacentrus pavo Fauvelot and Planes 2002 Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomacentridae Stegastes nigricans Doherty et al. 1995 Actinopterygii Perciformes Scaridae Sparisoma viride Geerjes et al. 2004 Actinopterygii Perciformes Sciaenidae Cynoscion nebulosus Gold and Richardson 1998 Actinopterygii Perciformes Sciaenidae Cynoscion nebulosus Ramsey and Wakeman 1987 Actinopterygii Perciformes Sciaenidae Genyonemus lineatus Beckwitt 1983 Actinopterygii Perciformes Sciaenidae Nibea albiflora Menezes et al. 1990 Actinopterygii Perciformes Sciaenidae Pennahia argentata Menezes et al. 1990 Actinopterygii Perciformes Sciaenidae Sciaenops ocellatus Chapman et al 2002 Actinopterygii Perciformes Sciaenidae Sciaenops ocellatus Gold et al. 2001 Actinopterygii Perciformes Sciaenidae Seriphus politus Beckwitt 1983 Actinopterygii Perciformes Scombridae Sarda sarda Pujolar et al. 2001 Actinopterygii Perciformes Scombridae Scomber scombrus Zardoya et al 2004 Actinopterygii Perciformes Scombridae Thunnus alalunga Takagi et al 2001 Actinopterygii Perciformes Scombridae Thunnus albacares Appleyard et al 2001 Actinopterygii Perciformes Scombridae Carlsson et al. 2004 Perciformes Sebastidae Thunnus thynnus thynnus Helicolenus dactylopterus dactylopterus Actinopterygii Perciformes Serranidae Epinephelus coioides Antoro et al. 2005 Actinopterygii Perciformes Serranidae Epinephelus marginatus De Innocentiis et al 2001 Actinopterygii Perciformes Serranidae Epinephelus quernus Rivera et al. 2004 Actinopterygii Perciformes Serranidae Paralabrax clathratus Beckwitt 1983 Actinopterygii Perciformes Sparidae Acanthopagrus butcheri Actinopterygii Aboim et al. 2005 Perciformes Sparidae Acanthopagrus schlegeli Burridge et al. 2004 Sumantadinata and Taniguchi 1982 Actinopterygii Perciformes Sparidae Acanthopagrus schlegeli Jeong et al 2003 Actinopterygii Perciformes Sparidae chrysophrys auratus Smith et al. 1978 Actinopterygii Perciformes Sparidae Diplodus sargus Lenfant and Planes 1996 Actinopterygii Perciformes Sparidae Diplodus vulgaris Arculeo et al. 2003 Actinopterygii Perciformes Sparidae Pagrus pagrus Ball et al. 2007 Actinopterygii Perciformes Sparidae Spaurus aurata De Innocentiis et al. 2004 Actinopterygii Perciformes Tripterygiidae Axoclinus nigricaudus Riginos & 2001 Actinopterygii Perciformes Tripterygiidae Malacoctenus hubbis Riginos & Victor 2002 Actinopterygii Perciformes Tripterygiidae Tripterygion delaisi Carreras-Carbonell et al. 2006 Actinopterygii 26 Actinopterygii Perciformes: Malacanthidae Caulolatilus princeps Waples 1987 Actinopterygii Perciformes: Pomacentridae Amphiprion melanopus Doherty et al. 1995 Actinopterygii Pleuronectiformes Paralichthyidae Paralichthys californicus Hedgecock and Bartley 1988 Actinopterygii Pleuronectiformes Paralichthyidae Paralichthys olivaceus Sekino and Hara 2001 Actinopterygii Pleuronectiformes Paralichthyidae Paralicthys lethostigma Blandon et al 2001 Actinopterygii Pleuronectiformes Pleuronectidae Glyptocephalus cynoglossus Fairbairn 1981b Actinopterygii Pleuronectiformes Pleuronectidae Hippoglossus hippoglossus Fevolden and Haug 1988 Actinopterygii Pleuronectiformes Pleuronectidae Hippoglossus hippoglossus Reid et al. 2005 Actinopterygii Pleuronectiformes Pleuronectidae hippoglossus stenolepis Grant et al. 1984 Actinopterygii Pleuronectiformes Pleuronectidae Limanda aspera Grant et al 1983 Actinopterygii Pleuronectiformes Pleuronectidae Platichthys flesus Borsa et al. 1997 Actinopterygii Pleuronectiformes Pleuronectidae Pleuronectes flesus flesus Galleguillos and Ward 1982 Actinopterygii Pleuronectiformes Pleuronectidae Pleuronectes platessa Hoarau et al 2002 Actinopterygii Pleuronectiformes Pleuronectidae Pleuronectes platessa Ward and Beardmore 1977 Actinopterygii Pleuronectiformes Pleuronectidae Pseudopleuronectes americanus Crivello et al. 2004 Actinopterygii Pleuronectiformes Pleuronectidae Reinhardtius hippoglossoides Fairbairn 1981a Actinopterygii Pleuronectiformes Pleuronectidae Scopthalmus maximus Coughlan et al. 1998 Actinopterygii Pleuronectiformes Pleuronectidae Scopthalmus maximus Blanquer et al. 1992 Actinopterygii Pleuronectiformes Pleuronectidae Solea vulgaris Kotoulus et al. 1995 Actinopterygii Pleuronectiformes Sebastidae Sebaste Mystinus Cope et al. 2004 Actinopterygii Pleuronectiformes Soleidae Solea lascuris Pinheiro et al. 2005 Actinopterygii Actinopterygii Pleuronectiformes Soleidae Solea vulgaris Guarniero et al. 2002 Scorpaeniformes Cottidae Clinocottus analis Waples 1987 Actinopterygii Scorpaeniformes Cottidae Oligocottus snyeri Yoshiyama and Sassaman 1987 Actinopterygii Scorpaeniformes Hexagrammidae Oxylebius pictus Davis et al. 1981 Actinopterygii Scorpaeniformes Sebastidae Sebastes alutus Seeb and Gunderson 1988 Actinopterygii Scorpaeniformes Sebastidae Sebastes auriculatus Buonaccorsi et al. 2004 Actinopterygii Scorpaeniformes Sebastidae Sebastes borealis Matala et al 2004 Actinopterygii Scorpaeniformes Sebastidae Sebastes caurinus Bournaccorsi et al 2002 Actinopterygii Scorpaeniformes Sebastidae Sebastes crameri Gomez-Uchida and Banks 2005 Actinopterygii Scorpaeniformes Sebastidae Sebastes helvomaculatus Rocha-Olivares and Vetter 1999 Actinopterygii Scorpaeniformes Sebastidae Sebastes macdonaldi Rocha-Olivares et al 2003 Actinopterygii Scorpaeniformes Sebastidae Sebastes melanops Miller et al. 2005 Actinopterygii Scorpaeniformes Sebastidae Sebastes mentella Roques et al. 2002 Actinopterygii Scorpaeniformes Sebastidae Sebastes mystinus Cope et al. 2004 Actinopterygii Scorpaeniformes Sebastidae Sebastes rastrelliger Buonaccorsi et al. 2004 Actinopterygii Syngnathiformes Syngnathidae Hippocampus capensis Teske et al 2003 Actinopterygii Zeiformes Oreosomatidae Allocyttus niger Ward et al. 1998 Actinopterygii Zeiformes Oreosomatidae Allocyttus verrucosus Ward et al. 1998 Actinopterygii Zeiformes Oreosomatidae Ammodytes personatus Okamoto 1989 Actinopterygii Zeiformes Oreosomatidae Neocyttus rhomboidalis Elliott et al. 1998 Actinopterygii Zeiformes Oreosomatidae Pseudocyttus maculatus Ward et al. 1998 27 Table A6. Backward regression results from comparison of planktonic larval duration and FST with latitude, depth, and size for marine fish. Partial Coefficients P-value Planktonic larval duration Latitude Depth Size 0.431 0.240 0.043 0.000 0.000 0.158 Planktonic larval duration Latitude Depth 0.449 0.247 0.000 0.000 0.35 Planktonic larval duration Latitude 0.000 0.30 Planktonic larval duration Depth 0.000 0.19 0.26 Dependent Variable Effect R2 0.36 Latitude Depth Size -0.266 -0.009 -0.336 0.001 0.918 0.002 FST (Standardized) Latitude Size -0.273 -0.348 0.000 0.000 0.27 FST (Standardized) Latitude 0.000 0.17 FST (Standardized) Size 0.000 0.22 FST (Standardized) 28 Table A7. Regression results from family-level comparisons of planktonic larval duration and FST with latitude, depth, and body size. Dependent Variable Effect P-value R2 Planktonic larval duration Latitude 0.000 0.36 Planktonic larval duration Depth 0.005 0.20 Planktonic larval duration Size 0.183 0.05 FST (Standardized) Latitude 0.018 0.13 FST (Standardized) Depth 0.043 0.08 FST (Standardized) Size 0.000 0.27 29 FST PLD (A) (B) 0.14 0.5 0.12 0.4 0.10 0.08 0.3 0.06 0.2 0.04 0.1 0.02 0.0 0.00 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 (C) latitude 0.35 0.30 0.5 20 40 (D) 60 80 latitude 0.4 Frequency 0.25 0.3 0.20 0.15 0.2 0.10 0.1 0.05 0.00 0.0 0 0.4 (E) 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 0 50 100 150 200 250 adult body size (cm) adult body size (cm) (F) 0.8 0.3 0.6 0.2 0.4 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.0 0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 depth (m) 0 200 400 600 800 1000 depth (m) Figure A1. Frequency distributions of latitude (A,B), body size (C,D) and water depth (E,F) analyzed in relation to genetic differentiation (A,C,E) and planktonic larval duration (B,D,F). 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